Atmosphere of Earth

4939: 4995: 9427: 4136: 5012: 4001: 1304: 499: 4938: 1130: 4983: 7637: 9439: 7067: 5074: 1484: 992: 391: 5046: 4488: 5060: 804: 415:. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by mole fraction in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by mole fraction in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are other 9401: 8302: 7563: 48: 4994: 1552: 9463: 9475: 4194: 9451: 1389:) -- for altitudes out to around 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height. 1370:. Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and 3986:, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset. 4714: 1238:. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the 1291:. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions. 962:, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin. 1277:

is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the

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of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced

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are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by

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Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate

825:, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The altitudes of the five layers are: 1503:

The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the

3940:. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be 888:

This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another.

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The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar

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This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue

4208:) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles. 1184:

Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the

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of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi;

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The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi;

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concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi;

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at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the

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Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this

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The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) or about 190,000 kilometres (120,000 mi)—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as

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depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

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of air is close to, but just greater than, 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the

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The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the

1099:, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of 812:

In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, the temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the

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Composition of Earth's atmosphere by molecular count, excluding water vapor. Lower pie represents trace gases that together compose about 0.0434% of the atmosphere (0.0442% at August 2021 concentrations). Numbers are mainly from 2000, with

1103:(UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C. 4031:

O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

4104:), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans. 4556:. Free oxygen molecules did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reductant materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a 308:

10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and

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appeared as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the

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The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the

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dating from between about 2.15 and 2.08 billion years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.

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is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are

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If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft).

4092:" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 856:

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the

915:—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the 4705:. The cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not precisely understood. Periods with more oxygen in the atmosphere were often associated with more rapid development of animals. 5011: 1058:

burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by

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release sulfur into the atmosphere, which reacts and hence reduces oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which can fuel oxygenic photosynthesis by

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of dry air, which can be used to calculate densities or to convert between mole fraction and mass fraction, is about 28.946 or 28.96 g/mol. This is decreased when the air is humid.

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in the Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The maximum in the vegetation cycle follows in the late summer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmospheric CO

873:. The altitude of the exobase varies from about 500 kilometres (310 mi; 1,600,000 ft) to about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in times of higher incoming solar radiation. 4107:

Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H

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The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this

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Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the

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10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27

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The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its

8431: 317:, at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during 1295:

The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K) or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K), depending on the reference.

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will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

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49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

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The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the

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are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by

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is 1866.1 ppbv (parts per billion). Two older reliable sources have dry atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that total less than 100%:

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by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named

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The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago during the

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day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called

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casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above-lying

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Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

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orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.

6758: 6159: 1508:, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant 4088:

is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "

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or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.

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typically cruise between 10 and 13 km (33,000 and 43,000 ft) where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy;

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that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85

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values were increased to 345 ppmv, without changing their other constituents to compensate. This is made worse by the April 2019 CO

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Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar-mesospheric

17: 1084:. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the 5138: 1441:

begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's

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Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/

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Two recent reliable sources cited here have total atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that exceed 100%. They are

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The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the

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About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major component of the then-stable "second atmosphere". The influence of the

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O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

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Timothy W. Lyons, Christopher T. Reinhard & Noah J. Planavsky (2014). "Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago".

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Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of sound derived from the 1962 U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

5386: 5346: 5264: 5696: 7528: 5180: 9500: 6861: 947:. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the 6794: 9254: 6334: 6299: 6255: 5979: 5615: 5496: 5433: 5144: 1559: 1347: 885:

visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi).

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This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the

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influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental

1577:). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the 8331: 7269: 6996: 5154: 5123: 4071:

at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves.

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is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley (1970-01-01). "The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses".

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can be distinguished in the atmosphere based on characteristics such as temperature and composition, namely the

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Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between January 1979 and December 2005 by

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weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:

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The volume fraction of the main constituents of the Earth's atmosphere as a function of height, based on the

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more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, surrounding Earth in a visibly blue layer at the

6066: 5243:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 331. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 17. 9495: 8947: 8782: 7779: 7774: 6769: 6440: 4496: 4464:

proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the

278: 214:, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature and 6166: 4471: 4135: 9271: 8004: 7998: 7868: 7440: 7362: 5159: 1450: 974: 63: 7884:

Atmospheres in boldface are significant atmospheres; atmospheres in italics are unconfirmed atmospheres.

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On October 19, 2015, NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth at

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period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: the

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Before this time, any oxygen produced by cyanobacterial photosynthesis would be readily removed by the

443:. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as 7720: 6833: 1406:. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered 365: 8819: 7592: 7372: 5871:"Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations" 5750: 4872: 4154: 1382: 6827: 6216: 6084: 5971: 1185:

troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος,

9505: 8804: 7174: 7088: 6127: 6036: 5647: 4836: 4633:) first proliferated. The following time span from 539 million years ago to the present day is the 4434:

The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early

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stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the

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of Earth – with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late

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The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).

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the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional

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which eventually cooled and condensed to contribute to ocean water at the end of the Hadean.

1363: 1359: 1242:. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth. 1174: 1100: 1092: 870: 385: 164: 5964: 4415:. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. 9373: 9345: 9310: 9237: 9037: 8974: 8792: 8613: 7906: 7858: 7807: 7694: 7585: 7302: 7254: 7026: 6619: 6502: 6449: 6203: 5882: 5244: 4422:

has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of

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higher in the 2011–2020 decade than they were in 1850. It has raised concerns of man-made

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metazoan life began to appear and rapidly diversify in another radiation event called the

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model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)

1177:(i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is 8: 9479: 9368: 9276: 9264: 9154: 9107: 8915: 8838: 8564: 8117: 7800: 7726: 7659: 7445: 7402: 7236: 7179: 6989: 6323:

Bergman, Theodore L.; Lavine, Adrienne S.; Incropera, Frank P.; DeWitt, David P. (2007).

6267: 4904: 4900: 4880: 4844: 4817: 4557: 4553: 4442:, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently due to a billion years of 4423: 3983: 1427: 1303: 1150: 1088:

at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).

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to four significant digits without affecting the total because 0.004% was removed from N

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is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for

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propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the

1434: 1235: 1129: 890: 878: 747: 541: 249:, but the atmosphere changed significantly over time, affected by many factors such as 235: 7789: 6742: 419:, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, other 9350: 8814: 8720: 8693: 8540: 8490: 8426: 8380: 7751: 7533: 7510: 7430: 7397: 6700: 6682: 6635: 6566: 6532: 6479: 6340: 6330: 6305: 6295: 6251: 5975: 5611: 5492: 5429: 5382: 5342: 5260: 5002: 4916: 4768: 4764: 4698: 4694: 4654: 4419: 4295: 4205: 4115: 4080: 1371: 1367: 1042: 1007: 746:

The total ppm above adds up to more than 1 million (currently 83.43 above it) due to

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Limb view of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.

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In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:

1268:, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause. 9515: 9455: 9300: 9259: 9242: 9129: 9027: 8559: 8463: 8347: 8105: 7994: 7964: 7841: 7764: 7556: 7551: 7457: 7324: 7309: 7186: 7166: 7108: 6690: 6674: 6647: 6627: 6556: 6548: 6510: 6465: 6457: 6382: 6221: 5890: 5252: 4856: 4686: 4614: 4329: 4299: 4221: 4217: 4160: 4052: 4040: 1462: 1423: 1403: 1261: 970: 789: 484: 373: 314: 140: 125: 9438: 4965: 9317: 9283: 9169: 9149: 9059: 8708: 8674: 8608: 8405: 8390: 8305: 8180: 8135: 8029: 8024: 8014: 7899: 7863: 7452: 7435: 7392: 7382: 7274: 5378: 5310: 4892: 4884: 4799: 4675: 4638: 4610: 4506: 4060: 1581:. More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites. 1162: 1059: 966: 822: 733: 369: 298: 294: 7827: 7784: 6552: 5581: 5522:. Both are used as references in this article. Both exceed 100% because their CO 5073: 4204:

is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with

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activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by

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heated the atmosphere, driving off the most volatile gases. The collision with

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is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of

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Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly

609: 488: 416: 290: 266: 223: 128:. The atmosphere serves as a protective buffer between the Earth's surface and 7733: 6846: 6678: 1169:, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the 1091:

The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the

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section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or

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The composition of air is unchanged until elevation of approximately 10.000 m

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value, which is 413.32 ppmv. Although minor, the January 2019 value for

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Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O

4009: 4005: 1574: 1466: 1454: 1415: 1351: 1239: 1138: 1051: 901: 760: 729: 390: 282: 183: 7701: 6344: 6309: 6294:(9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 600–606. 5256: 4008:(or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including 9124: 9082: 8858: 8809: 8745: 8601: 8505: 8213: 8199: 7712: 7538: 7500: 7490: 7480: 7420: 7201: 7046: 7036: 6903: 6893: 6842:

Interactive global map of current atmospheric and ocean surface conditions.

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Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of

9220: 9164: 8986: 8964: 8959: 8826: 8703: 8669: 8657: 8545: 8468: 8172: 8047: 7297: 7103: 7031: 6953: 6936: 6926: 6888: 6461: 6329:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 941–950. 6324: 6289: 6019: 5108: 5103: 4949: 4813: 4806: 4634: 4588: 4577: 4530: 4404: 4267: 4232: 4068: 4055:(commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the 4048: 1620:

Table of physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure:

1556: 1509: 1328: 1316: 1219: 1134: 1124: 1096: 1085: 999: 939: 908: 858: 704: 357: 326: 321:

of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several

310: 286: 160: 137: 129: 109: 59: 38: 6631: 6225: 495:) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. 9327: 9144: 9102: 9044: 9013: 8652: 8584: 8522: 8495: 8458: 8264: 8145: 7608: 7387: 7354: 7329: 7211: 7131: 7041: 6963: 6958: 6921: 6898: 6470: 6434:

Marshak, Alexander; Várnai, Tamás; Kostinski, Alexander (15 May 2017).

4960:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest 4957: 4657: 4630: 4596: 4581: 4439: 4400: 4352: 4348: 4101: 4089: 3978:

is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an

1442: 1288: 1256: 1246: 1231: 1170: 1081: 1031: 1011: 986: 948: 897: 894: 866: 818: 803: 548: 342: 334: 258: 5059: 9210: 9092: 8900: 8895: 8873: 8762: 8755: 8574: 8569: 8476: 8453: 8223: 8185: 8140: 8130: 8070: 7891: 7818: 7319: 7264: 7249: 7221: 7191: 7118: 7051: 6931: 6908: 6753: 5098: 5026: 4945: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4622: 4607: 4592: 4561: 4537: 4510: 4502: 4408: 4396: 4384: 4356: 4333: 4287: 4255: 4169: 4024: 3933: 1535: 1419: 1407: 1023: 995: 916: 882: 851: 468: 460: 420: 346: 250: 207: 176: 133: 8316: 6435: 1433:

Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as

439:

are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other

47: 9337: 8905: 8831: 8772: 8767: 8715: 8625: 8596: 8589: 8579: 8510: 8484: 8480: 8472: 8274: 8218: 8150: 8085: 7971: 7959: 7931: 6268:"Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day" 5935: 4896: 4752: 4646: 4642: 4626: 4576:, until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the 4412: 4372: 4360: 4340: 4247: 4056: 3979: 3970:. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called 3927: 1551: 1446: 1320: 1275:

distance that particles can move without colliding with one another

1260:

found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very

1199: 1158: 555: 476: 472: 404: 219: 191: 187: 6024:

It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.

1402:

99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the

238:

is found only within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the ground.

9205: 9001: 8996: 8942: 8848: 8777: 8620: 8421: 8269: 8257: 8195: 8125: 8100: 8060: 8039: 8009: 7412: 7289: 7259: 7075: 7056: 6940: 6744:

Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

6408:"Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away" 5118: 5113: 5018: 4961: 4852: 4848: 4618: 4573: 4392: 4380: 4368: 4303: 4275: 4271: 4259: 4251: 4165: 4097: 1458: 1438: 1385:(0.368) every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), (this is called the 1166: 1161:

varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the

1146: 1027: 944: 683: 662: 444: 432: 168: 148: 113: 105: 82: 6841: 4043:, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The 1600:

10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5

1426:

reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest

1346:

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the

9054: 9019: 8843: 8799: 8647: 8445: 8252: 8245: 7954: 7949: 7923: 7645: 7279: 7146: 7126: 4973: 4786:

in the Earth's atmosphere, causing noticeable problems such as

4690: 4679: 4549: 4526: 4457: 4263: 4236: 4193: 4176: 4093: 3963: 1189:, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the 1055: 1035: 959: 912: 646: 574: 456: 452: 428: 408: 195: 159:), redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via 7577: 6730:

Back to Earth History : Summary Chart for the Precambrian

4922: 4023:

absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300

1050:(TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric 399:

and methane from 2019, and do not represent any single source.

9087: 8927: 8853: 8640: 8282: 8240: 8233: 8228: 8065: 8019: 7981: 7939: 7467: 7244: 7226: 7066: 7005: 5912:"Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme" 4776: 4682: 4671: 4475: 4307: 3974:

and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun.

1589: 1223: 920: 593: 436: 412: 270: 199: 152: 117: 94: 6322: 4491:

Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years

4460:

from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (

1592:

or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American

1584:

The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5

352:

The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called

9032: 8888: 8883: 8863: 8737: 8688: 8532: 8160: 8095: 8090: 8080: 8075: 7944: 7616: 7518: 7136: 6754: 6064: 5896:

10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2

4787: 4197:

An idealised view of three pairs of large circulation cells

1496: 1355: 1190: 630: 448: 424: 172: 121: 90: 67: 37:"Qualities of air" redirects here. Not to be confused with 4816:

radiations, is also caused by air pollution, chiefly from

4568:

showed major variations during the Proterozoic, including

1254:

turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the

8991: 8635: 5234: 4734:

due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over the

3937: 1513: 79: 6974: 6663:"The human physiological impact of global deoxygenation" 6661:

Martin, Daniel; McKenna, Helen; Livina, Valerie (2016).

4678:, and the consumption of oxygen by rapidly diversifying 4168:

because light is refracted in the same direction as the

1430:

flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).

1010:

begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a

5869:

States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).

1555:

Temperature and mass density against altitude from the

403:

The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are

6433: 5465:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1976),

4339:

to the surface, causing the atmosphere to cool, which

4294:, in particular, melted and ejected large portions of 4039:

of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low

821:, is constant and measurable by means of instrumented 9415: 6598:

Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution.

4863:, with the global average surface temperatures being 4689:

and their own metabolic needs at night. Breakdown of

829:

Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

356:(aerology), and includes multiple subfields, such as 6795:"Daily Views of Earth Available on New NASA Website" 6530: 6493:

Edlén, Bengt (1966). "The refractive index of air".

5041: 4972:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of 4929:(DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day. 4782:

have significantly increased the amount of airborne

4468:

became established as early as 4 billion years ago.

3936:(or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the 1222:

is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer

6660: 6246:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) 6160:"Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run" 6142:"Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes" 5768: 5766: 5608:

Luft: Chemie, Physik, Biologie, Reinhaltung, Recht.

5994: 5963: 5356:but includes only ten of its largest constituents. 4211: 1596:, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 1165:to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the 1022:Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the 471:also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as 6600:Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983 6067:"The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere" 4823:Since 1750, human activity, especially after the 1608:10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 1465:to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, 1133:A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different 832:Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles) 222:. Within the atmosphere, air suitable for use in 66:at an altitude of 335 km (208 mi) (the 9487: 6016:Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology 5763: 5428:(Fourth ed.), AIP Press, pp. 258–259, 4763:that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. The 4332:at the end of the Hadean closed off most of the 1418:is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial 861:(also known as the "exobase") at the top of the 70:is visible as a crescent in the far background). 6876: 6837:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 28–36. 6387:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5744: 5742: 4831:, most importantly carbon dioxide, methane and 1457:typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the 973:are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The 6193: 5491:(Third ed.), Athlone Press, p. 119, 5364: 5362: 5341:(97th ed.), CRC Press, p. 14-3, 4952:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the 4827:, has increased the concentrations of various 4726:Animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO 4517:and its appearance is indicated by the end of 3962:When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, 1461:of the ionosphere where they encounter enough 1366:). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of 1331:with approximate altitudes of various objects. 1054:. The mesosphere is also the layer where most 838:Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles) 8332: 7907: 7593: 6990: 6862: 6427: 6065:Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD (June 16, 2018). 5868: 5832: 5748: 5315:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 5288:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 835:Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles) 372:. The study of historic atmosphere is called 6399: 5961: 5936:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences (1993). 5739: 5017:Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an 736:; these are identical for an ideal gas only. 5929: 5371:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey 5359: 5336: 4976:stretching over several hundred kilometers. 4387:. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions 4359:, supplemented by gases introduced by huge 911:phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's 841:Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles) 512:Major constituents of air, by mole fraction 8339: 8325: 7914: 7900: 7600: 7586: 6997: 6983: 6869: 6855: 6541:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 5997:The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa 5600: 5332: 5330: 4051:-C) up into the range humans can see, the 1396:50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft). 1019:260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level. 1006:(blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which 30:"Air" redirects here. For other uses, see 6718:Graph: Atmospheric Oxygen and CO2 vs Time 6694: 6560: 6526: 6524: 6469: 6405: 6215: 5995:Tyson, P.D.; Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013). 5970:. London: Menthuen & Co Ltd. p. 5894: 5859:. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005. 5713: 5478: 5417: 5305: 5303: 5241:Ultraviolet Radiation in the Solar System 5139:COSPAR international reference atmosphere 4964:, at about one hundred kilometers at the 4809:, which shields the surface from harmful 4391:in water and reacted with metals such as 1399:90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft). 1335: 907:The exosphere is too far above Earth for 210:. Air also contains a variable amount of 5909: 5648:"Air - Molecular Weight and Composition" 5631: 5458: 4712: 4660:was fuelled by the rising oxygen level. 4486: 4192: 4143:upon the shape of the sun at the horizon 4134: 3999: 1594:National Center for Atmospheric Research 1550: 1482: 1302: 1173:, a boundary marked in most places by a 1149:as a band of its characteristic glow of 1128: 990: 802: 780:Water vapor varies significantly locally 497: 389: 46: 6792: 6270:. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2000-01-01 6058: 5846:May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012) 5794: 5792: 5790: 5634:Termodinamica e trasmissione del calore 5327: 5202:"What Is... Earth's Atmosphere? - NASA" 4371:atmosphere, which consisted largely of 4343:most of the water vapor out of the air 4059:to around 1100 nm. There are also 1615: 506:; the model only works above 85 km 447:in an unfiltered air sample, including 304:The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 14: 9488: 7921: 6821: 6521: 6326:Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer 6287: 6124:"Global Surface Temperature Anomalies" 6047:from the original on 14 September 2010 5838:David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, 5518:(2016–2017, 100.004667%), which cites 5504: 5300: 5284:"Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" 5181:"Gateway to Astronaut Photos of Earth" 4820:and other ozone-depleting substances. 4525:that can react with oxygen to produce 4226: 3996:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation) 1298: 865:to a poorly defined boundary with the 364:. Early pioneers in the field include 241:Earth's early atmosphere consisted of 8346: 8320: 7895: 7581: 6978: 6850: 6667:The Journal of Physiological Sciences 6492: 6486: 6359:"Absorption / reflection of sunlight" 6250:, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, 5516:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5484: 5368:Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs. 5339:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5278: 5276: 5005:extend far above Earth's troposphere. 3921: 893:. These free-moving particles follow 7529:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 6105:from the original on 30 October 2010 5787: 5694: 5235:Vázquez, M.; Hanslmeier, A. (2006). 4910: 4313: 1194:18,000 ft) of the troposphere. 451:of mineral and organic composition, 62:, when seen from space on board the 6406:St. Fleur, Nicholas (19 May 2017). 5962:Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (1971). 5875:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 5423: 4621:life forms (including the earliest 4482: 4130: 1546: 322: 24: 5381:. Elsevier. Second Edition, 2006. 5273: 5225:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14–17 4004:Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric 900:and may migrate in and out of the 275:contributed to atmospheric changes 25: 9527: 6815: 5223:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5145:Environmental effects of aviation 4231:The first atmosphere, during the 1523: 1493:advanced microwave sounding units 1348:International Standard Atmosphere 798: 9473: 9461: 9449: 9437: 9425: 9400: 9399: 8301: 8300: 7635: 7562: 7561: 7065: 5806:from the original on 17 May 2017 5520:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5512:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5426:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5354:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5337:Haynes, H. M., ed. (2016–2017), 5072: 5058: 5044: 5010: 4993: 4981: 4937: 4925:. The images are taken from the 4751:is the introduction of airborne 4708: 4544:on the Earth's surface, notably 4521:(which signals the depletion of 4278:. During this earliest era, the 4067:that transmit some infrared and 814: 483:vapor. Sulfur compounds such as 132:, shields the surface from most 7607: 7270:Human impact on the environment 6786: 6747: 6735: 6722: 6711: 6654: 6603: 6590: 6577: 6375: 6351: 6316: 6281: 6260: 6240: 6187: 6176: 6152: 6134: 6116: 6091: 6073: 6029: 6007: 5988: 5966:Atmosphere, Weather and Climate 5955: 5914:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5903: 5862: 5849: 5818: 5688: 5664: 5640: 5625: 5574: 5548: 5402:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5311:"Trends in Atmospheric Methane" 5155:Instrumental temperature record 5124:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 4501:The constant re-arrangement of 4254:such as those now found in the 4212:Evolution of Earth's atmosphere 1209: 1069: 926: 7099:Climate variability and change 6768:. pp. 4–5. Archived from 6537:"Earth's Earliest Atmospheres" 6099:"NASA – Earth Fact Sheet" 6043:. Amsglossary.allenpress.com. 5774:"The height of the tropopause" 5539:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5468:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5455:. It includes 20 constituents. 5392: 5228: 5215: 5194: 5173: 4927:Deep Space Climate Observatory 4580:. The rise of the more robust 4182: 4047:runs from around 300 nm ( 1472: 1118: 956:temperature in the usual sense 379: 147:(temperature extremes between 101:, with variable quantities of 13: 1: 7524:Evolution of the Solar System 6793:Northon, Karen (2015-10-19). 5556:"Vital signs: Carbon Dioxide" 5166: 4871:, which can have significant 4674:and their increasing role in 3989: 3951: 1414:By comparison, the summit of 980: 475:(elemental or in compounds), 206:, and small amounts of other 145:diurnal temperature variation 8365:Pollution / quality 7275:Evolutionary history of life 6441:Geophysical Research Letters 5826:"Earth's Atmospheric Layers" 5723:. UCAR. 2011. Archived from 5424:Cox, Arthur N., ed. (2000), 4956:in white and blue. Next the 4497:Geological history of oxygen 4453:), which have been found as 4242:, consisted of gases in the 1538:of constant composition the 845: 761:increasing in recent decades 732:is sometimes referred to as 143:, keeps it warm and reduces 7: 7869:Extraterrestrial atmosphere 6553:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895 6363:Understanding Global Change 5514:(2000, 100.001241343%) and 5160:Reference atmospheric model 5037: 4923:https://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 4861:rise in global temperatures 4602:, which was followed by an 4529:deposits) during the early 4074: 1451:International Space Station 975:International Space Station 773:Water vapor is about 0.25% 504:MSIS-E-90 atmospheric model 190:), dry air contains 78.08% 85:that surrounds the Earth's 10: 9532: 9501:Atmospheric thermodynamics 7063: 6759:"Summary for Policymakers" 6587:Wiley Press, New York 1984 5697:"Earth's Upper Atmosphere" 5695:Zell, Holly (2015-03-02). 5652:www.engineeringtoolbox.com 4968:and the lower edge of the 4914: 4859:, have caused an observed 4796:pollution-related diseases 4741: 4494: 4317: 4215: 4186: 4152: 4146: 4078: 3993: 3955: 3925: 1565: 1527: 1476: 1368:standard atmospheres (atm) 1339: 1264:itself as accepted by the 1122: 1073: 984: 930: 849: 703: 682: 661: 645: 629: 608: 592: 573: 554: 383: 155:) through heat retention ( 78:is composed of a layer of 58:, above the clouds of the 28: 18:Atmospheric stratification 9395: 9336: 9201: 9194: 9075: 8936:Types / location 8935: 8926: 8736: 8531: 8444: 8414: 8363: 8354: 8296: 8209: 8168: 8159: 8116: 8038: 7980: 7930: 7882: 7851: 7817: 7750: 7711: 7644: 7633: 7615: 7547: 7509: 7466: 7411: 7353: 7288: 7235: 7165: 7117: 7074: 7012: 7004: 6949: 6917: 6884: 6679:10.1007/s12576-016-0501-0 6515:10.1088/0026-1394/2/2/002 5857:Essentials of Meteorology 5674:. The Engineering ToolBox 5610:Walter de Gruyter, 2003, 5237:"Historical Introduction" 4637:eon, during the earliest 4367:, created the subsequent 4155:Scintillation (astronomy) 3966:interact with it through 1204:propeller-driven aircraft 1048:transient luminous events 723: 698: 525: 522: 517: 97:), known collectively as 7534:Location in the Universe 7476:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7175:List of sovereign states 6728:Christopher R. Scotese, 6585:The Evolving Continents. 6383:"The Atmospheric Window" 6288:Holman, Jack P. (2002). 5999:(2nd ed.). Oxford: 5543:Astrophysical Quantities 5488:Astrophysical Quantities 4837:Greenhouse gas emissions 1489:microwave sounding units 1285:planetary boundary layer 479:compounds and elemental 6834:Encyclopædia Britannica 6101:. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 6001:Oxford University Press 5257:10.1007/1-4020-3730-9_1 5129:Atmospheric electricity 5094:Air (classical element) 4685:and also by plants for 4515:Great Oxygenation Event 4451:Great Oxygenation Event 4429:faint young Sun paradox 4411:that were deposited as 4306:significant amounts of 4202:Atmospheric circulation 4189:Atmospheric circulation 1479:Atmospheric temperature 1307:Comparison of the 1962 1064:rocket-powered aircraft 755:The concentration of CO 366:Léon Teisserenc de Bort 52:Blue light is scattered 5840:The Planetary Air Leak 5800:"Exosphere - overview" 5749:Randy Russell (2008). 5721:"Exosphere - overview" 5620:(View in Google Books) 5582:"Vital signs: Methane" 4905:mass dying of wildlife 4739: 4604:evolutionary radiation 4519:banded iron formations 4492: 4365:Late Heavy Bombardment 4280:Moon-forming collision 4250:, and probably simple 4198: 4149:Atmospheric refraction 4144: 4141:atmospheric refraction 4012: 3958:Atmospheric scattering 1641:Thermal conductivity 1563: 1500: 1336:Pressure and thickness 1332: 1309:US Standard Atmosphere 1154: 1015: 809: 507: 400: 186:(i.e., by quantity of 71: 7255:Biogeochemical cycles 7180:dependent territories 6535:; Fegley, B. (2010). 5485:Allen, C. W. (1976), 4873:environmental impacts 4825:Industrial Revolution 4725: 4570:a billion-year period 4490: 4196: 4139:Distortive effect of 4138: 4079:Further information: 4003: 1644:Thermal diffusivity 1638:Kinematic viscosity 1554: 1486: 1306: 1175:temperature inversion 1132: 1101:ultraviolet radiation 1093:pressure at sea level 994: 917:artificial satellites 871:interplanetary medium 806: 501: 467:. Various industrial 393: 386:Atmospheric chemistry 50: 9311:remnant natural area 8948:storage and recovery 8614:habitat conservation 8432:Deforestation (REDD) 8181:Evolutionary history 7859:Prebiotic atmosphere 7303:Computer cartography 7027:Prebiotic atmosphere 6462:10.1002/2017GL073248 6081:"Earth's Atmosphere" 5844:Scientific American, 5545:(1976, 99.9999357%). 4761:biological materials 4320:Prebiotic atmosphere 4172:of Earth's surface. 1616:Tabulated properties 1504:troposphere. In the 1342:Atmospheric pressure 1113:jet-powered aircraft 1046:discharges known as 777:over full atmosphere 216:atmospheric pressure 171:conditions allowing 32:Air (disambiguation) 9496:Atmosphere of Earth 9265:Earth Overshoot Day 8839:Marine conservation 8820:non-timber products 8118:Natural environment 7446:Geologic time scale 7167:Culture and society 7022:Atmosphere of Earth 6632:10.1038/nature13068 6624:2014Natur.506..307L 6507:1966Metro...2...71E 6454:2017GeoRL..44.5197M 6226:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1 6208:2005JCli...18..864T 5887:2000JAtS...57...66S 5855:Ahrens, C. Donald. 5828:. January 22, 2013. 5541:(99.9997147%); and 5249:2005ASSL..331.....V 4901:ecological collapse 4881:ocean acidification 4818:chlorofluorocarbons 4558:reducing atmosphere 4554:atmospheric methane 4542:reducing substances 4424:earliest life forms 4227:Earliest atmosphere 3984:Rayleigh scattering 3948:in the atmosphere. 1635:Dynamic viscosity 1560:standard atmosphere 1512:radiation from the 1299:Physical properties 1289:turbulent diffusion 1145:can be seen at the 881:from sunlight. The 743:by molecular count 699:If air is not dry: 610:Carbon dioxide 514: 362:atmospheric physics 354:atmospheric science 319:atmospheric reentry 236:terrestrial animals 163:, and provides the 124:), all retained by 76:atmosphere of Earth 9250:Ecosystem services 8373:Ambient standards 7874:Stellar atmosphere 7752:Natural satellites 7441:Geological history 7315:Geodetic astronomy 6878:Earth's atmosphere 6828:"Atmosphere" 6732:, Paleomar Project 6413:The New York Times 6196:Journal of Climate 5751:"The Thermosphere" 5377:2018-07-28 at the 5089:Aerial perspective 5052:Environment portal 5003:noctilucent clouds 4757:particulate matter 4740: 4695:volcanic eruptions 4651:Cambrian explosion 4493: 4436:temperature record 4199: 4145: 4037:absorption spectra 4013: 3976:Indirect radiation 3922:Optical properties 1579:barometric formula 1564: 1520:above 90 km. 1501: 1333: 1313:geometric altitude 1155: 1095:. It contains the 1043:noctilucent clouds 1016: 879:radiation pressure 810: 748:experimental error 510: 508: 441:chemical compounds 401: 273:activity has also 265:(particularly the 228:terrestrial plants 72: 9413: 9412: 9391: 9390: 9190: 9189: 8869:genetic resources 8805:genetic resources 8440: 8439: 8348:Natural resources 8314: 8313: 8292: 8291: 7965:chemical elements 7889: 7888: 7575: 7574: 7511:Planetary science 7431:Extremes on Earth 7398:Signal processing 6972: 6971: 6823:Buchan, Alexander 5672:"Air Composition" 5406:on 9 October 2010 5387:978-0-12-732951-2 5348:978-1-4987-5428-6 5266:978-1-4020-3730-6 4948:illuminating the 4917:Weather satellite 4911:Images from space 4887:(which threatens 4857:land developments 4769:industrialization 4765:population growth 4723: 4606:event during the 4600:global glaciation 4472:Ancient sediments 4420:evolution of life 4314:Second atmosphere 4206:ocean circulation 4116:greenhouse effect 4081:Emission spectrum 3919: 3918: 1278:lightest element. 1107:stratospheric or 1008:atmospheric entry 891:escape into space 823:balloon soundings 786: 785: 763:, as has that of 741:parts per million 263:evolution of life 157:greenhouse effect 116:features such as 87:planetary surface 16:(Redirected from 9523: 9478: 9477: 9476: 9466: 9465: 9464: 9454: 9453: 9452: 9442: 9441: 9430: 9429: 9428: 9421: 9403: 9402: 9354: 9301:Natural heritage 9260:overexploitation 9199: 9198: 8933: 8932: 8879:herbal medicines 8859:FAO Plant Treaty 8399: 8376: 8361: 8360: 8341: 8334: 8327: 8318: 8317: 8304: 8303: 8176: 8166: 8165: 8106:tropical cyclone 8056: 7916: 7909: 7902: 7893: 7892: 7639: 7602: 7595: 7588: 7579: 7578: 7565: 7564: 7458:History of Earth 7109:Paleoclimatology 7069: 6999: 6992: 6985: 6976: 6975: 6871: 6864: 6857: 6848: 6847: 6838: 6830: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6805: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6781: 6780: 6774: 6763: 6751: 6745: 6739: 6733: 6726: 6720: 6715: 6709: 6708: 6698: 6658: 6652: 6651: 6618:(7488): 307–15. 6607: 6601: 6594: 6588: 6581: 6575: 6574: 6564: 6528: 6519: 6518: 6490: 6484: 6483: 6473: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6403: 6397: 6396: 6394: 6393: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6355: 6349: 6348: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6264: 6258: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6219: 6191: 6185: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6165:. Archived from 6164: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6144:. Archived from 6138: 6132: 6131: 6126:. Archived from 6120: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6110: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6083:. Archived from 6077: 6071: 6070: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6011: 6005: 6004: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5969: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5949: 5940:. Archived from 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5866: 5860: 5853: 5847: 5836: 5830: 5829: 5822: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5811: 5796: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5781: 5770: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5757: 5746: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5717: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5707: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5679: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5644: 5638: 5637: 5629: 5623: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5552: 5546: 5536: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5482: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5462: 5456: 5439:, which rounds N 5438: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5396: 5390: 5366: 5357: 5351: 5334: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5307: 5298: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5280: 5271: 5270: 5232: 5226: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5209: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5189: 5188: 5177: 5082: 5077: 5076: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5054: 5049: 5048: 5014: 4997: 4985: 4941: 4866: 4829:greenhouse gases 4724: 4687:photorespiration 4617:, where complex 4615:Avalon explosion 4483:Third atmosphere 4222:Paleoclimatology 4218:History of Earth 4161:refractive index 4131:Refractive index 4053:visible spectrum 3972:direct radiation 3915: 3914: 3907: 3902: 3900: 3893: 3888: 3886: 3879: 3877: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3841: 3834: 3829: 3827: 3820: 3818: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3794: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3731: 3724: 3719: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3703: 3696: 3694: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3648: 3643: 3641: 3634: 3632: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3608: 3607: 3600: 3595: 3593: 3586: 3581: 3579: 3572: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3513: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3487: 3486: 3479: 3474: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3458: 3451: 3449: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3425: 3424: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3403: 3398: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3363: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3334: 3327: 3325: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3301: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3286: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3265: 3263: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3239: 3238: 3231: 3226: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3210: 3203: 3201: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3177: 3176: 3169: 3164: 3162: 3155: 3150: 3148: 3141: 3139: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3114: 3107: 3102: 3100: 3093: 3088: 3086: 3079: 3077: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3040: 3038: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3017: 3015: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2991: 2990: 2983: 2978: 2976: 2969: 2964: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2917: 2910: 2909: 2902: 2900: 2893: 2891: 2884: 2882: 2875: 2870: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2831: 2824: 2822: 2815: 2813: 2806: 2801: 2794: 2793: 2786: 2781: 2779: 2772: 2771: 2764: 2762: 2755: 2753: 2746: 2744: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2724: 2717: 2712: 2710: 2703: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2686: 2684: 2677: 2675: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2634: 2633: 2626: 2624: 2617: 2615: 2608: 2606: 2599: 2594: 2587: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2548: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2518: 2517: 2510: 2505: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2489: 2482: 2480: 2473: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2413: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2395: 2390: 2383: 2382: 2375: 2370: 2368: 2361: 2360: 2353: 2351: 2344: 2342: 2335: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2314: 2313: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2292: 2287: 2285: 2278: 2276: 2269: 2267: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2229: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2212: 2210: 2203: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2182: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2160: 2159: 2152: 2150: 2143: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2101: 2094: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2077: 2075: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2051: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2036: 2029: 2028: 2021: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1964: 1963: 1956: 1954: 1947: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1929: 1924: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1898: 1897: 1890: 1888: 1881: 1879: 1872: 1870: 1863: 1858: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1832: 1831: 1824: 1822: 1815: 1813: 1806: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1784: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1763: 1762: 1755: 1753: 1746: 1744: 1737: 1735: 1728: 1723: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1697: 1696: 1689: 1687: 1680: 1678: 1671: 1669: 1662: 1657: 1647:Prandtl number 1623: 1622: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1587: 1547:Density and mass 1463:atmospheric drag 1424:weather balloons 1163:geographic poles 1060:sounding rockets 971:aurora australis 790:molecular weight 769: 515: 509: 485:hydrogen sulfide 417:greenhouse gases 374:paleoclimatology 307: 281:(mainly through 42: 35: 21: 9531: 9530: 9526: 9525: 9524: 9522: 9521: 9520: 9506:Breathing gases 9486: 9485: 9484: 9474: 9472: 9462: 9460: 9450: 9448: 9436: 9426: 9424: 9416: 9414: 9409: 9387: 9352: 9332: 9318:Systems ecology 9284:Natural capital 9186: 9071: 9060:reclaimed water 8922: 8884:UPOV Convention 8732: 8527: 8436: 8410: 8406:Ozone depletion 8397: 8374: 8350: 8345: 8315: 8310: 8288: 8205: 8174: 8155: 8112: 8054: 8034: 8025:Gaia hypothesis 8015:Plate tectonics 7976: 7926: 7920: 7890: 7885: 7878: 7847: 7813: 7746: 7707: 7640: 7631: 7611: 7606: 7576: 7571: 7543: 7505: 7462: 7453:Geologic record 7407: 7393:Plate tectonics 7383:Mineral physics 7363:Earth structure 7349: 7284: 7231: 7161: 7113: 7070: 7061: 7008: 7003: 6973: 6968: 6945: 6913: 6880: 6875: 6818: 6813: 6812: 6803: 6801: 6791: 6787: 6778: 6776: 6772: 6761: 6752: 6748: 6740: 6736: 6727: 6723: 6716: 6712: 6659: 6655: 6608: 6604: 6595: 6591: 6582: 6578: 6547:(10): a004895. 6529: 6522: 6491: 6487: 6432: 6428: 6418: 6416: 6404: 6400: 6391: 6389: 6381: 6380: 6376: 6367: 6365: 6357: 6356: 6352: 6337: 6321: 6317: 6302: 6286: 6282: 6273: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6261: 6245: 6241: 6217:10.1.1.727.6573 6192: 6188: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6162: 6158: 6157: 6153: 6140: 6139: 6135: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6108: 6106: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6079: 6078: 6074: 6063: 6059: 6050: 6048: 6041:– AMS Glossary" 6035: 6034: 6030: 6014:"Troposphere". 6013: 6012: 6008: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5960: 5956: 5947: 5945: 5934: 5930: 5921: 5919: 5908: 5904: 5867: 5863: 5854: 5850: 5837: 5833: 5824: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5807: 5798: 5797: 5788: 5779: 5777: 5772: 5771: 5764: 5755: 5753: 5747: 5740: 5730: 5728: 5719: 5718: 5714: 5705: 5703: 5693: 5689: 5677: 5675: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5656: 5654: 5646: 5645: 5641: 5630: 5626: 5606:Detlev Möller: 5605: 5601: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5563: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5535: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5463: 5459: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5436: 5422: 5418: 5409: 5407: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5379:Wayback Machine 5367: 5360: 5349: 5335: 5328: 5320: 5318: 5309: 5308: 5301: 5293: 5291: 5282: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5233: 5229: 5221:Lide, David R. 5220: 5216: 5207: 5205: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5078: 5071: 5064: 5057: 5050: 5043: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5015: 5006: 4998: 4989: 4986: 4977: 4942: 4919: 4913: 4893:extreme weather 4885:glacial retreat 4864: 4839:, coupled with 4746: 4733: 4729: 4713: 4711: 4676:carbon fixation 4647:actively moving 4585:photoautotrophs 4567: 4507:plate tectonics 4499: 4485: 4324:The increasing 4322: 4316: 4229: 4224: 4214: 4191: 4185: 4157: 4151: 4133: 4126: 4122: 4110: 4083: 4077: 4030: 4022: 4018: 3998: 3992: 3960: 3954: 3942:reflected light 3930: 3924: 3912: 3910: 3905: 3898: 3896: 3891: 3884: 3882: 3875: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3851: 3846: 3839: 3837: 3832: 3825: 3823: 3816: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3791: 3789: 3784: 3777: 3775: 3770: 3763: 3761: 3754: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3729: 3727: 3722: 3715: 3713: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3692: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3667: 3665: 3660: 3653: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3637: 3630: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3605: 3603: 3598: 3591: 3589: 3584: 3577: 3575: 3568: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3530: 3525: 3518: 3516: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3484: 3482: 3477: 3470: 3468: 3463: 3456: 3454: 3447: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3422: 3420: 3415: 3408: 3406: 3401: 3394: 3392: 3385: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3360: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3268: 3261: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3236: 3234: 3229: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3208: 3206: 3199: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3174: 3172: 3167: 3160: 3158: 3153: 3146: 3144: 3137: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3112: 3110: 3105: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3084: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3050: 3048: 3043: 3036: 3034: 3029: 3022: 3020: 3013: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2981: 2974: 2972: 2967: 2960: 2958: 2951: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2915: 2913: 2907: 2905: 2898: 2896: 2889: 2887: 2880: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2846: 2844: 2838: 2836: 2829: 2827: 2820: 2818: 2811: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2791: 2789: 2784: 2777: 2775: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2758: 2751: 2749: 2742: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2722: 2720: 2715: 2708: 2706: 2700: 2698: 2691: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2673: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2637: 2631: 2629: 2622: 2620: 2613: 2611: 2604: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2584: 2582: 2577: 2570: 2568: 2562: 2560: 2553: 2551: 2544: 2542: 2535: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2515: 2513: 2508: 2501: 2499: 2494: 2487: 2485: 2478: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2435: 2433: 2427: 2425: 2418: 2416: 2409: 2407: 2400: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2366: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2349: 2347: 2340: 2338: 2331: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2311: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2295: 2290: 2283: 2281: 2274: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2241: 2234: 2232: 2226: 2224: 2217: 2215: 2208: 2206: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2179: 2177: 2172: 2165: 2163: 2157: 2155: 2148: 2146: 2139: 2137: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2099: 2097: 2091: 2089: 2082: 2080: 2073: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2048: 2046: 2041: 2034: 2032: 2026: 2024: 2017: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1969: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1952: 1950: 1943: 1941: 1934: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1915: 1910: 1903: 1901: 1895: 1893: 1886: 1884: 1877: 1875: 1868: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1849: 1844: 1837: 1835: 1829: 1827: 1820: 1818: 1811: 1809: 1802: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1782: 1780: 1775: 1768: 1766: 1760: 1758: 1751: 1749: 1742: 1740: 1733: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1714: 1709: 1702: 1700: 1694: 1692: 1685: 1683: 1676: 1674: 1667: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1632:Specific heat 1618: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1585: 1570: 1549: 1532: 1526: 1481: 1475: 1445:, important to 1358:; 14.6959 1344: 1338: 1301: 1212: 1127: 1121: 1109:nacreous clouds 1078: 1072: 989: 983: 967:aurora borealis 935: 929: 854: 848: 801: 768: 764: 758: 734:volume fraction 712: 672: 665: 619: 612: 582: 563: 494: 398: 388: 382: 370:Richard Assmann 305: 299:acid deposition 295:ozone depletion 267:photoautotrophs 245:gases from the 141:solar radiation 126:Earth's gravity 43: 36: 29: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9529: 9519: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9503: 9498: 9483: 9482: 9470: 9458: 9446: 9434: 9432:Earth sciences 9411: 9410: 9408: 9407: 9396: 9393: 9392: 9389: 9388: 9386: 9385: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9353:(perpetuation) 9348: 9342: 9340: 9334: 9333: 9331: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9314: 9313: 9306:Nature reserve 9303: 9298: 9297: 9296: 9291: 9281: 9280: 9279: 9269: 9268: 9267: 9262: 9252: 9247: 9246: 9245: 9240: 9230: 9229: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9202: 9196: 9192: 9191: 9188: 9187: 9185: 9184: 9183: 9182: 9177: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9111: 9110: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9079: 9077: 9073: 9072: 9070: 9069: 9064: 9063: 9062: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9041: 9040: 9030: 9025: 9024: 9023: 9011: 9010: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8989: 8984: 8983: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8951: 8950: 8939: 8937: 8930: 8924: 8923: 8921: 8920: 8919: 8918: 8913: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8892: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8866: 8861: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8835: 8834: 8824: 8823: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8797: 8796: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8783:climate change 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8759: 8758: 8751:Bioprospecting 8748: 8742: 8740: 8734: 8733: 8731: 8730: 8729: 8728: 8723: 8713: 8712: 8711: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8686: 8685: 8684: 8679: 8678: 8677: 8672: 8662: 8661: 8660: 8655: 8645: 8644: 8643: 8633: 8628: 8618: 8617: 8616: 8606: 8605: 8604: 8594: 8593: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8556: 8555: 8554: 8553: 8537: 8535: 8529: 8528: 8526: 8525: 8520: 8519: 8518: 8513: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8450: 8448: 8442: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8435: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8418: 8416: 8412: 8411: 8409: 8408: 8403: 8402: 8401: 8396:Clean Air Act 8388: 8383: 8378: 8369: 8367: 8358: 8352: 8351: 8344: 8343: 8336: 8329: 8321: 8312: 8311: 8309: 8308: 8297: 8294: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8286: 8279: 8278: 8277: 8272: 8262: 8261: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8249: 8248: 8238: 8237: 8236: 8221: 8216: 8210: 8207: 8206: 8204: 8203: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8169: 8163: 8157: 8156: 8154: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8122: 8120: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8108: 8103: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8050: 8044: 8042: 8036: 8035: 8033: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7992: 7986: 7984: 7978: 7977: 7975: 7974: 7969: 7968: 7967: 7962: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7936: 7934: 7928: 7927: 7919: 7918: 7911: 7904: 7896: 7887: 7886: 7883: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7855: 7853: 7849: 7848: 7846: 7845: 7838: 7831: 7823: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7811: 7804: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7756: 7754: 7748: 7747: 7745: 7744: 7737: 7730: 7723: 7717: 7715: 7709: 7708: 7706: 7705: 7698: 7691: 7684: 7677: 7670: 7663: 7656: 7650: 7648: 7642: 7641: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7629: 7621: 7619: 7613: 7612: 7605: 7604: 7597: 7590: 7582: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7569: 7559: 7554: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7515: 7513: 7507: 7506: 7504: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7488: 7486:Atlantic Ocean 7483: 7478: 7472: 7470: 7464: 7463: 7461: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7449: 7448: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7417: 7415: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7368:Fluid dynamics 7365: 7359: 7357: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7340:Geopositioning 7337: 7335:Remote Sensing 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7306: 7305: 7294: 7292: 7286: 7285: 7283: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7241: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7230: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7171: 7169: 7163: 7162: 7160: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7123: 7121: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7094:Climate change 7091: 7089:Energy balance 7086: 7084:Climate system 7080: 7078: 7072: 7071: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7018: 7016: 7010: 7009: 7002: 7001: 6994: 6987: 6979: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6918: 6915: 6914: 6912: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6874: 6873: 6866: 6859: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6817: 6816:External links 6814: 6811: 6810: 6785: 6746: 6741:Starting from 6734: 6721: 6710: 6653: 6602: 6589: 6576: 6520: 6485: 6426: 6398: 6374: 6350: 6335: 6315: 6300: 6280: 6259: 6248:The Atmosphere 6239: 6186: 6175: 6172:on 2008-05-28. 6151: 6148:on 2005-03-03. 6133: 6130:on 2009-03-03. 6115: 6090: 6087:on 2009-06-14. 6072: 6057: 6028: 6006: 5987: 5980: 5954: 5928: 5910:Joe Buchdahl. 5902: 5861: 5848: 5831: 5817: 5802:. UCAR. 2011. 5786: 5776:. Das.uwyo.edu 5762: 5738: 5727:on 17 May 2017 5712: 5687: 5663: 5639: 5632:Yunus Çengel. 5624: 5599: 5573: 5547: 5533: 5527: 5523: 5503: 5497: 5477: 5457: 5452: 5451:and added to O 5448: 5444: 5440: 5434: 5416: 5391: 5358: 5352:, which cites 5347: 5326: 5299: 5272: 5265: 5227: 5214: 5193: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5150:Global dimming 5147: 5142: 5136: 5134:Climate system 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5069: 5066:Science portal 5055: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5021:observed from 5016: 5009: 5007: 4999: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4980: 4978: 4943: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4931: 4915:Main article: 4912: 4909: 4891:), increasing 4889:water security 4877:sea level rise 4869:climate change 4750: 4742:Main article: 4736:boreal forests 4731: 4727: 4710: 4707: 4703:aquatic plants 4641:of which, the 4565: 4495:Main article: 4484: 4481: 4447:photosynthesis 4444:cyanobacterial 4377:carbon dioxide 4326:solidification 4315: 4312: 4296:Earth's mantle 4228: 4225: 4213: 4210: 4187:Main article: 4184: 4181: 4147:Main article: 4132: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4108: 4100:; 10,340 4076: 4073: 4045:optical window 4028: 4020: 4016: 3994:Main article: 3991: 3988: 3956:Main article: 3953: 3950: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3908: 3903: 3894: 3889: 3880: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3835: 3830: 3821: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3787: 3782: 3773: 3768: 3759: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3725: 3720: 3711: 3706: 3697: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3663: 3658: 3649: 3644: 3635: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3601: 3596: 3587: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3528: 3523: 3514: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3480: 3475: 3466: 3461: 3452: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3418: 3413: 3404: 3399: 3390: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3356: 3351: 3342: 3337: 3328: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3294: 3289: 3280: 3275: 3266: 3257: 3252: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3232: 3227: 3218: 3213: 3204: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3165: 3156: 3151: 3142: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3108: 3103: 3094: 3089: 3080: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3046: 3041: 3032: 3027: 3018: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2984: 2979: 2970: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2911: 2903: 2894: 2885: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2856: 2851: 2842: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2782: 2773: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2718: 2713: 2704: 2696: 2687: 2678: 2669: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2649: 2644: 2635: 2627: 2618: 2609: 2600: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2580: 2575: 2566: 2558: 2549: 2540: 2531: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2511: 2506: 2497: 2492: 2483: 2474: 2465: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2445: 2440: 2431: 2423: 2414: 2405: 2396: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2376: 2371: 2362: 2354: 2345: 2336: 2327: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2307: 2302: 2293: 2288: 2279: 2270: 2261: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2230: 2222: 2213: 2204: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2175: 2170: 2161: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2095: 2087: 2078: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2044: 2039: 2030: 2022: 2013: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1979: 1974: 1965: 1957: 1948: 1939: 1930: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1899: 1891: 1882: 1873: 1864: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1833: 1825: 1816: 1807: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1778: 1773: 1764: 1756: 1747: 1738: 1729: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1698: 1690: 1681: 1672: 1663: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1650:Bulk modulus 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1617: 1614: 1568:Density of air 1566:Main article: 1548: 1545: 1540:speed of sound 1534:Because in an 1530:Speed of sound 1528:Main article: 1525: 1524:Speed of sound 1522: 1477:Main article: 1474: 1471: 1412: 1411: 1400: 1397: 1362:; 760.00 1340:Main article: 1337: 1334: 1325:speed of sound 1300: 1297: 1293: 1292: 1280: 1279: 1270: 1269: 1243: 1228: 1211: 1208: 1151:blue scattered 1139:high altitudes 1123:Main article: 1120: 1117: 1074:Main article: 1071: 1068: 1002:(orange), the 985:Main article: 982: 979: 931:Main article: 928: 925: 909:meteorological 850:Main article: 847: 844: 843: 842: 839: 836: 833: 830: 800: 799:Stratification 797: 784: 783: 782: 781: 778: 771: 766: 756: 753: 752: 751: 737: 721: 720: 717: 714: 710: 707: 701: 700: 696: 695: 692: 689: 686: 680: 679: 676: 673: 670: 667: 659: 658: 655: 652: 649: 643: 642: 639: 636: 633: 627: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 606: 605: 602: 599: 596: 590: 589: 586: 583: 580: 577: 571: 570: 567: 564: 561: 558: 552: 551: 545: 537: 534: 530: 529: 524: 520: 519: 492: 489:sulfur dioxide 396: 384:Main article: 381: 378: 341:(formally the 291:global warming 279:climate change 224:photosynthesis 204:carbon dioxide 112:(which create 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9528: 9517: 9514: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9493: 9491: 9481: 9471: 9469: 9459: 9457: 9447: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9433: 9423: 9422: 9419: 9406: 9398: 9397: 9394: 9384: 9383:Non-renewable 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9339: 9335: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9323:Urban ecology 9321: 9319: 9316: 9312: 9309: 9308: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9286: 9285: 9282: 9278: 9275: 9274: 9273: 9270: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9257: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9235: 9234: 9231: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9208: 9207: 9204: 9203: 9200: 9197: 9193: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9172: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9155:Privatization 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9109: 9106: 9105: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9074: 9068: 9065: 9061: 9058: 9057: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9050:Surface water 9048: 9046: 9043: 9039: 9036: 9035: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9022: 9021: 9017: 9016: 9015: 9012: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8994: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8967: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8944: 8941: 8940: 8938: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8925: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8908: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8860: 8857: 8856: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8833: 8830: 8829: 8828: 8825: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8801: 8798: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8780: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8757: 8754: 8753: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8743: 8741: 8739: 8735: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8718: 8717: 8714: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8691: 8690: 8687: 8683: 8680: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8663: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8650: 8649: 8646: 8642: 8639: 8638: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8623: 8622: 8619: 8615: 8612: 8611: 8610: 8607: 8603: 8600: 8599: 8598: 8595: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8552: 8551:peak farmland 8549: 8548: 8547: 8544: 8543: 8542: 8539: 8538: 8536: 8534: 8530: 8524: 8521: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8508: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8452: 8451: 8449: 8447: 8443: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8413: 8407: 8404: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8371: 8370: 8368: 8366: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8342: 8337: 8335: 8330: 8328: 8323: 8322: 8319: 8307: 8299: 8298: 8295: 8285: 8284: 8280: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8267: 8266: 8263: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8247: 8244: 8243: 8242: 8239: 8235: 8232: 8231: 8230: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8211: 8208: 8201: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8175:(abiogenesis) 8171: 8170: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8158: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8123: 8121: 8119: 8115: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8098: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8041: 8037: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8000: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7990:Earth science 7988: 7987: 7985: 7983: 7979: 7973: 7970: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7937: 7935: 7933: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7912: 7910: 7905: 7903: 7898: 7897: 7894: 7881: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7850: 7844: 7843: 7839: 7837: 7836: 7832: 7830: 7829: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7820: 7816: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7803: 7802: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7753: 7749: 7743: 7742: 7738: 7736: 7735: 7731: 7729: 7728: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7713:Dwarf planets 7710: 7704: 7703: 7699: 7697: 7696: 7692: 7690: 7689: 7685: 7683: 7682: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7671: 7669: 7668: 7664: 7662: 7661: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7651: 7649: 7647: 7643: 7638: 7628: 7627: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7603: 7598: 7596: 7591: 7589: 7584: 7583: 7580: 7568: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7546: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7516: 7514: 7512: 7508: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7496:Pacific Ocean 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7469: 7465: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7447: 7444: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7426:Earth science 7424: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7414: 7410: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7378:Magnetosphere 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7345:Virtual globe 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7310:Earth's orbit 7308: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7291: 7287: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7217:World history 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7207:World economy 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7168: 7164: 7158: 7157:South America 7155: 7153: 7152:North America 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7116: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7079: 7077: 7073: 7068: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7000: 6995: 6993: 6988: 6986: 6981: 6980: 6977: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6948: 6942: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6916: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6886: 6883: 6879: 6872: 6867: 6865: 6860: 6858: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6835: 6829: 6824: 6820: 6819: 6800: 6796: 6789: 6775:on 2021-08-11 6771: 6767: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6743: 6738: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6714: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6673:(1): 97–106. 6672: 6668: 6664: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6606: 6599: 6593: 6586: 6580: 6572: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6527: 6525: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6489: 6481: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6430: 6415: 6414: 6409: 6402: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6336:9780471457282 6332: 6328: 6327: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6301:9780072406559 6297: 6293: 6292: 6291:Heat transfer 6284: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6256:0-13-350612-6 6253: 6249: 6243: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6190: 6184: 6179: 6168: 6161: 6155: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6086: 6082: 6076: 6068: 6061: 6046: 6042: 6040: 6032: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6002: 5998: 5991: 5983: 5981:9780416079401 5977: 5973: 5968: 5967: 5958: 5944:on 2013-10-19 5943: 5939: 5938:"stratopause" 5932: 5918:on 2010-07-01 5917: 5913: 5906: 5897: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5865: 5858: 5852: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5827: 5821: 5805: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5775: 5769: 5767: 5752: 5745: 5743: 5726: 5722: 5716: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5684: 5673: 5667: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5635: 5628: 5621: 5617: 5616:3-11-016431-0 5613: 5609: 5603: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5561: 5557: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5500: 5498:0-485-11150-0 5494: 5490: 5489: 5481: 5470: 5469: 5461: 5437: 5435:0-387-98746-0 5431: 5427: 5420: 5405: 5401: 5400:"Trace Gases" 5395: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5373: 5372: 5365: 5363: 5355: 5350: 5344: 5340: 5333: 5331: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5304: 5289: 5285: 5279: 5277: 5268: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5231: 5224: 5218: 5203: 5197: 5182: 5176: 5172: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5070: 5067: 5061: 5056: 5053: 5047: 5042: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4996: 4991: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4966:edge of space 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4841:deforestation 4838: 4834: 4833:nitrous oxide 4830: 4826: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4804:stratospheric 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4749:Air pollution 4748: 4745: 4744:Air pollution 4737: 4709:Air pollution 4706: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4665:Carboniferous 4661: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4613:known as the 4612: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4564:atmosphere. O 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4467: 4463: 4462:isotope ratio 4459: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4432: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4405:crustal rocks 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4345:precipitating 4342: 4338: 4337:heat transfer 4335: 4331: 4330:Earth's crust 4327: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4282:and numerous 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4173: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4150: 4142: 4137: 4128: 4117: 4112: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4065:radio windows 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4035:The combined 4033: 4026: 4011: 4010:visible light 4007: 4006:transmittance 4002: 3997: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3909: 3904: 3895: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3856: 3850: 3845: 3836: 3831: 3822: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3788: 3783: 3774: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3735: 3726: 3721: 3712: 3707: 3698: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3673: 3664: 3659: 3650: 3645: 3636: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3611: 3602: 3597: 3588: 3583: 3574: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3538: 3529: 3524: 3515: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3490: 3481: 3476: 3467: 3462: 3453: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3428: 3419: 3414: 3405: 3400: 3391: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3366: 3357: 3352: 3343: 3338: 3329: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3304: 3295: 3290: 3281: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3242: 3233: 3228: 3219: 3214: 3205: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3180: 3171: 3166: 3157: 3152: 3143: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3118: 3109: 3104: 3095: 3090: 3081: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3047: 3042: 3033: 3028: 3019: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2994: 2985: 2980: 2971: 2966: 2957: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2932: 2926: 2921: 2912: 2904: 2895: 2886: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2857: 2852: 2843: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2797: 2788: 2783: 2774: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2728: 2719: 2714: 2705: 2697: 2688: 2679: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2659: 2650: 2645: 2636: 2628: 2619: 2610: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2590: 2581: 2576: 2567: 2559: 2550: 2541: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2521: 2512: 2507: 2498: 2493: 2484: 2475: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2455: 2446: 2441: 2432: 2424: 2415: 2406: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2386: 2377: 2372: 2363: 2355: 2346: 2337: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2317: 2308: 2303: 2294: 2289: 2280: 2271: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2245: 2240: 2231: 2223: 2214: 2205: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2185: 2176: 2171: 2162: 2154: 2145: 2136: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2110: 2105: 2096: 2088: 2079: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2054: 2045: 2040: 2031: 2023: 2014: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1989: 1980: 1975: 1966: 1958: 1949: 1940: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1909: 1900: 1892: 1883: 1874: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1843: 1834: 1826: 1817: 1808: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1788: 1779: 1774: 1765: 1757: 1748: 1739: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1713: 1708: 1699: 1691: 1682: 1673: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1653: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1626:Temperature 1625: 1624: 1621: 1613: 1612:10 kg." 1595: 1591: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1575:ideal gas law 1569: 1561: 1558: 1553: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1531: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1470: 1468: 1467:orbital decay 1464: 1460: 1456: 1455:Space Shuttle 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1437:still occur. 1436: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1416:Mount Everest 1409: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1354:(760.00 1353: 1349: 1343: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1296: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1262:edge of space 1259: 1258: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1240:magnetosphere 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1181:with height. 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1077: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1052:thunderclouds 1049: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 988: 978: 976: 972: 968: 963: 961: 957: 952: 950: 946: 941: 934: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 905: 903: 902:magnetosphere 899: 896: 892: 886: 884: 880: 874: 872: 868: 864: 860: 853: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 827: 826: 824: 820: 816: 805: 796: 793: 791: 779: 776: 772: 762: 754: 749: 745: 744: 742: 738: 735: 731: 730:Mole fraction 728: 727: 726: 722: 718: 715: 708: 706: 702: 697: 693: 690: 687: 685: 681: 677: 674: 668: 664: 660: 656: 653: 650: 648: 644: 640: 637: 634: 632: 628: 624: 621: 615: 613:(April 2022) 611: 607: 603: 600: 597: 595: 591: 587: 584: 578: 576: 572: 568: 565: 559: 557: 553: 550: 546: 544: 543: 538: 535: 532: 531: 528: 527:Mole fraction 521: 516: 513: 505: 500: 496: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 392: 387: 377: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 283:deforestation 280: 276: 272: 269:). Recently, 268: 264: 260: 256: 255:impact events 252: 248: 244: 239: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 184:mole fraction 180: 178: 175:to exist and 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 81: 77: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 40: 33: 27: 19: 9511:Environments 9480:Solar System 9381: / 9255:Exploitation 9140:Conservation 9083:Desalination 9018: 8911:conservation 8746:Biodiversity 8694:conservation 8541:Agricultural 8469:Fossil fuels 8355: 8281: 8214:Biodiversity 8200:astrobiology 8052: 7922:Elements of 7840: 7833: 7826: 7806: 7799: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7700: 7693: 7686: 7679: 7672: 7666: 7665: 7658: 7624: 7539:Solar System 7501:Oceanography 7491:Indian Ocean 7481:Arctic Ocean 7421:Age of Earth 7373:Geomagnetism 7047:Thermosphere 7037:Stratosphere 7021: 7013: 6904:Thermosphere 6894:Stratosphere 6877: 6832: 6802:. Retrieved 6798: 6788: 6777:. Retrieved 6770:the original 6766:IPCC AR6 WG1 6765: 6749: 6737: 6724: 6713: 6670: 6666: 6656: 6615: 6611: 6605: 6597: 6592: 6584: 6583:B. Windley: 6579: 6544: 6540: 6533:Schaefer, L. 6531:Zahnle, K.; 6501:(2): 71–80. 6498: 6494: 6488: 6448:(10): 5197. 6445: 6439: 6429: 6417:. Retrieved 6411: 6401: 6390:. Retrieved 6386: 6377: 6366:. Retrieved 6362: 6353: 6325: 6318: 6290: 6283: 6272:. Retrieved 6262: 6247: 6242: 6199: 6195: 6189: 6178: 6167:the original 6154: 6146:the original 6136: 6128:the original 6118: 6107:. Retrieved 6093: 6085:the original 6075: 6060: 6049:. Retrieved 6038: 6031: 6023: 6015: 6009: 6003:. p. 4. 5996: 5990: 5965: 5957: 5946:. Retrieved 5942:the original 5931: 5920:. Retrieved 5916:the original 5905: 5881:(1): 66–77. 5878: 5874: 5864: 5856: 5851: 5843: 5834: 5820: 5808:. Retrieved 5778:. Retrieved 5754:. Retrieved 5729:. Retrieved 5725:the original 5715: 5704:. Retrieved 5700: 5690: 5682: 5676:. Retrieved 5666: 5655:. Retrieved 5651: 5642: 5633: 5627: 5607: 5602: 5590:. Retrieved 5588:. April 2022 5586:NASA Climate 5585: 5576: 5564:. Retrieved 5562:. April 2022 5560:NASA Climate 5559: 5550: 5542: 5538: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5506: 5487: 5480: 5467: 5460: 5425: 5419: 5408:. Retrieved 5404:the original 5394: 5370: 5353: 5338: 5319:, retrieved 5314: 5292:, retrieved 5287: 5240: 5230: 5222: 5217: 5206:. Retrieved 5204:. 2024-05-13 5196: 5185:. Retrieved 5175: 5080:World portal 4970:thermosphere 4954:stratosphere 4920: 4822: 4773:motorization 4747: 4669:evolution of 4662: 4546:ferrous iron 4535: 4500: 4470: 4466:carbon cycle 4455:stromatolite 4433: 4417: 4323: 4246:, primarily 4244:solar nebula 4230: 4201: 4200: 4174: 4158: 4113: 4106: 4096:(5,730 4085: 4084: 4034: 4014: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3946:ice crystals 3931: 1619: 1583: 1571: 1533: 1518:thermosphere 1506:stratosphere 1502: 1432: 1413: 1391: 1387:scale height 1380: 1376: 1345: 1294: 1255: 1251:heterosphere 1213: 1210:Other layers 1196: 1186: 1183: 1156: 1143:stratosphere 1105: 1090: 1079: 1076:Stratosphere 1070:Stratosphere 1040: 1021: 1017: 1004:stratosphere 964: 953: 936: 933:Thermosphere 927:Thermosphere 906: 898:trajectories 887: 875: 863:thermosphere 855: 811: 794: 788:The average 787: 774: 724: 539: 526: 511: 465:volcanic ash 402: 351: 339:thermosphere 331:stratosphere 303: 247:solar nebula 240: 181: 161:air currents 110:particulates 98: 75: 73: 56:stratosphere 44: 26: 9468:Spaceflight 9374:Nationalism 9346:Common-pool 8987:Hydrosphere 8980:remediation 8965:Groundwater 8560:Degradation 8265:Prokaryotes 8053:Atmosphere 8048:Meteorology 7835:HD 209458 b 7609:Atmospheres 7298:Cartography 7237:Environment 7104:Climatology 7032:Troposphere 6954:Ozone layer 6937:Thermopause 6927:Stratopause 6889:Troposphere 6596:J. Schopf: 6471:11603/13118 6020:McGraw-Hill 5474:, p. 3 5389:. Chapter 1 5109:Lithosphere 5104:Hydrosphere 4950:troposphere 4895:events and 4865:1.1 °C 4845:destruction 4814:ultraviolet 4807:ozone layer 4699:terrestrial 4635:Phanerozoic 4631:bilaterians 4578:Precambrian 4531:Proterozoic 4385:inert gases 4363:during the 4286:with large 4268:water vapor 4266:), notably 4233:Early Earth 4183:Circulation 4069:radio waves 4049:ultraviolet 1557:NRLMSISE-00 1510:ultraviolet 1473:Temperature 1404:Kármán line 1329:temperature 1317:air density 1220:ozone layer 1137:at low and 1135:cloud types 1125:Troposphere 1119:Troposphere 1097:ozone layer 1086:stratopause 1034:; 190 1030:(−120 1000:troposphere 940:thermopause 859:thermopause 815:temperature 705:Water vapor 421:noble gases 380:Composition 358:climatology 327:troposphere 315:Kármán line 311:outer space 287:fossil fuel 232:respiration 212:water vapor 208:trace gases 138:ultraviolet 130:outer space 60:troposphere 39:Air quality 9490:Categories 9369:Extraction 9328:Wilderness 9289:accounting 9272:Management 9238:ecological 9226:tragedy of 9145:Peak water 9130:Efficiency 9103:Sanitation 9045:Stormwater 9038:harvesting 9014:Irrigation 8916:management 8874:gene banks 8815:management 8793:management 8709:resilience 8675:phosphorus 8631:industrial 8609:Management 8585:soundscape 8491:Geothermal 8146:Wilderness 7999:geological 7819:Exoplanets 7403:Tomography 7388:Seismology 7355:Geophysics 7330:Navigation 7222:Time zones 7187:In culture 7132:Antarctica 7119:Continents 7042:Mesosphere 7014:Atmosphere 6964:Ionosphere 6959:Turbopause 6922:Tropopause 6899:Mesosphere 6804:2015-10-21 6779:2021-11-20 6495:Metrologia 6392:2023-06-13 6368:2023-06-13 6274:2014-06-10 6202:(6): 864. 6109:2010-10-16 6051:2010-10-16 6039:homosphere 5948:2013-10-18 5922:2012-04-18 5780:2012-04-18 5756:2013-10-18 5706:2017-02-20 5678:2017-07-04 5657:2021-04-27 5618:, S. 173. 5410:2010-10-16 5321:2019-05-31 5294:2019-05-31 5208:2024-06-18 5187:2018-01-29 5167:References 5023:deep space 4958:mesosphere 4792:acid rains 4784:pollutants 4658:metabolism 4655:locomotive 4627:placozoans 4623:cnidarians 4597:Cryogenian 4582:eukaryotic 4523:substrates 4503:continents 4440:Neoarchean 4409:carbonates 4401:weathering 4353:outgassing 4351:. Further 4349:superocean 4318:See also: 4288:meteorites 4256:gas giants 4216:See also: 4153:See also: 4090:black body 4027:. Water (H 4025:nanometres 3990:Absorption 3968:scattering 3952:Scattering 3926:See also: 1443:ionosphere 1408:astronauts 1350:as 101325 1257:turbopause 1247:homosphere 1232:ionosphere 1179:isothermal 1171:tropopause 1082:tropopause 1012:spacecraft 987:Mesosphere 981:Mesosphere 949:ionosphere 867:solar wind 819:lapse rate 469:pollutants 343:ionosphere 335:mesosphere 277:, such as 259:weathering 218:vary with 179:on Earth. 134:meteoroids 9456:Astronomy 9379:Renewable 9364:Depletion 9351:Conflict 9233:Economics 9211:enclosure 9170:Resources 9150:Pollution 9067:Watershed 8970:pollution 8901:Seed bank 8896:Rangeland 8778:Fisheries 8763:Biosphere 8756:biopiracy 8699:fertility 8575:cityscape 8570:Landscape 8477:peak coal 8464:Resources 8415:Emissions 8224:Eukaryota 8191:Hierarchy 8186:Biosphere 8151:Wildfires 8141:Radiation 8131:Ecosystem 8071:Moonlight 8005:Structure 7960:particles 7842:Kepler-7b 7828:GJ 1132 b 7785:Enceladus 7320:Geomatics 7265:Ecosystem 7250:Biosphere 7212:Etymology 7192:Earth Day 7142:Australia 7052:Exosphere 6932:Mesopause 6909:Exosphere 6687:1880-6546 6480:109930589 6212:CiteSeerX 5810:April 19, 5731:April 19, 5099:Biosphere 5027:Apollo 12 4946:afterglow 4897:wildfires 4800:depletion 4780:societies 4753:chemicals 4608:Ediacaran 4593:red algae 4562:oxidizing 4538:oxidation 4511:carbonate 4413:sediments 4397:magnesium 4389:dissolved 4361:asteroids 4357:volcanism 4341:condensed 4334:advective 4304:outgassed 4170:curvature 3934:radiation 1629:Density 1536:ideal gas 1420:airliners 1311:graph of 1153:sunlight. 1024:mesopause 996:Afterglow 895:ballistic 883:geocorona 852:Exosphere 846:Exosphere 759:has been 716:0–30,000 694:0.000114 678:0.000191 657:0.000524 641:0.001818 461:sea spray 347:exosphere 289:-related 251:volcanism 194:, 20.95% 188:molecules 103:suspended 9405:Category 9338:Resource 9277:adaptive 9175:improved 9135:Conflict 9120:Security 9115:Scarcity 9108:improved 9098:Leaching 8975:recharge 8955:Drinking 8906:Wildlife 8773:Bushmeat 8768:Bushfood 8721:planning 8626:gemstone 8621:Minerals 8602:property 8590:viewshed 8580:seascape 8511:sunlight 8485:peak oil 8481:peak gas 8306:Category 8275:bacteria 8258:protista 8219:Organism 8086:Sunlight 7932:Universe 7852:See also 7780:Callisto 7775:Ganymede 7734:Makemake 7567:Category 7519:The Moon 6825:(1878). 6757:(2021). 6705:27848144 6640:24553238 6571:20573713 6345:62532755 6310:46959719 6234:16754900 6103:Archived 6045:Archived 6022:. 1984. 5804:Archived 5375:Archived 5038:See also 5025:onboard 4875:such as 4849:wetlands 4811:ionizing 4653:, whose 4643:Cambrian 4619:metazoan 4407:to form 4373:nitrogen 4252:hydrides 4248:hydrogen 4086:Emission 4075:Emission 4061:infrared 4057:infrared 3980:overcast 3928:Sunlight 1447:HF radio 1321:pressure 1315:against 1200:aviation 1159:altitude 585:209,460 566:780,840 556:Nitrogen 536:Formula 518:Dry air 477:fluorine 473:chlorine 445:aerosols 405:nitrogen 261:and the 243:accreted 220:altitude 202:, 0.04% 198:, 0.93% 192:nitrogen 165:chemical 106:aerosols 9516:Climate 9444:Weather 9418:Portals 9206:Commons 9195:Related 9160:Quality 9076:Aspects 9002:glacial 8943:Aquifer 8849:Pasture 8800:Forests 8726:reserve 8501:Nuclear 8471: ( 8427:Trading 8422:Airshed 8283:Viruses 8270:archaea 8246:animals 8198: ( 8196:Biology 8173:Origin 8126:Ecology 8101:tornado 8061:Climate 8055:(Earth) 8040:Weather 8010:Geology 7997: ( 7995:History 7702:Neptune 7681:Jupiter 7654:Mercury 7646:Planets 7557:History 7552:Outline 7413:Geology 7325:Gravity 7290:Geodesy 7260:Ecology 7076:Climate 7057:Weather 6941:Exobase 6696:5138252 6648:4443958 6620:Bibcode 6562:2944365 6503:Bibcode 6450:Bibcode 6204:Bibcode 5883:Bibcode 5245:Bibcode 5119:Airshed 5114:Airglow 5029:in 1969 5019:eclipse 4974:aurorae 4962:airglow 4853:logging 4645:, more 4574:euxinia 4474:in the 4458:fossils 4399:during 4393:calcium 4381:methane 4369:Archean 4347:into a 4284:impacts 4276:ammonia 4272:methane 4260:Jupiter 4166:horizon 4041:opacity 3964:photons 1459:F-layer 1439:Meteors 1435:auroras 1372:weather 1352:pascals 1236:auroras 1167:Equator 1147:horizon 1056:meteors 1014:reentry 998:of the 945:exobase 923:Earth. 913:auroras 775:by mass 684:Krypton 666:(2022) 663:Methane 625:0.0417 604:0.9340 588:20.946 569:78.084 481:mercury 433:krypton 169:climate 114:weather 83:mixture 9216:global 9180:policy 9125:Supply 9088:Floods 9055:Sewage 9028:Marine 9020:huerta 8854:Plants 8844:Meadow 8704:health 8682:rights 8670:copper 8648:mining 8546:arable 8446:Energy 8386:Indoor 8234:plants 8066:Clouds 8030:Future 8020:Oceans 7972:Change 7955:Matter 7950:Energy 7924:nature 7808:Triton 7770:Europa 7695:Uranus 7688:Saturn 7468:Oceans 7436:Future 7280:Nature 7202:Symbol 7147:Europe 7127:Africa 6703: 6693: 6685: 6646: 6638: 6612:Nature 6569: 6559: 6478: 6419:20 May 6343: 6333: 6308: 6298: 6254: 6232: 6214: 5978: 5614: 5566:16 May 5495: 5432: 5385: 5345: 5317:, 2019 5290:, 2019 5263: 5183:. NASA 5141:(CIRA) 4798:. The 4691:pyrite 4683:faunae 4680:animal 4672:plants 4639:period 4611:period 4560:to an 4550:sulfur 4527:ferric 4264:Saturn 4237:Hadean 4177:mirage 3932:Solar 3864:0.1135 3852:0.0004 3805:0.1394 3743:0.1458 3681:0.1538 3619:0.1602 3557:0.1682 3545:0.0005 3498:0.1762 3436:0.1858 3312:0.2082 3250:0.2211 3216:0.0946 3188:0.2355 3154:0.0891 3126:0.2515 3092:0.0837 3064:0.2707 3030:0.0782 3002:0.2947 2968:0.0732 2940:0.3204 2874:0.3524 2805:0.3716 2736:0.3925 2667:0.4149 2598:0.4405 2529:0.4709 2495:0.0523 2325:0.5879 2291:0.0436 2259:0.6423 2193:0.7048 2124:0.7833 2112:0.0025 2062:0.8826 1928:1.1774 1862:1.4128 1796:1.7684 1727:2.3675 1590:tonnes 1323:, the 1187:tropos 960:oxygen 808:layer. 725:notes: 647:Helium 638:18.18 601:9,340 575:Oxygen 463:, and 457:spores 453:pollen 435:, and 429:helium 411:, and 409:oxygen 345:) and 323:layers 313:. 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