Aurora - Knowledge

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distance, or radius, of the electron from the field line at any time is known as its Larmor radius. The pitch angle increases as the electron travels to a region of greater field strength nearer to the atmosphere. Thus, it is possible for some particles to return, or mirror, if the angle becomes 90° before entering the atmosphere to collide with the denser molecules there. Other particles that do not mirror enter the atmosphere and contribute to the auroral display over a range of altitudes. Other types of auroras have been observed from space; for example, "poleward arcs" stretching sunward across the polar cap, the related "theta aurora", and "dayside arcs" near noon. These are relatively infrequent and poorly understood. Other interesting effects occur such as pulsating aurora, "black aurora" and their rarer companion "anti-black aurora" and subvisual red arcs. In addition to all these, a weak glow (often deep red) observed around the two polar cusps, the field lines separating the ones that close through Earth from those that are swept into the tail and close remotely.

1385:. It is not well understood, but geomagnetic storms may vary with Earth's seasons. Two factors to consider are the tilt of both the solar and Earth's axis to the ecliptic plane. As Earth orbits throughout a year, it experiences an interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) from different latitudes of the Sun, which is tilted at 8 degrees. Similarly, the 23-degree tilt of Earth's axis about which the geomagnetic pole rotates with a diurnal variation changes the daily average angle that the geomagnetic field presents to the incident IMF throughout a year. These factors combined can lead to minor cyclical changes in the detailed way that the IMF links to the magnetosphere. In turn, this affects the average probability of opening a door through which energy from the solar wind can reach Earth's inner magnetosphere and thereby enhance auroras. Recent evidence in 2021 has shown that individual separate substorms may in fact be correlated networked communities. 4507: 81: 1444:) in the direction along the magnetic field line toward Earth. This field-aligned acceleration decreases the pitch angle for all of the electrons passing through the region, causing many of them to hit the upper atmosphere. In contrast to the scattering process leading to diffuse auroras, the electric field increases the kinetic energy of all of the electrons transiting downward through the acceleration region by the same amount. This accelerates electrons starting from the magnetosphere with initially low energies (tens of eV or less) to energies required to create an aurora (100s of eV or greater), allowing that large source of particles to contribute to creating auroral light. 711: 2730:"... molti di voi avranno più d'una volta veduto 'l Cielo nell' ore notturne, nelle parti verso Settentrione, illuminato in modo, che di lucidità non-cede alla piu candida Aurora, ne lontana allo spuntar del Sole; effetto, che per mio credere, non-ha origine altrode, che dall' essersi parte dell' aria vaporosa, che circonda la terra, per qualche cagione in modo più del consueto assottigliata, che sublimandosi assai più del suo consueto, abbia sormontato il cono dell' ombra terrestre, si che essendo la sua parte superiore ferita dal Sole abbia potuto rifletterci il suo splendore, e formarci questa boreale aurora." 1331: 2733:("... many of you will have seen, more than once, the sky in the night hours, in parts towards the north, illuminated in a way that the clear does not yield to the brighter aurora, far from the rising of the sun; an effect that, by my thinking, has no other origin than being part of the vaporous air that surrounds the Earth, for some reason thinner than usual, which, being sublimated far more than expected, has risen above the cone of the Earth's shadow, so that its upper part, being struck by the sun, has been able to reflect its splendor and to form this aurora borealis.") 2142: 1038:") are squeezed downstream and are carried away with the solar wind; others are squeezed toward Earth where their motion feeds strong outbursts of auroras, mainly around midnight ("unloading process"). A geomagnetic storm resulting from greater interaction adds many more particles to the plasma trapped around Earth, also producing enhancement of the "ring current". Occasionally the resulting modification of Earth's magnetic field can be so strong that it produces auroras visible at middle latitudes, on field lines much closer to the equator than those of the auroral zone. 92: 1455:). The energy to power this load is eventually supplied by the magnetized solar wind flowing around the obstacle of Earth's magnetic field, although exactly how that power flows through the magnetosphere is still an active area of research. While the energy to power the aurora is ultimately derived from the solar wind, the electrons themselves do not travel directly from the solar wind into Earth's auroral zone; magnetic field lines from these regions do not connect to the solar wind, so there is no direct access for solar wind electrons. 1093:

measurements has been acquired painstakingly and with steadily improving resolution since the 1960s by many research teams using rockets and satellites to traverse the auroral zone. The main findings have been that auroral arcs and other bright forms are due to electrons that have been accelerated during the final few 10,000 km or so of their plunge into the atmosphere. These electrons often, but not always, exhibit a peak in their energy distribution, and are preferentially aligned along the local direction of the magnetic field.

799: 7590: 72: 2305: 101: 330: 61: 1062: 580: 2461:. The mainly red aurora was found to be a million times brighter than the northern lights, a result of the charged particles interacting with hydrogen in the atmosphere. It has been speculated that stellar winds may be stripping off material from the surface of the brown dwarf to produce their own electrons. Another possible explanation for the auroras is that an as-yet-undetected body around the dwarf star is throwing off material, as is the case with Jupiter and its moon Io. 1057:

direction of the guiding magnetic field. The pitch angle is thereby decreased and increases the chance of it being precipitated into the atmosphere. Both electromagnetic and electrostatic waves, produced at the time of greater geomagnetic disturbances, make a significant contribution to the energizing processes that sustain an aurora. Particle acceleration provides a complex intermediate process for transferring energy from the solar wind indirectly into the atmosphere.

660: 7662: 2282: 6522: 116: 592: 2045: 1678: 833: 1953: 6138: 6127: 7626: 1191:, so some consider that such currents require a driving voltage, which an, as yet unspecified, dynamo mechanism can supply. Electric field probes in orbit above the polar cap suggest voltages of the order of 40,000 volts, rising up to more than 200,000 volts during intense magnetic storms. In another interpretation, the currents are the direct result of electron acceleration into the atmosphere by wave/particle interactions. 1043: 1187:(Schield et al., 1969; Zmuda and Armstrong, 1973), which flow down into the ionosphere on one side of the pole and out on the other. In between, some of the current connects directly through the ionospheric E layer (125 km); the rest ("region 2") detours, leaving again through field lines closer to the equator and closing through the "partial ring current" carried by magnetically trapped plasma. The ionosphere is an 6468: 703: 7650: 7602: 7638: 1164:. Because the highest parts of the atmosphere contain a higher percentage of oxygen and lower particle densities, such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red light. Collisions become more frequent progressing down into the atmosphere due to increasing density, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually, even green light emissions are prevented. 1007:

particles cross the very weak magnetic field near the equator. As a result, the flow of electrons in that region is nearly the same in all directions ("isotropic") and assures a steady supply of leaking electrons. The leakage of electrons does not leave the tail positively charged, because each leaked electron lost to the atmosphere is replaced by a low energy electron drawn upward from the

7614: 544: 522: 492: 2368:. An uncertain fraction of Jupiter's aurorae are powered by the solar wind. In addition, the moons, especially Io, are also powerful sources of aurora. These arise from electric currents along field lines ("field aligned currents"), generated by a dynamo mechanism due to the relative motion between the rotating planet and the moving moon. Io, which has active 393:, the effect is known as the aurora borealis or the northern lights. The southern counterpart, the aurora australis or the southern lights, has features almost identical to the aurora borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone. The aurora australis is visible from high southern latitudes in 1026:("magnetic substorms"). These 'substorms' tend to occur after prolonged spells (on the order of hours) during which the interplanetary magnetic field has had an appreciable southward component. This leads to a higher rate of interconnection between its field lines and those of Earth. As a result, the solar wind moves 1271:, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the 665: 664: 661: 666: 940:. It consists of regularly-spaced, parallel stripes of brighter emission in the green diffuse aurora which give the impression of sand dunes. The phenomenon is believed to be caused by the modulation of atomic oxygen density by a large-scale atmospheric wave travelling horizontally in a waveguide through an 2121:

May not then the great quantity of electricity brought into the polar regions by the clouds, which are condens'd there, and fall in snow, which electricity would enter the earth, but cannot penetrate the ice; may it not, I say (as a bottle overcharged) break thro' that low atmosphere and run along in

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Just as there are many types of aurora, there are many different mechanisms that accelerate auroral particles into the atmosphere. Electron aurora in Earth's auroral zone (i.e. commonly visible aurora) can be split into two main categories with different immediate causes: diffuse and discrete aurora.

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The high latitude magnetosphere is filled with plasma as the solar wind passes Earth. The flow of plasma into the magnetosphere increases with additional turbulence, density, and speed in the solar wind. This flow is favoured by a southward component of the IMF, which can then directly connect to the

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molecule) plays a role here, as it can transfer energy by collision to an oxygen atom, which then radiates it away at the green wavelength. (Red and green can also mix together to produce pink or yellow hues.) The rapid decrease of concentration of atomic oxygen below about 100 km is responsible

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Green: At lower altitudes, the more frequent collisions suppress the 630 nm (red) mode: rather the 557.7 nm emission (green) dominates. A fairly high concentration of atomic oxygen and higher eye sensitivity in green make green auroras the most common. The excited molecular nitrogen (atomic

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This is why there is a color differential with altitude; at high altitudes oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and nitrogen blue/purple/red, then finally nitrogen blue/purple/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the most common colour. Then comes pink, a mixture of

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The details of these phenomena are not fully understood. However, it is clear that the prime source of auroral particles is the solar wind feeding the magnetosphere, the reservoir containing the radiation zones and temporarily magnetically trapped particles confined by the geomagnetic field, coupled

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Horse-collar auroras (HCA) are auroral features in which the auroral ellipse shifts poleward during the dawn and dusk portions and the polar cap becomes teardrop-shaped. They form during periods when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) is permanently northward, when the IMF clock angle is small.

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Blue: At yet lower altitudes, atomic oxygen is uncommon, and molecular nitrogen and ionized molecular nitrogen take over in producing visible light emission, radiating at a large number of wavelengths in both red and blue parts of the spectrum, with 428 nm (blue) being dominant. Blue and purple

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Red: At its highest altitudes, excited atomic oxygen emits at 630 nm (red); low concentration of atoms and lower sensitivity of eyes at this wavelength make this color visible only under more intense solar activity. The low number of oxygen atoms and their gradually diminishing concentration is

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Auroras seen within the auroral oval may be directly overhead. From farther away, they illuminate the poleward horizon as a greenish glow, or sometimes a faint red, as if the Sun were rising from an unusual direction. Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs,

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energies, significant to produce auroral arcs. If the electrons have a speed close to that of the wave's phase velocity, they are accelerated in a manner analogous to a surfer catching an ocean wave. This constantly-changing wave electric field can accelerate electrons along the field line, causing

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on the day-side. In addition to moving perpendicular to Earth's magnetic field, some magnetospheric plasma travels down along Earth's magnetic field lines, gains additional energy and loses it to the atmosphere in the auroral zones. The cusps of the magnetosphere, separating geomagnetic field lines

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The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily

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of red and green or blue. Other shades of red, as well as orange and gold, may be seen on rare occasions; yellow-green is moderately common. As red, green, and blue are linearly independent colours, additive synthesis could, in theory, produce most human-perceived colours, but the ones mentioned in

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mythology, the northern lights are caused by the deceased who bled to death cutting themselves, their blood spilling on the sky. Many aboriginal peoples of northern Eurasia and North America share similar beliefs of northern lights being the blood of the deceased, some believing they are caused by

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The oldest known written record of the aurora was in a Chinese legend written around 2600 BC. On an autumn around 2000 BC, according to a legend, a young woman named Fubao was sitting alone in the wilderness by a bay, when suddenly a "magical band of light" appeared like "moving clouds and flowing

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The effect of the Aurora on the electric telegraph is generally to increase or diminish the electric current generated in working the wires. Sometimes it entirely neutralizes them, so that, in effect, no fluid is discoverable in them. The aurora borealis seems to be composed of a mass of electric

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In addition to the discrete and diffuse electron aurora, proton aurora is caused when magnetospheric protons collide with the upper atmosphere. The proton gains an electron in the interaction, and the resulting neutral hydrogen atom emits photons. The resulting light is too dim to be seen with the

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The immediate cause of the ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents leading to auroral emissions was discovered in 1960, when a pioneering rocket flight from Fort Churchill in Canada revealed a flux of electrons entering the atmosphere from above. Since then an extensive collection of

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Acceleration of auroral charged particles invariably accompanies a magnetospheric disturbance that causes an aurora. This mechanism, which is believed to predominantly arise from strong electric fields along the magnetic field or wave-particle interactions, raises the velocity of a particle in the

2401:, scientists observed that the region of the emissions corresponded to an area where the strongest magnetic field is localized. This correlation indicated that the origin of the light emission was a flux of electrons moving along the crust magnetic lines and exciting the upper atmosphere of Mars. 1439:

In the case of discrete auroras, the trapped electrons are accelerated toward Earth by electric fields that form at an altitude of about 4000–12000 km in the "auroral acceleration region". The electric fields point away from Earth (i.e. upward) along the magnetic field line. Electrons moving

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Electrons mainly responsible for diffuse and pulsating auroras have, in contrast, a smoothly falling energy distribution, and an angular (pitch-angle) distribution favouring directions perpendicular to the local magnetic field. Pulsations were discovered to originate at or close to the equatorial

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to precipitate into the atmosphere. Once particles are lost to the atmosphere from the radiation belts, under quiet conditions, new ones replace them only slowly, and the loss-cone becomes depleted. In the magnetotail, however, particle trajectories seem constantly to reshuffle, probably when the

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Auroras change with time, over the night they begin with glows and progress toward coronas, although they may not reach them. They tend to fade in the opposite order. Until about 1963, it was thought that these changes are due to the rotation of the Earth under a pattern fixed with respect to the

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cycle or during the three years after the peak. An electron spirals (gyrates) about a field line at an angle that is determined by its velocity vectors, parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the local geomagnetic field vector B. This angle is known as the "pitch angle" of the particle. The

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causes the auroral ovals (north and south) to expand, bringing the aurora to lower latitudes. The instantaneous distribution of auroras ("auroral oval") is slightly different, being centered about 3–5° nightward of the magnetic pole, so that auroral arcs reach furthest toward the equator when the

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were considered messengers from heaven. However, researchers from Japan's Graduate University for Advanced Studies and National Institute of Polar Research claimed in March 2020 that red pheasant tails witnessed across the night sky over Japan in 620 A.D., might be a red aurora produced during a

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At shorter time scales, auroras can change their appearances and intensity, sometimes so slowly as to be difficult to notice, and at other times rapidly down to the sub-second scale. The phenomenon of pulsating auroras is an example of intensity variations over short timescales, typically with

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Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to ground state: it can take 0.7 seconds to emit the 557.7 nm green light and up to two minutes for the red 630.0 nm emission. Collisions with other atoms or molecules absorb the excitation energy and prevent emission, this process is called

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Diffuse aurora appear relatively structureless to an observer on the ground, with indistinct edges and amorphous forms. Discrete aurora are structured into distinct features with well-defined edges such as arcs, rays and coronas; they also tend to be much brighter than the diffuse aurora.

663: 1624:"My current is very strong at times, and we can work better without the batteries, as the aurora seems to neutralize and augment our batteries alternately, making current too strong at times for our relay magnets. Suppose we work without batteries while we are affected by this trouble." 549: 527: 497: 2384:. Venus has no magnetic field and so Venusian auroras appear as bright and diffuse patches of varying shape and intensity, sometimes distributed over the full disc of the planet. A Venusian aurora originates when electrons from the solar wind collide with the night-side atmosphere. 2428:, like in terrestrial auroras) of water molecules in the comet's coma. The interaction of accelerated electrons from the solar wind with gas particles in the coma is responsible for the aurora. Since comet 67P has no magnetic field, the aurora is diffusely spread around the comet. 961:

Their formation is associated with the closure of the magnetic flux at the top of the dayside magnetosphere by the double lobe reconnection (DLR). There are approximately 8 HCA events per month, with no seasonal dependence, and that the IMF must be within 30 degrees of northwards.

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A quiescent solar wind flowing past Earth's magnetosphere steadily interacts with it and can both inject solar wind particles directly onto the geomagnetic field lines that are 'open', as opposed to being 'closed' in the opposite hemisphere and provide diffusion through the

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Brekke (1994) also described some auroras as "curtains". The similarity to curtains is often enhanced by folds within the arcs. Arcs can fragment or break up into separate, at times rapidly changing, often rayed features that may fill the whole sky. These are also known as

1136:. They are ionized or excited by the collision of particles precipitated into the atmosphere. Both incoming electrons and protons may be involved. Excitation energy is lost within the atmosphere by the emission of a photon, or by collision with another atom or molecule: 1030:(tubes of magnetic field lines, 'locked' together with their resident plasma) from the day side of Earth to the magnetotail, widening the obstacle it presents to the solar wind flow and constricting the tail on the night-side. Ultimately some tail plasma can separate (" 2122:

the vacuum over the air towards the equator, diverging as the degrees of longitude enlarge, strongly visible where densest, and becoming less visible as it more diverges; till it finds a passage to the earth in more temperate climates, or is mingled with the upper air?

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on 1 September 1859. This event produced auroras so widespread and extraordinarily bright that they were seen and reported in published scientific measurements, ship logs, and newspapers throughout the United States, Europe, Japan, and Australia. It was reported by

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The processes that cause STEVE are also associated with a picket-fence aurora, although the latter can be seen without STEVE. It is an aurora because it is caused by precipitation of electrons in the atmosphere but it appears outside the auroral oval, closer to the

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12,000 km to 15,000 km (1.9 to 2.4 Re) further upstream. The width of the magnetosphere abreast of Earth is typically 190,000 km (30 Re), and on the night side a long "magnetotail" of stretched field lines extends to great distances (> 200 Re).

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and his colleagues, who used cameras to triangulate more than 12,000 auroras. They discovered that most of the light is produced between 90 and 150 km (56 and 93 mi) above the ground, while extending at times to more than 1,000 km (620 mi).

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along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by the temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as

1428:; the electron energy after interacting with the wave is similar to its energy before interaction, but the direction of motion is altered. If the final direction of motion after scattering is close to the field line (specifically, if it falls within the 1906:

is described to be like a red dragon shining in the night sky with a body a thousand miles long. In ancient times, the Chinese did not have a fixed word for the aurora, so it was named according to the different shapes of the aurora, such as "Sky Dog"

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and excitation of atmospheric constituents emit light of varying colour and complexity. The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.

1432:) then the electron will hit the atmosphere. Diffuse auroras are caused by the collective effect of many such scattered electrons hitting the atmosphere. The process is mediated by the plasma waves, which become stronger during periods of high 1417:: the angle between its direction of motion and the local magnetic field. An aurora is created by processes that decrease the pitch angle of many individual electrons, freeing them from the magnetic trap and causing them to hit the atmosphere. 977:, when there is little difference in the orientation of the north and south geomagnetic poles to the sun. Attempts were made to image conjugate auroras by aircraft from Alaska and New Zealand in 1967, 1968, 1970, and 1971, with some success. 5076:

Angelopoulos, V.; McFadden, J. P.; Larson, D.; Carlson, C. W.; Mende, S. B.; Frey, H.; Phan, T.; Sibeck, D. G.; Glassmeier, K.-H.; Auster, U.; Donovan, E.; Mann, I. R.; Rae, I. J.; Russell, C. T.; Runov, A.; Zhou, X.-Z.; Kepko, L. (2008).

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at all local times (or longitudes), most clearly seen at night against a dark sky. A region that currently displays an aurora is called the "auroral oval", a band displaced by the solar wind towards the night side of Earth. Auroras at the

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Reiff, P. H.; Collin, H. L.; Craven, J. D.; Burch, J. L.; Winningham, J. D.; Shelley, E. G.; Frank, L. A.; Friedman, M. A. (1988). "Determination of auroral electrostatic potentials using high- and low-altitude particle distributions".

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power at all and working solely with the current induced by the aurora, and it was said that this was the first time on record that more than a word or two was transmitted in such manner. Such events led to the general conclusion that

1232:. The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During 1537:

on Friday 2 September 1859 the aurora was "so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light". One o'clock EST time on Friday 2 September would have been 6:00 GMT; the self-recording magnetograph at the

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and an ionosphere, is a particularly strong source, and its currents also generate radio emissions, which have been studied since 1955. Using the Hubble Space Telescope, auroras over Io, Europa and Ganymede have all been observed.

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some of them to hit the atmosphere. Electrons accelerated by this mechanism tend to have a broad energy spectrum, in contrast to the sharply-peaked energy spectrum typical of electrons accelerated by quasi-static electric fields.

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naked eye. Other aurora not covered by the above discussion include transpolar arcs (formed poleward of the auroral zone), cusp aurora (formed in two small high-latitude areas on the dayside) and some non-terrestrial auroras.

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at an altitude of 450 km (280 mi), with a temperature of 3,000 °C (3,270 K; 5,430 °F) and flowing at a speed of 6 km/s (3.7 mi/s) (compared to 10 m/s (33 ft/s) outside the ribbon).

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Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation from auroras (within the optical window but not visible to virtually all humans) has been observed with the requisite equipment. Ultraviolet auroras have also been seen on Mars, Jupiter, and

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are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane, known as the

2138:. In 1741, Hiorter was able to link large magnetic fluctuation to the observation of an aurora overhead. This evidence helped to support their theory that 'magnetic storms' are responsible for such compass fluctuations. 853:. They change in a few minutes from quiet arcs all along the auroral oval to active displays along the darkside and after 1 – 3 hours they gradually change back. Changes in auroras over time are commonly visualized using 6430: 2397:, in the region of 177° east, 52° south. The total size of the emission region was about 30 km across, and possibly about 8 km high. By analysing a map of crustal magnetic anomalies compiled with data from 1648:

matter, resembling in every respect, that generated by the electric galvanic battery. The currents from it change coming on the wires, and then disappear: the mass of the aurora rolls from the horizon to the zenith.

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periods of 2–20 seconds. This type of aurora is generally accompanied by decreasing peak emission heights of about 8 km for blue and green emissions and above average solar wind speeds (c. 500 km/s).

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in history. It is also notable for the fact that it is the first time where the phenomena of auroral activity and electricity were unambiguously linked. This insight was made possible not only due to scientific

2016:, ghostly spirits who spoke to the people through auroras. Sacred law forbade anyone except male elders from watching or interpreting the messages of ancestors they believed were transmitted through an aurora. 1207:

deduced that the currents flowed in the east–west directions along the auroral arc, and such currents, flowing from the dayside toward (approximately) midnight were later named "auroral electrojets" (see also

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The aurorae on Saturn seem, like Earth's, to be powered by the solar wind. However, Jupiter's aurorae are more complex. Jupiter's main auroral oval is associated with the plasma produced by the volcanic moon

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flow. By a strange twist of physics, the magnetic disturbance on the ground due to the main current almost cancels out, so most of the observed effect of auroras is due to a secondary current, the auroral

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lines then in service being significantly disrupted for many hours throughout the storm. Some telegraph lines, however, seem to have been of the appropriate length and orientation to produce a sufficient

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Auroras are occasionally seen in latitudes below the auroral zone, when a geomagnetic storm temporarily enlarges the auroral oval. Large geomagnetic storms are most common during the peak of the 11-year

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is shaped by the impact of the solar wind on Earth's magnetic field. This forms an obstacle to the flow, diverting it, at an average distance of about 70,000 km (11 Earth radii or Re), producing a

662: 4099: 1228:, a flow of magnetized hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the 4974:

Shue, J.-H; Chao, J. K.; Fu, H. C.; Russell, C. T.; Song, P.; Khurana, K. K.; Singer, H. J. (May 1997). "A new functional form to study the solar wind control of the magnetopause size and shape".

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Grandin, Maxime; Palmroth, Minna; Whipps, Graeme; Kalliokoski, Milla; Ferrier, Mark; Paxton, Larry J.; Mlynczak, Martin G.; Hilska, Jukka; Holmseth, Knut; Vinorum, Kjetil; Whenman, Barry (2021).

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fur is stroked. They believed that the lights were the spirits of their departed friends dancing in the sky, and when they shone brightly it meant that their deceased friends were very happy.

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to allow for continued communication with the telegraph operator power supplies switched off. The following conversation occurred between two operators of the American Telegraph Line between

545: 1522:." The second auroral event, which occurred on 2 September 1859, was a result of the (unseen) coronal mass ejection associated with the exceptionally intense Carrington–Hodgson white light 523: 493: 1884:, which cascaded a pale silver brilliance, illuminating the earth and making shapes and shadows seem alive. Moved by this sight, Fubao became pregnant and gave birth to a son, the Emperor 808:

emissions, typically at the lower edges of the "curtains", show up at the highest levels of solar activity. The molecular nitrogen transitions are much faster than the atomic oxygen ones.

873:(AKR), discovered in 1972. Ionospheric absorption makes AKR only observable from space. X-ray emissions, originating from the particles associated with auroras, have also been detected. 1451:). Since the electric field points in the same direction as the current, there is a net conversion of electromagnetic energy into particle energy in the auroral acceleration region (an 2211:

as saying that before the aurora of 1716, no such phenomenon had been recorded for more than 80 years, and none of any consequence since 1574. It says no appearance is recorded in the

1307:. As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the 1355:

high latitude geomagnetic field lines. The flow pattern of magnetospheric plasma is mainly from the magnetotail toward Earth, around Earth and back into the solar wind through the

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This sequence of shots was taken 11 September 2011 from 13:45:06 to 14:01:51 GMT, from a descending pass near eastern Australia, rounding about to an ascending pass to the east of

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Palmroth, M.; Grandin, M.; Helin, M.; Koski, P.; Oksanen, A.; Glad, M. A.; Valonen, R.; Saari, K.; Bruus, E.; Norberg, J.; Viljanen, A.; Kauristie, K.; Verronen, P. T. (2020).

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Lyons, L. R.; Kim, H.-J.; Xing, X.; Zou, S.; Lee, D.-Y.; Heinselman, C.; Nicolls, M. J.; Angelopoulos, V.; Larson, D.; McFadden, J.; Runov, A.; Fornacon, K.-H. (2009).

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The auroras that resulted from the Carrington event on both 28 August and 2 September 1859, are thought to be the most spectacular in recent history. In a paper to the

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Most auroras occur in a band known as the "auroral zone", which is typically 3° to 6° (approximately 330–660 km) wide in latitude and between 10° and 20° from the

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is the original Latin plural and is often used by scientists. In some contexts, aurora is an uncountable noun, multiple sightings being referred to as "the aurora".

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that close through Earth from those that close remotely allow a small amount of solar wind to directly reach the top of the atmosphere, producing an auroral glow.

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These maps show the local midnight equatorward boundary of the aurora at different levels of geomagnetic activity as of 28 October 2011 – these maps change as the

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A full understanding of the physical processes which lead to different types of auroras is still incomplete, but the basic cause involves the interaction of the

6187: 5513: 1259:'s work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts 889:

layer of the atmosphere formed during a cold night. The charged particles discharge when particles from the Sun hit the inversion layer, creating the noise.

5596: 4772:

Armstrong, J. C.; Zmuda, A. J. (1973). "Triaxial magnetic measurements of field-aligned currents at 800 kilometers in the auroral region: Initial results".

3165: 3101: 3043: 2985: 2956: 2927: 2898: 4107: 3130: 3072: 3014: 1155:

blue, purple or red; blue and purple if the molecule regains an electron after it has been ionized, red if returning to ground state from an excited state.

781:

responsible for the faint appearance of the top parts of the "curtains". Scarlet, crimson, and carmine are the most often-seen hues of red for the auroras.

767:

These forms are consistent with auroras being shaped by Earth's magnetic field. The appearances of arcs, rays, curtains, and coronas are determined by the

6786: 5339: 1244:

deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity. Her work resulted from data collected by the

6400: 6041: 5891: 6643: 6616: 6370: 2332:, compared to 0.3 gauss for Earth), and both have extensive radiation belts. Auroras have been observed on both gas planets, most clearly using the 382:

itself are very common and guaranteed to be visible. Early evidence for a geomagnetic connection comes from the statistics of auroral observations.

7722: 7037: 5914: 5853: 5282: 3406: 3339: 1742: 386:(1860), and later Hermann Fritz (1881) and Sophus Tromholt (1881) in more detail, established that the aurora appeared mainly in the auroral zone. 5224: 3204:Østgaard, N.; Mende, S. B.; Frey, H. U.; Sigwarth, J. B.; Åsnes, A.; Weygand, J. M. (2007). "Auroral conjugacy studies based on global imaging". 1714: 1203:. An auroral electrojet index (measured in nanotesla) is regularly derived from ground data and serves as a general measure of auroral activity. 993:. The varying intensity of the solar wind produces effects of different magnitudes but includes one or more of the following physical scenarios. 569: 5054: 2616: 1470:), Alfvén waves develop a significant electric field parallel to the background magnetic field. This electric field can accelerate electrons to 7441: 6250:

A Journey to the Northern Ocean: A journey from Prince of Wales' Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772

3003:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geographical distribution of auroras and thunder storms – 5th article" 4274: 1413:

formed by the increasing magnetic field strength closer to Earth. The magnetic mirror's ability to trap a particle depends on the particle's

174:). Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky. 6157: 4304: 2033:("great torches in the sky") were lit by ancestors who sailed south to a "land of ice" (or their descendants); these people were said to be 1721: 910:", for "Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement". STEVE is not an aurora but is caused by a 25 km (16 mi) wide ribbon of hot 7446: 5738: 1840:

that was so intense and red that a cohort of the army, stationed nearby for fire duty, galloped to the rescue. It has been suggested that

840:

from one night's recording by an all-sky camera, 6/7 September 2021. Keograms are commonly used to visualize changes in aurorae over time.

4693: 4132:

Nishimura, Y.; Gallardo-Lacourt, B.; Zou, Y.; Mishin, E.; Knudsen, D. J.; Donovan, E. F.; Angelopoulos, V.; Raybell, R. (16 April 2019).

3119:"On electrical currents circulating near the earth's surface and their connection with the phenomena of the aurora polaris – 9th article" 6697: 6172:

A translation into French of Franklin's article was read to the French Royal Academy of Sciences and an excerpt of it was published in:

2777:"The Odyssey ca. 500 B.C. by Homer (translated by Samuel Butler 1900); online at Internet Classics Archive (Retrieved 15 February 2021)" 2117:

that an aurora was caused by a concentration of electrical charge in the polar regions intensified by the snow and moisture in the air:

2313: 5830: 1728: 7162: 6897: 6270: 1299:. The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time. 445:. On rare occasions, the aurora borealis can be seen as far south as the Mediterranean and the southern states of the US. During the 3797: 2245: 885:, similar to a crackling noise, begins about 70 m (230 ft) above Earth's surface and is caused by charged particles in an 4927: 4378: 4019: 3640:"Magnetospheric source region of discrete auroras inferred from their relationship with isotropy boundaries of energetic particles" 298:

metaphorically to refer to dawn, often mentioning its play of colours across the otherwise dark sky (e.g., "rosy-fingered dawn").

4948: 4650:

Bryant, D. A.; Collin, H. L.; Courtier, G. M.; Johnstone, A. D. (1967). "Evidence for Velocity Dispersion in Auroral Electrons".

4174: 2126:

Observations of the rhythmic movement of compass needles due to the influence of an aurora were confirmed in the Swedish city of

1710: 794:

of atomic oxygen, a slow mechanism responsible for the graduality (0.7 s and 107 s respectively) of flaring and fading.

7697: 6311: 5995:; Ballantyne, Tony; Benjamin, Julie; Booth, Douglas; Brickell, Chris; Gilderdale, Peter; Haines, David; Liebich, Susan (2018). 6099: 5538:

Green, J; Boardsen, S; Odenwald, S; Humble, J; Pazamickas, K (2006). "Eyewitness reports of the great auroral storm of 1859".

4045: 1397:

In both cases, the electrons that eventually cause the aurora start out as electrons trapped by the magnetic field in Earth's

6984: 6947: 6886: 6859: 6832: 6762: 6220: 6006: 5824: 4563: 3619: 2851: 2679: 4903: 4076: 3738: 1330: 5136:"Network community structure of substorms using SuperMAG magnetometers, L. Orr, S. C. Chapman, J. W. Gjerloev & W. Guo" 3480: 6066:; Scott, Nigel J.; Beckwith, Jacinta; Pryor Rodgers, Rata; Gillies, Tasman; Van Uitregt, Vincent; Krushil, Watene (2021). 4715: 2780: 1097:

crossing point of auroral zone magnetic field lines. Protons are also associated with auroras, both discrete and diffuse.

790:

for the abrupt-looking end of the lower edges of the curtains. Both the 557.7 and 630.0 nm wavelengths correspond to

458: 7692: 5419: 3923: 2267:

dead warriors' blood spraying on the sky as they engage in playing games, riding horses or having fun in some other way.

534: 3878:

Partamies, N.; Whiter, D.; Kadokura, A.; Kauristie, K.; Tyssøy, H. Nesse; Massetti, S.; Stauning, P.; Raita, T. (2017).

973:

in the northern and southern hemispheres on the same geomagnetic field lines. These generally happen at the time of the

5492:"On the Great Magnetic Disturbance of 28 August to 7 September 1859, as Recorded by Photography at the Kew Observatory" 3771: 2158: 5788: 4134:"Magnetospheric signatures of STEVE: Implication for the magnetospheric energy source and inter-hemispheric conjugacy" 7463: 7392: 6952: 6926: 6175: 4538: 3832: 2233:

thought the phenomenon a great rarity before 1716. The period between approximately 1645 and 1715 corresponds to the

2175:('caribou'). According to Hearne, the Dene people saw the resemblance between an aurora and the sparks produced when 1761: 1518:–Hodgson flare event when he observed that "It is not impossible to suppose that in this case our luminary was taken 503:

This sequence of shots was taken 17 September 2011 from 17:22:27 to 17:45:12 GMT, on an ascending pass from south of

39: 7021: 3502:

Størmer, Carl (1946). "Frequency of 12,330 measured heights of aurora from southern Norway in the years 1911–1944".

2754: 1956:

The Aboriginal Australians associated auroras (which are mainly low on the horizon and predominantly red) with fire.

1371:. Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the Moon, measured events suggesting a 7458: 5491: 4737:

Schield, M. A.; Freeman, J. W.; Dessler, A. J. (1969). "A Source for Field-Aligned Currents at Auroral Latitudes".

4331:"Large-Scale Dune Aurora Event Investigation Combining Citizen Scientists' Photographs and Spacecraft Observations" 699:

According to Clark (2007), there are five main forms that can be seen from the ground, from least to most visible:

47: 43: 35: 4408: 3856: 1735: 5584: 5250:

Borovsky JE, Birn J, Echim MM, Fujita S, Lysak RL, Knudsen DJ, Marghitu O, Otto A, Watanabe TH, Tanaka T (2020).

3164:]. Internationale wissenschaftliche Bibliothek (in German). Vol. 49. Leipzig, Germany: F. A. Brockhaus. 3155: 3089: 3031: 2973: 2944: 2915: 2886: 1578: 1572:

measurements of the era, but also as a result of a significant portion of the 125,000 miles (201,000 km) of

6809: 3118: 3060: 3002: 1216:

instability under high ionospheric resistance conditions, observed at night time and in dark Winter hemisphere.

6801: 1699: 1515: 907: 846: 815:

Infrared: Infrared radiation, in wavelengths that are within the optical window, is also part of many auroras.

7707: 7319: 7261: 7155: 5331: 2438:, have been suggested to experience ionization in their upper atmospheres and generate an aurora modified by 2405: 1414: 1237: 1168:

light green and red, followed by pure red, then yellow (a mixture of red and green), and finally, pure blue.

869:

In addition, the aurora and associated currents produce a strong radio emission around 150 kHz known as

17: 6392: 4827:"Effects of the seasonal asymmetry in ionospheric Pedersen conductance on the appearance of discrete aurora" 1551: 1402: 7682: 6978: 6035: 5883: 2727:

On p. 39, Galileo explains that auroras are due to sunlight reflecting from thin, high clouds. From p. 39:

2276: 1780:, a historical chronicle of the history of ancient China, in 977 or 957 BC. An aurora was described by the 1175:

atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere. Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes.

1012: 870: 845:

Sun. Later, it was found by comparing all-sky films of auroras from different places (collected during the

6639: 6460: 6334: 2190:

took this as a sign that God was on their side, as the lights were rarely seen so far south. The painting

710: 7479: 7130: 5773: 3240:"Aurora austral en Uruguay: fotógrafos registran un hecho "histórico" y astrónomos explican por qué pasó" 2749: 2207:

A mid 19th-century British source says auroras were a rare occurrence before the 18th century. It quotes

1556: 120: 6671: 5963: 5251: 3365: 3306: 3090:"On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras generally – 8th article" 1420:

In the case of diffuse auroras, the electron pitch angles are altered by their interaction with various

7717: 7580: 7484: 7324: 7073: 5861: 5185: 2212: 2192: 2150: 1452: 679: 361:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of aurorae stretching over several hundred kilometres. 6677: 5451:"Inclined zenith aurora over Kyoto on 17 September 1770: Graphical evidence of extreme magnetic storm" 5248:

A discussion of 8 theories in use in 2020 as well as several no longer in common use can be found in:

5011:"Evidence that solar wind fluctuations substantially affect global convection and substorm occurrence" 80: 7195: 5050: 2620: 1877: 1506:

on 21 November 1861, Balfour Stewart described both auroral events as documented by a self-recording

1076: 628: 616: 5652: 1828:

trees'); and describing their manifold colours. He wrote about whether they were above or below the

1283:"), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids. 936:

First reported in 2020, and confirmed in 2021, the dune aurora phenomenon was discovered by Finnish

7702: 7494: 7276: 7256: 7148: 4712:"Simultaneous ground and satellite observations of an isolated proton arc at sub-auroral latitudes" 4236: 3188: 2520: 2365: 2183: 1614:"Mine is disconnected, and we are working with the auroral current. How do you receive my writing?" 1161: 1003: 990: 6550:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

6153:

The original English text of Benjamin Franklin's article on the cause of auroras is available at:

7504: 7377: 7372: 7185: 6958: 6154: 5625:. Vol. 2, no. 56. Victoria, V.I. : Amor De Cosmos. 19 October 1859. p. 1, col. 2. 5618: 4876:"On the high correlation between long-term averages of solar wind speed and geomagnetic activity" 4438: 4296: 4237:"Citizen Scientists Discover a New Auroral Form: Dunes Provide Insight Into the Upper Atmosphere" 1846: 1695: 1688: 1368: 1015:. The complete process, which also generates an electric ring current around Earth, is uncertain. 941: 886: 768: 31: 5730: 2328:

have magnetic fields that are stronger than Earth's (Jupiter's equatorial field strength is 4.3

1507: 7727: 7712: 7687: 7499: 7489: 7329: 2333: 2115:

Aurora Borealis, Suppositions and Conjectures towards forming an Hypothesis for its Explanation

1961: 1429: 1319: 949: 210: 190: 163: 6691: 4697: 3366:"Solar cycle effects in planetary geomagnetic activity: Analysis of 36-year long OMNI dataset" 2841: 7732: 7299: 7015: 5996: 2704: 2197: 2145: 2069:

from AD 1230. The chronicler has heard about this phenomenon from compatriots returning from

1796: 1653: 1639: 1582: 1564: 1372: 1304: 1110: 1031: 318: 6210: 6141: 7334: 6720: 6567: 6480: 6346: 5939: 5547: 5462: 5374: 5200: 5090: 5022: 4983: 4935: 4887: 4838: 4781: 4746: 4659: 4624: 4588: 4465: 4453: 4342: 4145: 3989: 3954: 3891: 3692: 3651: 3581: 3537:

Clark, Stuart (2007). "Astronomical fire: Richard Carrington and the solar flare of 1859".

3511: 3444: 3380: 3321: 3277: 3213: 3193:(in Danish and French). Copenhagen, Denmark: Danske Meteorologiske Institut. pp. I–LX. 3187:

Tromholt, Sophus (1881). "Om Nordlysets Perioder / Sur les périodes de l'aurore boréale ".

2814: 2659: 2485: 2409: 2398: 2343: 2141: 1969: 1573: 1406: 791: 6901: 6703:

These two both include detailed descriptions of historical observations and descriptions.

6262: 533:

This sequence of shots was taken 7 September 2011 from 17:38:03 to 17:49:15 GMT, from the

8: 7654: 5363:"Laboratory measurements of the physics of auroral electron acceleration by Alfvén waves" 4808: 3801: 2337: 1440:

downward through these fields gain a substantial amount of energy (on the order of a few

1367:

probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of

1312: 1308: 604: 6724: 6571: 6484: 6350: 5943: 5551: 5466: 5378: 5204: 5094: 5026: 4987: 4924: 4891: 4842: 4785: 4750: 4663: 4628: 4592: 4469: 4370: 4346: 4149: 3993: 3958: 3895: 3696: 3655: 3585: 3515: 3448: 3384: 3325: 3281: 3217: 2818: 2663: 2641:

Lui, A., 2019. Imaging global auroras in space. Light: Science & Applications, 8(1).

2102:

to cure infectious diseases 'brought on by the sulphurous vapours of the Aurora Borealis

2064: 1318:

Auroras are more frequent and brighter during the intense phase of the solar cycle when

7642: 7630: 7387: 6588: 6557: 6545: 6514: 5955: 5929: 5395: 5362: 5274: 5216: 5160: 5135: 5116: 4856: 4675: 4499: 4266: 3915: 3715: 3680: 2450: 2309: 2256: 2201: 1965: 1791: 1529: 1204: 1066: 671: 449:, the greatest geomagnetic storm ever observed, auroras were seen even in the tropics. 287: 269: 109:

Images of auroras from across the world, including those with rarer red and blue lights

5951: 4952: 3593: 2008:

as the campfires of spirits in the 'Land of the Dead'. Aboriginal people in southwest

1462:. At small wavelengths transverse to the background magnetic field (comparable to the 1447:

The accelerated electrons carry an electric current along the magnetic field lines (a

7419: 7402: 7363: 7309: 7226: 7079: 6922: 6882: 6855: 6828: 6824: 6758: 6593: 6518: 6506: 6362: 6216: 6002: 5959: 5820: 5634: 5626: 5400: 5278: 5220: 5165: 5120: 5108: 4860: 4559: 4534: 4503: 4491: 4270: 3907: 3828: 3720: 3615: 3554: 2847: 2685: 2675: 2545:

The aurorae seen in northern latitudes, around the Arctic, can be referred to as the

2475: 2421: 2259:

laid the foundation for the current understanding of geomagnetism and polar auroras.

2241: 2110: 1941: 1543: 1467: 1463: 1448: 1433: 1378: 1233: 1209: 1184: 466: 453: 238: 91: 6963: 6307: 6178:[Extract of Suppositions and conjectures on the cause of auroras borealis]. 5704: 3919: 3550: 1011:. Such replacement of "hot" electrons by "cold" ones is in complete accord with the 928:

than typical auroras. When the picket-fence aurora appears with STEVE, it is below.

906:

observations described what was to them an unknown type of aurora which they named "

7606: 7565: 7550: 7413: 6874: 6847: 6728: 6583: 6575: 6496: 6488: 6354: 6103: 6079: 5947: 5812: 5563: 5555: 5503: 5470: 5390: 5382: 5312: 5266: 5208: 5155: 5147: 5098: 5030: 4991: 4895: 4846: 4789: 4754: 4679: 4667: 4632: 4596: 4579:

McIlwain, C E (1960). "Direct Measurement of Particles Producing Visible Auroras".

4481: 4473: 4350: 4256: 4248: 4153: 4041: 3997: 3962: 3899: 3710: 3700: 3659: 3589: 3546: 3519: 3452: 3398: 3388: 3329: 3285: 3221: 2822: 2667: 2490: 2387:

An aurora was detected on Mars, on 14 August 2004, by the SPICAM instrument aboard

2187: 1496: 1421: 1252: 970: 911: 850: 798: 446: 366: 198: 194: 7589: 6084: 6067: 5252:"Quiescent Discrete Auroral Arcs: A Review of Magnetospheric Generator Mechanisms" 5051:"NASA – THEMIS Satellites Discover What Triggers Eruptions of the Northern Lights" 3772:"NASA's MAVEN Orbiter Detects Ultraviolet Aurora on Mars | Space Exploration" 1514:

and established the connection between the 2 September 1859 auroral storm and the

354: 185:. Major disturbances result from enhancements in the speed of the solar wind from 7560: 7555: 7094: 6991: 6851: 6464: 6161: 5992: 4931: 4875: 4068: 2553:, while those seen in southern latitudes, around the Antarctic, are known as the 2458: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2293: 2234: 2005: 1991: 1889: 1841: 1590: 1539: 1511: 1410: 1256: 1071: 937: 903: 819: 5184:

Lysak R, Echim M, Karlsson T, Marghitu O, Rankin R, Song Y, Watanabe TH (2020).

5182:

The theory of acceleration by parallel electric fields is reviewed in detail by

3472: 3225: 2304: 2020: 687: 7666: 7594: 7514: 7294: 6996: 6968: 6670: 6176:"Extrait des suppositions et des conjectures sur la cause des Aurores Boréales" 6063: 5386: 5212: 5151: 4711: 3685:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2826: 2776: 2713:] (in Italian). Firenze (Florence), Italy: Pietro Cecconcelli. p. 39. 2394: 2226: 2131: 2038: 2034: 1869: 1781: 273: 7122: 7104: 7090: 7043: 7009: 6492: 6252:. Richard Glover (ed.). Toronto: The MacMillan Company of Canada. pp. 221–222. 5816: 5638: 5585:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 2nd article" 5559: 5270: 4430: 3980:

Anderson, K. A. (1960). "Balloon observations of X-rays in the auroral zone".

3664: 3639: 3061:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 7th article" 3032:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 6th article" 2974:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 4th article" 2945:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 3rd article" 2916:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 2nd article" 1459: 1458:

Some auroral features are also created by electrons accelerated by dispersive

579: 314: 7676: 7509: 7344: 7339: 7251: 7246: 7171: 6686: 6510: 6366: 5630: 5309:

Effects of the active auroral ionosphere on magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling

4495: 3911: 2689: 2651: 2500: 2495: 2297: 2208: 2162: 1776: 1546:, which was then one hour old, at its full intensity. Between 1859 and 1862, 1503: 1398: 1342: 1335: 1296: 1280: 1129: 1027: 1023: 481: 430: 398: 329: 186: 178: 6878: 6869:

Sandholt, Even; Carlson, Herbert C.; Egeland, Alv (2002). "Optical Aurora".

6358: 6212:

The Ingenious Dr. Franklin: Selected Scientific Letters of Benjamin Franklin

5805: 5568: 5103: 5078: 4899: 4793: 4758: 4636: 4600: 4001: 3966: 3523: 2420:

observations revealed atomic emissions of hydrogen and oxygen caused by the

1061: 749:

are light and dark stripes across arcs, reaching upwards by various amounts.

7618: 7540: 7271: 7266: 7241: 7084: 6817: 6741: 6640:"First Alien Auroras Found, Are 1 Million Times Brighter Than Any on Earth" 6597: 6579: 6501: 5508: 5404: 5169: 5112: 3879: 3724: 3558: 2480: 2389: 2329: 2135: 2078: 2001: 1979: 1837: 1569: 1547: 1441: 1356: 1241: 1229: 1195: 1188: 1133: 512: 402: 383: 375: 358: 342: 310: 276: 266: 234: 214: 7027: 3638:

Yahnin, A. G.; Sergeev, V. A.; Gvozdevsky, B. B.; Vennerstrøm, S. (1997).

2248:" (1908), a Yukon prospector discovers that the aurora is the glow from a 1964:, the Aurora Australis is commonly associated with fire. For example, the 333:

Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of

7545: 7451: 7314: 7304: 7057: 6546:"Lightning and charge processes in brown dwarf and exoplanet atmospheres" 5475: 5450: 5035: 5010: 4851: 4826: 4486: 4477: 4355: 4330: 4252: 4158: 4133: 3903: 3572:

Zhu, L.; Schunk, R. W.; Sojka, J. J. (1997). "Polar cap arcs: A review".

3457: 3432: 3402: 3393: 3334: 3290: 3265: 2744: 2454: 2443: 2435: 2263: 2091: 2024: 1895: 1523: 1245: 556: 434: 406: 338: 242: 4261: 2281: 1619:"Better than with our batteries on. – Current comes and goes gradually." 1563:

That aurora is thought to have been produced by one of the most intense

591: 7286: 7236: 7210: 7205: 6842:

Hultqvist, Bengt (2007). "The Aurora". In Kamide, Y.; Chian, A (eds.).

4873: 4452:

Bower, G. E.; Milan, S. E.; Paxton, L. J.; Anderson, B. J. (May 2022).

4400: 3848: 3705: 2671: 2099: 2095: 2009: 1881: 1866: 1702: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1425: 1225: 1200: 1019: 1008: 986: 945: 504: 394: 379: 371: 349:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest 346: 222: 182: 115: 100: 7661: 6732: 6469:"Far-ultraviolet aurora identified at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko" 5316: 4995: 3364:

Papitashvili, V. O.; Papitashva, N. E.; King, J. H. (September 2000).

1381:

that ignite auroras may occur more often during the months around the

1212:). Ionosphere can contribute to the formation of auroral arcs via the 1194:

Ionospheric resistance has a complex nature, and leads to a secondary

1171:

Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident

769:

shapes of the luminous parts of the atmosphere and a viewer's position

413:. The aurora borealis is visible from areas around the Arctic such as 7535: 7530: 7231: 7200: 6690: 6130: 4671: 2654:(1986). "An historical footnote on the origin of 'aurora borealis'". 2532:

The name "auroras" is now the more common plural in the US; however,

2431: 2369: 2361: 2308:

An aurora high above the northern part of Saturn; image taken by the

2289: 2166: 2085: 2070: 1945: 1347: 1291: 999: 508: 426: 334: 218: 171: 71: 7108: 6708: 5731:"Earliest Known Report of Aurora Found in Ancient Chinese Chronicle" 4206:"'Steve': the mystery purple aurora that rivals the northern lights" 2805:

Feldstein, Y. I. (2011). "A Quarter Century with the Auroral Oval".

2252:

mine. He stakes his claim, then goes to town looking for investors.

1677: 832: 764:, which are at times bright enough to read a newspaper by at night. 686:

radar. The altitudes where auroral emissions occur were revealed by

626:

corresponds to relatively low levels of geomagnetic activity, while

6772:

Akasofu, Syun-Ichi (April 2002). "Secrets of the Aurora Borealis".

6562: 5134:

Orr, L.; Chapman, S. C.; Gjerloev, J. W.; Guo, W. (23 March 2021).

4813:. New York: Christiania (Oslo): H. Aschehoug & Co. p. 720. 1983: 1952: 1885: 1833: 1784: 1255:(ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since 1213: 1172: 1149: 1125: 1117: 1035: 438: 390: 202: 7140: 6137: 6126: 5934: 4431:"Revontulien 'dyynit', uusia löydöksiä – Aurora 'dunes' revisited" 4401:"The discovery of the auroral dunes: How one thing led to another" 4131: 3637: 2044: 1042: 309:

are derived from the names of the ancient gods of the north wind (

60: 7382: 7134: 7116: 7098: 7051: 6999:– The Northwest Territories is the world's Northern Lights mecca. 6942: 6458: 5075: 4042:"News: Acoustics researcher finds explanation for auroral sounds" 2470: 2446:. However, there is no current detection of an exoplanet aurora. 2439: 2353: 2321: 2285: 2230: 2222: 2176: 2127: 2074: 2049: 1825: 1787: 1657: 1382: 1287: 1114: 974: 969:

Conjugate auroras are nearly exact mirror-image auroras found at

925: 854: 837: 802:

2024 appearance seen in England radiating blue through red aurora

683: 678:

Early work on the imaging of the auroras was done in 1949 by the

647: 608: 422: 410: 350: 262: 6709:"A Brief History of Magnetospheric Physics During the Space Age" 5361:

Schroeder JW, Howes GG, Kletzing CA, et al. (7 June 2021).

4328: 3877: 3307:"Solar causes of the long-term increase in geomagnetic activity" 1491:

in 2017 depicting auroras above the ancient Japanese capital of

1146:

green or orange-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed.

702: 7436: 7408: 7112: 7031: 5990: 4297:"Citizen scientists discover a new form of the Northern Lights" 2404:

Between 2014 and 2016, cometary auroras were observed on comet

2349: 2325: 2249: 2221:

for 1797 was called a very rare event. One observed in 1723 at

1987: 1829: 1656:

caused the aurora borealis to be observed from as far south as

1586: 1534: 1364: 1276: 1140: 1121: 1106: 442: 418: 414: 290:, who travelled from east to west announcing the coming of the 230: 206: 167: 6302: 6300: 6062: 6037:

The Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori, Genuine and Empirical

5884:"Modern science reveals ancient secret in Japanese literature" 2887:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859" 2316:

shows images from 81 hours of observations of Saturn's aurora.

1638:

The conversation was carried on for around two hours using no

7126: 7067: 6755:

Majestic Lights: The Aurora in Science, History, and The Arts

6215:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 3. 4649: 2377: 1857: 1851: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1801: 1774:

The earliest datable record of an aurora was recorded in the

1492: 1488: 882: 849:) that they often undergo global changes in a process called 246: 159: 6948:

Current global map showing the probability of visible aurora

4175:"Scientists discover what powers celestial phenomenon STEVE" 4100:"Steve the odd 'aurora' revealed to be two sky shows in one" 2843:

Illustrated Glossary for Solar and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

1604:"Please cut off your battery entirely for fifteen minutes." 1275:

of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion.

465:. The aurora can be seen best at this time, which is called 6333:

Phillips, J. L.; Stewart, A. I. F.; Luhmann, J. G. (1986).

6297: 5537: 3827:. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. p. 5. 2381: 1661: 1560:

where he collected worldwide reports of the auroral event.

1219: 1065:

Aurora australis (11 September 2005) as captured by NASA's

1046: 286:

is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of the dawn,

7613: 6544:

Helling, Christiane; Rimmer, Paul B. (23 September 2019).

6467:; Deca, J.; Beth, A.; Stephenson, P. (21 September 2020). 5183: 4874:

Crooker, N. U.; Feynman, J.; Gosling, J. T. (1 May 1977).

4066: 3363: 2288:

aurora; the far left bright spot connects magnetically to

2061:(the northern lights) is found in the Norwegian chronicle 1495:

suggested that the storm may have been 7% larger than the

774: 5653:"وقتی طوفان خورشیدی، آسمان ایران و جهان را رنگ‌آمیزی کرد" 5496:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

4234: 3203: 2048:

Aurora pictured as wreath of rays in the coat of arms of

1471: 740: 462: 295: 291: 6846:. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 331–354. 6335:"The Venus ultraviolet aurora: Observations at 130.4 nm" 6263:"Aurora Borealis | Smithsonian American Art Museum" 5778:, pp. 39–41, London: Macmillan, accessed 1 January 2017. 4824: 4451: 3305:

Stamper, J.; Lockwood, M.; Wild, M. N. (December 1999).

1236:, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the 1079:

created using the same satellite data is also available.

5249: 5186:"Quiet, Discrete Auroral Arcs: Acceleration Mechanisms" 2364:, and the transport of this plasma within the planet's 2217:

between 1666 and 1716; and that one aurora recorded in

2200:

is widely interpreted to represent the conflict of the

2000:, an evil spirit creating a large fire. Similarly, the 1593:, on the night of 2 September 1859 and reported in the 755:

cover much of the sky and diverge from one point on it.

6981:– Aurora forecasts for Europe (archived 11 March 2019) 6868: 6332: 5449:

Kataoka, Ryuho; Iwahashi, Kiyomi (17 September 2017).

5360: 4613: 2846:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 190. 1865:

The earliest depiction of the aurora may have been in

1436:, leading to increased diffuse aurora at those times. 785:

nitrogen being rare due to the high stability of the N

177:

Auroras are the result of disturbances in the Earth's

7578: 6873:. Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. pp. 33–51. 6785:

Daglis, Ioannis; Akasofu, Syun-Ichi (November 2004).

6308:"ESA Portal – Mars Express discovers auroras on Mars" 6292:

The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol. II

5133: 4736: 3945:

Gurnett, D.A. (1974). "The Earth as a radio source".

3880:"Occurrence and average behavior of pulsating aurora" 2004:

people of South Australia refer to auroras seen over

1862:, "falling red flames", and "daylight in the night". 1409:

and are prevented from hitting the atmosphere by the

1002:. It can also cause particles already trapped in the 3574:

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

3206:

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

2161:

myths surround the spectacle. The European explorer

480:

Videos of the aurora australis taken by the crew of

409:

and under exceptional circumstances as far north as

6613:"Monstrous Aurora Detected Beyond our Solar System" 6463:; Biver, N.; Cheng, Y.-C.; Rinaldi, G.; Rubin, M.; 4825:Pokhotelov, D.; Lotko, W.; Streltsov, A.V. (2002). 4554:Burch, J L (1987). Akasofu S-I and Y Kamide (ed.). 3304: 1375:event 96 seconds prior to auroral intensification. 7087:Island – 6/7 April 2000) (archived 17 August 2011) 6816: 5804: 2077:could store energy so that they eventually became 1482: 823:this article comprise a virtually exhaustive list. 294:. Ancient Greek poets used the corresponding name 30:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see 7024:– Views taken 2009–2011 (archived 4 October 2011) 5811:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 357. 5793:, Vol. II, London: Bohn, accessed 1 January 2017. 5761:Explorers: Great Tales of Adventure and Endurance 4973: 4810:The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902–1903 4127: 4125: 3504:Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity 2800: 2798: 7674: 7107:(time-lapse) − Auroras – Ground-Level View from 7093:(time-lapse) − Auroras – Ground-Level View from 6943:Aurora forecast – Will there be northern lights? 6701:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 927–934. 5998:New Zealand and the Sea: Historical Perspectives 4533:. University of Alaska Press. pp. 117–124. 4016:"Auroras Make Weird Noises, and Now We Know Why" 3849:"Eyes on the Aurora, Part 2: What is a Keogram?" 2569:are the more general equivalents of these terms. 2519:Modern style guides recommend that the names of 1667: 1424:. Each interaction is essentially wave-particle 1388: 537:in the South Indian Ocean to southern Australia. 6681:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 90–99. 6454: 6452: 6450: 6448: 5679:"چطور شد که شفق قطبی در ایران هم دیده شد؟ +عکس" 5448: 5008: 4324: 4322: 2702: 2292:; the spots at the bottom of the image lead to 2186:, an aurora was seen from the battlefield. The 2170: 2062: 2056: 1892:and the ancestor of all Chinese people. In the 461:in question is in between the observer and the 193:. These disturbances alter the trajectories of 7012:– Shot in Iceland over the winter of 2013/2014 6757:. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union. 6742:"The Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere" 6068:"A short scan of Māori journeys to Antarctica" 6052:– via Victoria University of Wellington. 5332:"Physicists determine how auroras are created" 4771: 4458:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 4454:"Occurrence Statistics of Horse Collar Aurora" 4122: 3884:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 3633: 3631: 3571: 2877: 2875: 2795: 2453:auroras were discovered in July 2015 over the 2214:Transactions of the French Academy of Sciences 341:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the 7156: 6844:Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment 6784: 6543: 5986: 5984: 5915:"Aurorae in Australian Aboriginal Traditions" 5851: 5533: 5531: 5329: 5079:"Tail Reconnection Triggering Substorm Onset" 4067:American Geophysical Union (20 August 2018). 3766: 3764: 2839: 2728: 2169:Dene in 1771 and recorded their views on the 1932: 1926: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1901: 1893: 1794:wrote about auroras in the first book of his 1286:The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the 1183:Bright auroras are generally associated with 6445: 5922:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 4319: 4069:"New kind of aurora is not an aurora at all" 3433:"Observations of non-conjugate theta aurora" 2523:, such as aurora borealis, be uncapitalized. 2255:In the early 1900s, the Norwegian scientist 2225:was stated to be the first ever seen there. 1629:"Very well. Shall I go ahead with business?" 1251:The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of 674:, superimposed over a digital image of Earth 7010:Amazing time-lapse video of Aurora Borealis 6610: 6208: 6072:Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 6040:. Wellington: Dominion Museum. p. 58. 4951:. Nasa.gov. 7 February 2011. Archived from 3628: 2872: 2591:"Southern Lights over the Australian Bight" 2270: 2028: 2012:believe the auroras to be the fires of the 1995: 1973: 1711:"Aurora" Historical views and folklore 27:Atmospheric effect caused by the solar wind 7163: 7149: 6959:Official MET aurora forecasting in Iceland 6787:"Aurora – The magnificent northern lights" 6102:. Irf.se. 12 November 2003. Archived from 5981: 5528: 5306: 3761: 3614:. Grøndahl and Dreyer, Oslo. p. 137. 3266:"Localized aurora beyond the auroral oval" 2703:Guiducci, Mario; Galilei, Galileo (1619). 1836:, an aurora formed above the port city of 1322:increase the intensity of the solar wind. 864: 670:Video of the complete aurora australis by 6841: 6587: 6561: 6500: 6310:. European Space Agency. 11 August 2004. 6173: 6083: 5933: 5567: 5507: 5474: 5394: 5159: 5102: 5034: 4850: 4806: 4714:. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2007. 4485: 4354: 4260: 4157: 3714: 3704: 3663: 3605: 3603: 3456: 3392: 3333: 3289: 2804: 2412:spacecraft. The auroras were observed at 1982:of eastern Victoria perceived auroras as 1762:Learn how and when to remove this message 1550:published a series of nine papers on the 1018:Geomagnetic disturbance from an enhanced 353:, at about one hundred kilometres at the 6895: 5912: 4578: 3979: 3430: 3186: 2619:. .umn.edu. 18 July 2007. Archived from 2303: 2280: 2140: 2084:Walter William Bryant wrote in his book 2043: 2037:'s expedition party who had reached the 1951: 1888:, known legendarily as the initiator of 1329: 1220:Interaction of the solar wind with Earth 1060: 1041: 831: 797: 709: 701: 658: 484:on board the International Space Station 328: 114: 7723:Sources of electromagnetic interference 6771: 6739: 6668: 6637: 6155:U.S. National Archives: Founders Online 5489: 4371:"Confirmation of an auroral phenomenon" 4097: 3944: 3822: 3678: 3501: 2277:Magnetosphere of Jupiter § Aurorae 1872:of northern Spain dating to 30,000 BC. 1602:Boston operator (to Portland operator): 775:Colors and wavelengths of auroral light 374:itself are rare due to it being on the 14: 7675: 6819:Aurora: The Mysterious Northern Lights 6814: 6752: 6294:(1847), London: Charles Knight, p. 496 6044:from the original on 13 September 2021 6001:. Bridget Williams Books. p. 46. 5802: 5582: 4441:from the original on 11 December 2021. 3600: 3116: 3087: 3058: 3029: 3000: 2971: 2942: 2913: 2884: 2650: 2617:"University of Minnesota Style Manual" 2229:(1733) states the oldest residents of 1113:, above 80 km (50 mi), from 1084:with particle acceleration processes. 955: 918: 7144: 6916: 6706: 6685: 6403:from the original on 10 February 2007 6273:from the original on 27 February 2024 6237:Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis 5787:Bostock, J. and Riley, H. T. (1855), 5417: 4553: 4528: 4203: 3859:from the original on 24 February 2022 3749:from the original on 19 December 2014 3536: 3190:Meteorologisk Aarbog for 1880. Part 1 3153: 2055:In Scandinavia, the first mention of 1800:, classifying them, for instance, as 1609:"Will do so. It is now disconnected." 1499:, which affected telegraph networks. 1279:make use of this basic process ("the 7070:– Northern lights video in real time 7038:Videos and Photos – Auroras at Night 6433:from the original on 16 January 2021 6393:"Mars Express Finds Auroras on Mars" 6373:from the original on 22 January 2021 6314:from the original on 19 October 2012 6033: 5775:Physical Science in the time of Nero 5430:from the original on 13 October 2017 4906:from the original on 4 November 2016 4098:Andrews, Robin George (3 May 2019). 3823:T., Potemra; S.-I., Akasofu (1991). 3263: 2597:from the original on 21 October 2022 2506: 1844:depicted the aurora borealis in his 1700:adding citations to reliable sources 1671: 1224:Earth is constantly immersed in the 1087: 964: 827: 714:Divergence point of a coronal aurora 7170: 6740:Stern, David P.; Peredo, Mauricio. 5852:Administrator, NASA (7 June 2013). 5619:"Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph" 5516:from the original on 28 August 2021 3168:from the original on 28 August 2021 2840:Bruzek, A.; Durrant, C. J. (2012). 2757:from the original on 2 January 2019 2376:Auroras have also been observed on 2094:"seems to have been something of a 1069:satellite, digitally overlaid onto 535:French Southern and Antarctic Lands 132: 24: 6896:Phillips, Tony (21 October 2001). 6669:Procter, Henry Richardson (1878). 6662: 6423:"Comet Chury's ultraviolet aurora" 6190:from the original on 27 April 2021 6015:from the original on 18 April 2024 4718:from the original on 5 August 2015 4216:from the original on 22 March 2018 4172: 4079:from the original on 30 March 2022 3609: 3345:from the original on 30 April 2019 2783:from the original on 22 April 2021 2742: 1128:based molecules returning from an 277:Boreas, god of the cold north wind 25: 7744: 7464:Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility 7030:– "Full-Sky Aurora" over Eastern 6936: 6646:from the original on 30 July 2015 6638:Q. Choi, Charles (29 July 2015). 6525:from the original on 9 April 2022 5952:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2013.02.05 5894:from the original on 1 April 2020 5418:Frost, Natasha (4 October 2017). 5311:(PhD Thesis). Dartmouth College. 5057:from the original on 29 June 2011 3778:from the original on 25 July 2015 3483:from the original on 1 March 2024 2246:The Ballad of the Northern Lights 1487:The discovery of a 1770 Japanese 1240:(IMF) may also be much stronger. 1120:atoms regaining an electron, and 1105:Auroras result from emissions of 605:location of the geomagnetic poles 572:maps of North America and Eurasia 158:), is a natural light display in 40:Aurora Australis (disambiguation) 7660: 7648: 7636: 7624: 7612: 7600: 7588: 7016:Popular video of Aurora Borealis 6631: 6604: 6537: 6415: 6385: 6326: 6285: 6255: 6242: 6229: 6136: 6125: 5833:from the original on 12 May 2024 5741:from the original on 5 June 2022 5599:from the original on 14 May 2021 5342:from the original on 8 June 2021 5288:from the original on 12 May 2024 5230:from the original on 12 May 2024 4510:from the original on 12 May 2024 4411:from the original on 13 May 2021 4381:from the original on 22 May 2021 4307:from the original on 22 May 2021 4277:from the original on 22 May 2021 4048:from the original on 1 July 2016 3926:from the original on 12 May 2024 3412:from the original on 12 May 2024 3133:from the original on 14 May 2021 3104:from the original on 14 May 2021 3088:Loomis, Elias (September 1861). 3075:from the original on 14 May 2021 3046:from the original on 13 May 2021 3017:from the original on 14 May 2021 2988:from the original on 13 May 2021 2959:from the original on 15 May 2021 2930:from the original on 14 May 2021 2901:from the original on 13 May 2021 2860:from the original on 12 May 2024 2717:from the original on 12 May 2024 1676: 1552:Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859 1325: 892: 590: 578: 542: 520: 490: 99: 90: 79: 70: 59: 48:Southern Lights (disambiguation) 44:Northern Lights (disambiguation) 36:Aurora Borealis (disambiguation) 6202: 6166: 6147: 6118: 6092: 6056: 6027: 5906: 5876: 5845: 5796: 5781: 5766: 5753: 5723: 5697: 5671: 5645: 5611: 5589:The American Journal of Science 5576: 5483: 5442: 5411: 5354: 5323: 5300: 5242: 5176: 5127: 5069: 5043: 5002: 4967: 4941: 4918: 4880:Journal of Geophysical Research 4867: 4818: 4800: 4774:Journal of Geophysical Research 4765: 4739:Journal of Geophysical Research 4730: 4704: 4686: 4643: 4617:Journal of Geophysical Research 4607: 4581:Journal of Geophysical Research 4572: 4547: 4522: 4445: 4423: 4393: 4363: 4289: 4228: 4197: 4185:from the original on 4 May 2019 4166: 4091: 4060: 4034: 4008: 3982:Journal of Geophysical Research 3973: 3947:Journal of Geophysical Research 3938: 3871: 3841: 3816: 3790: 3731: 3681:"Inferences concerning auroras" 3672: 3565: 3551:10.1016/j.endeavour.2007.07.004 3530: 3495: 3465: 3424: 3357: 3314:Journal of Geophysical Research 3298: 3257: 3232: 3197: 3180: 3147: 3123:The American Journal of Science 3094:The American Journal of Science 3065:The American Journal of Science 3036:The American Journal of Science 3030:Loomis, Elias (November 1860). 3007:The American Journal of Science 2978:The American Journal of Science 2949:The American Journal of Science 2943:Loomis, Elias (February 1860). 2920:The American Journal of Science 2891:The American Journal of Science 2885:Loomis, Elias (November 1859). 2833: 2769: 2658:. Vol. 2. pp. 11–14. 2408:by multiple instruments on the 1994:say that an auroral display is 1687:needs additional citations for 1579:geomagnetically induced current 1483:Historically significant events 119:Aurora australis seen from the 7129:and Auroras – Viewed from the 6985:Live Northern Lights webstream 6921:. University of Alaska Press. 6815:Savage, Candace Sherk (1994). 6239:(Elsevier, Edinburgh), p. 275. 5807:Physics of the Plasma Universe 5705:"شفق قطبی در آسمان کویر ایران" 5583:Loomis, Elias (January 1860). 4815:out-of-print, full text online 4204:Saner, Emine (19 March 2018). 4181:. American Geophysical Union. 4018:. 27 June 2016. Archived from 3610:A, Brekke; A, Egeland (1994). 2914:Loomis, Elias (January 1860). 2736: 2696: 2644: 2635: 2609: 2583: 2539: 2526: 2513: 1876:water", turning into a bright 931: 847:International Geophysical Year 162:'s sky, predominantly seen in 142:), also commonly known as the 13: 1: 7698:Atmospheric optical phenomena 7320:Interplanetary magnetic field 7262:Magnetosphere particle motion 7115:, 24 November 2010 (video on 7003: 6919:The Aurora Watcher's Handbook 6898:"'tis the Season for Auroras" 6611:O'Neill, Ian (29 July 2015). 6085:10.1080/03036758.2021.1917633 5641:– via Internet Archive. 5330:Richard Lewis (7 June 2021). 4934:, Solar wind forecast from a 4531:The Aurora Watcher's Handbook 3594:10.1016/S1364-6826(96)00113-7 2576: 1668:Historical views and folklore 1389:Auroral particle acceleration 1238:interplanetary magnetic field 1178: 1100: 324: 7046:– Aurora Borealis – How The 6964:Aurora Borealis – Predicting 6871:Dayside and Polar Cap Aurora 6852:10.1007/978-3-540-46315-3_13 6459:Galand, M.; Feldman, P. D.; 6339:Geophysical Research Letters 5790:The Natural History of Pliny 4949:"NASA – NASA and World Book" 4807:Birkeland, Kristian (1908). 4556:The solar wind and the Earth 4138:Geophysical Research Letters 3739:"Auroral colors and spectra" 3437:Geophysical Research Letters 3373:Geophysical Research Letters 2393:. The aurora was located at 1858: 1852: 1820: 1814: 1808: 1802: 1405:bounce back and forth along 1292:field lines (lines of force) 1013:second law of thermodynamics 871:auroral kilometric radiation 345:in white and blue. Next the 252: 7: 7131:International Space Station 7040:(archived 2 September 2010) 6955:(archived 24 November 2016) 6615:. Discovery. Archived from 5803:Peratt, Anthony L. (2014). 3800:. dapep.org. Archived from 3226:10.1016/j.jastp.2006.05.026 3117:Loomis, Elias (July 1862). 3059:Loomis, Elias (July 1861). 3001:Loomis, Elias (July 1860). 2750:Online Etymology Dictionary 2464: 2182:During the night after the 1902: 1894: 1557:American Journal of Science 270:Aurora, goddess of the dawn 213:into the upper atmosphere ( 10: 7749: 7693:Polar regions of the Earth 7325:Heliospheric current sheet 7078:Northern Light – Story of 6800:(9): 45–48. Archived from 6753:Eather, Robert H. (1980). 5540:Advances in Space Research 5387:10.1038/s41467-021-23377-5 5213:10.1007/s11214-020-00715-5 5152:10.1038/s41467-021-22112-4 4558:. D. Reidel. p. 103. 2972:Loomis, Elias (May 1860). 2827:10.1029/EO067i040p00761-02 2348:spacecraft, as well as on 2274: 2041:. around the 7th century. 1931:), and "Stars like Rain" ( 1832:, and recalled that under 1022:causes distortions of the 680:University of Saskatchewan 357:and the lower edge of the 201:. These particles, mainly 29: 7523: 7472: 7429: 7353: 7285: 7219: 7178: 7018:– Taken in Norway in 2011 6493:10.1038/s41550-020-1171-7 6209:Goodman, N., ed. (2011). 5817:10.1007/978-1-4614-7819-5 5711:(in Persian). 12 May 2024 5659:(in Persian). 13 May 2024 5560:10.1016/j.asr.2005.12.021 5490:Stewart, Balfour (1861). 5271:10.1007/s11214-019-0619-5 3665:10.1007/s00585-997-0943-z 2406:67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko 1986:in the spirit world. The 1933: 1927: 1921: 1915: 1909: 980: 902:In 2016, more than fifty 654: 7277:Van Allen radiation belt 7257:Magnetosphere chronology 6774:Alaska Geographic Series 6707:Stern, David P. (1996). 5913:Hamacher, D. W. (2013). 5854:"The History of Auroras" 4930:20 December 2006 at the 3825:Magnetospheric Substorms 3320:(A12): 28, 325–28, 342. 2521:meteorological phenomena 2271:Extraterrestrial aurorae 2184:Battle of Fredericksburg 1464:electron inertial length 1369:magnetospheric substorms 897: 876: 694: 7186:Atmospheric circulation 6879:10.1007/0-306-47969-9_3 6698:Encyclopædia Britannica 6678:Encyclopædia Britannica 6359:10.1029/GL013i010p01047 6248:Hearne, Samuel (1958). 6174:Francklin (June 1779). 6135:. Macmillan Co. (1920) 6124:Walter William Bryant, 5307:Pokhotelov, D. (2002). 5104:10.1126/science.1160495 4900:10.1029/JA082i013p01933 4794:10.1029/JA078i028p06802 4759:10.1029/JA074i001p00247 4637:10.1029/JA093iA07p07441 4601:10.1029/JZ065i009p02727 4002:10.1029/jz065i002p00551 3967:10.1029/JA079i028p04227 3743:Windows to the Universe 3524:10.1029/te051i004p00501 3244:El Observador (Uruguay) 3154:Fritz, Hermann (1881). 2743:Harper, Douglas (ed.). 2171: 2113:theorized in his paper 2063: 2057: 1996: 1913:), "Sword/Knife Star" ( 1790:in the 4th century BC. 865:Other auroral radiation 638:represents high levels. 473:which can be subvisual. 378:, while auroras at the 32:Aurora (disambiguation) 7196:Earth's magnetic field 7050:Are Created (video on 6969:Solar Terrestrial Data 6900:. NASA. Archived from 6692:"Aurora Polaris" 6672:"Aurora Polaris" 6580:10.1098/rsta.2018.0398 5509:10.1098/rstl.1861.0023 2729: 2334:Hubble Space Telescope 2317: 2301: 2154: 2124: 2052: 2029: 2027:, aurora australis or 1974: 1962:Aboriginal Australians 1957: 1925:), "Sky's Open Eyes" ( 1654:series of solar storms 1650: 1636: 1565:coronal mass ejections 1338: 1320:coronal mass ejections 1080: 1050: 950:electron precipitation 841: 803: 733:that look like clouds. 715: 707: 675: 362: 313:) and the south wind ( 197:in the magnetospheric 191:coronal mass ejections 124: 7300:Coronal mass ejection 7220:Earth's magnetosphere 6990:27 April 2021 at the 6979:Aurora Service Europe 6971:– Online Converter – 6713:Reviews of Geophysics 6429:. 21 September 2020. 6034:Best, Elsdon (1922). 5367:Nature Communications 5259:Space Science Reviews 5193:Space Science Reviews 5140:Nature Communications 3431:Østgaard, N. (2003). 3270:Reviews of Geophysics 2706:Discorso delle Comete 2656:History of Geophysics 2307: 2284: 2237:in sunspot activity. 2198:Frederic Edwin Church 2146:Frederic Edwin Church 2144: 2119: 2047: 1978:('ashes'), while the 1960:In the traditions of 1955: 1797:Naturales Quaestiones 1645: 1599: 1583:electromagnetic field 1373:magnetic reconnection 1363:On 26 February 2008, 1334:Schematic of Earth's 1333: 1305:magnetic reconnection 1162:collisional quenching 1064: 1045: 1032:magnetic reconnection 991:Earth's magnetosphere 835: 801: 792:forbidden transitions 713: 705: 669: 332: 319:Greco-Roman mythology 164:high-latitude regions 118: 7708:Electrical phenomena 7473:Other magnetospheres 7335:Solar particle event 7028:Aurora Photo Gallery 7022:Aurora Photo Gallery 6953:Aurora – Forecasting 6917:Davis, Neil (1992). 6399:. 18 February 2006. 6160:31 July 2019 at the 5623:The British Colonist 5476:10.1002/2017SW001690 5036:10.1029/2009JA014281 4936:University of Alaska 4852:10.1029/2001GL014010 4529:Davis, Neil (1992). 4478:10.1029/2022JA030385 4356:10.1029/2020AV000338 4253:10.1029/2019AV000133 4159:10.1029/2019GL082460 3904:10.1002/2017JA024039 3855:. 9 September 2020. 3679:Thomson, E. (1917). 3458:10.1029/2003GL017914 3394:10.1029/2000GL000064 3335:10.1029/1999JA900311 3291:10.1029/2005RG000174 3264:Frey, H. U. (2007). 2486:List of solar storms 2399:Mars Global Surveyor 2098:, for he recommends 1919:), "Chiyou banner" ( 1850:, when he refers to 1696:improve this article 1434:geomagnetic activity 1407:magnetic field lines 818:Yellow and pink are 7683:Terrestrial plasmas 6997:World's Best Aurora 6725:1996RvGeo..34....1S 6572:2019RSPTA.37780398H 6485:2020NatAs...4.1084G 6461:Bockelée-Morvan, D. 6351:1986GeoRL..13.1047P 6235:J. Oschman (2016), 6180:Journal de Physique 5944:2013JAHH...16..207H 5772:Clarke, J. (1910), 5552:2006AdSpR..38..145G 5467:2017SpWea..15.1314K 5379:2021NatCo..12.3103S 5205:2020SSRv..216...92L 5095:2008Sci...321..931A 5027:2009JGRA..11411306L 4988:1997JGR...102.9497S 4955:on 5 September 2005 4892:1977JGR....82.1933C 4843:2002GeoRL..29.1437P 4786:1973JGR....78.6802A 4751:1969JGR....74..247S 4700:on 27 January 2011. 4694:"Ultraviolet Waves" 4664:1967Natur.215...45B 4629:1988JGR....93.7441R 4593:1960JGR....65.2727M 4470:2022JGRA..12730385B 4347:2021EGUGA..23.5986G 4150:2019GeoRL..46.5637N 4104:National Geographic 3994:1960JGR....65..551A 3959:1974JGR....79.4227G 3896:2017JGRA..122.5606P 3697:1917PNAS....3....1T 3656:1997AnGeo..15..943Y 3644:Annales Geophysicae 3612:The Northern Lights 3586:1997JASTP..59.1087Z 3516:1946TeMAE..51..501S 3449:2003GeoRL..30.2125O 3385:2000GeoRL..27.2797P 3326:1999JGR...10428325S 3282:2007RvGeo..45.1003F 3218:2007JASTP..69..249O 2819:1986EOSTr..67..761F 2711:Discourse on Comets 2664:1986HGeo....2...11S 2442:in their turbulent 2244:'s satirical poem " 1900:, a creature named 1313:south magnetic pole 1309:north magnetic pole 956:Horse-collar aurora 919:Picket-fence aurora 249:also host auroras. 6556:(2154): 20180398. 6267:americanart.si.edu 6100:"Norrsken history" 6064:Wehi, Priscilla M. 5969:on 20 October 2013 5420:"1770 Kyoto Diary" 4831:Geophys. Res. Lett 3706:10.1073/pnas.3.1.1 2672:10.1029/HG002p0011 2318: 2310:Cassini spacecraft 2302: 2257:Kristian Birkeland 2202:American Civil War 2155: 2053: 1966:Gunditjmara people 1958: 1607:Portland operator: 1542:was recording the 1530:The New York Times 1379:Geomagnetic storms 1339: 1210:Birkeland currents 1205:Kristian Birkeland 1185:Birkeland currents 1081: 1075:composite image. 1051: 938:citizen scientists 842: 836:Construction of a 804: 716: 708: 676: 363: 265:in 1619, from the 239:natural satellites 125: 46:, and 7718:Planetary science 7576: 7575: 7430:Research projects 7398: 7369: 7310:Geomagnetic storm 7227:Birkeland current 6888:978-0-306-47969-4 6861:978-3-540-46314-6 6834:978-0-87156-419-1 6827:/ Firefly Books. 6825:Sierra Club Books 6823:. San Francisco: 6764:978-0-87590-215-9 6733:10.1029/95rg03508 6479:(11): 1084–1091. 6345:(10): 1047–1050. 6222:978-0-8122-0561-9 6008:978-0-947518-71-4 5890:. 30 March 2020. 5826:978-1-4614-7819-5 5737:. 12 April 2022. 5461:(10): 1314–1320. 5317:10.1349/ddlp.3332 4996:10.1029/97JA00196 4982:(A5): 9497–9511. 4837:(10): 79-1–79-4. 4780:(28): 6802–6807. 4565:978-90-277-2471-7 4341:(2): EGU21-5986. 4144:(11): 5637–5644. 3798:"Aurora Borealis" 3621:978-82-504-2105-9 3473:"Northern Lights" 3379:(17): 2797–2800. 2853:978-94-010-1245-4 2681:978-0-87590-276-0 2507:Explanatory notes 2476:Aurora (heraldry) 2422:photodissociation 2242:Robert W. Service 2219:Berlin Miscellany 2148:'s 1865 painting 2111:Benjamin Franklin 1942:Japanese folklore 1806:('barrel-like'); 1772: 1771: 1764: 1746: 1634:"Yes. Go ahead." 1544:geomagnetic storm 1449:Birkeland current 1403:trapped particles 1109:in Earth's upper 1088:Auroral particles 1034:"); some blobs (" 965:Conjugate auroras 828:Changes with time 739:curve across the 667: 550: 528: 507:to just north of 498: 467:magnetic midnight 454:geomagnetic storm 367:geomagnetic poles 337:illuminating the 221:). The resulting 195:charged particles 16:(Redirected from 7740: 7665: 7664: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7629: 7628: 7627: 7617: 7616: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7593: 7592: 7584: 7414:Van Allen Probes 7396: 7367: 7179:Submagnetosphere 7165: 7158: 7151: 7142: 7141: 7080:Geomagnetc Storm 6932: 6913: 6911: 6909: 6904:on 11 April 2006 6892: 6865: 6838: 6822: 6808: 6807:on 14 June 2020. 6806: 6791: 6781: 6768: 6749: 6736: 6702: 6694: 6682: 6674: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6608: 6602: 6601: 6591: 6565: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6530: 6504: 6473:Nature Astronomy 6456: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6438: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6330: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6319: 6304: 6295: 6289: 6283: 6282: 6280: 6278: 6259: 6253: 6246: 6240: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6206: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6195: 6170: 6164: 6151: 6145: 6140: 6129: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6111: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6060: 6054: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6031: 6025: 6024: 6022: 6020: 5993:Anderson, Atholl 5991:Steel, Frances; 5988: 5979: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5968: 5962:. Archived from 5937: 5919: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5869: 5864:on 29 March 2023 5860:. Archived from 5849: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5810: 5800: 5794: 5785: 5779: 5770: 5764: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5716: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5690: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5569:2060/20050210157 5535: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5511: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5435: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5398: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5287: 5256: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5235: 5229: 5190: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5163: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5106: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5062: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5021:(A11306): 1–14. 5006: 5000: 4999: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4945: 4939: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4854: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4696:. Archived from 4690: 4684: 4683: 4672:10.1038/215045a0 4647: 4641: 4640: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4551: 4545: 4544: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4489: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4367: 4361: 4360: 4358: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4264: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4173:Lipuma, Lauren. 4170: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4129: 4120: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4106:. Archived from 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4044:. 21 June 2016. 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4012: 4006: 4005: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3890:(5): 5606–5618. 3875: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3804:on 19 April 2015 3794: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3774:. Sci-News.com. 3768: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3718: 3708: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3635: 3626: 3625: 3607: 3598: 3597: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3411: 3396: 3370: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3344: 3337: 3311: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3151: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3026: 3024: 3022: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2879: 2870: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2802: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2740: 2734: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2648: 2642: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2587: 2570: 2559:aurora australis 2543: 2537: 2530: 2524: 2517: 2188:Confederate Army 2174: 2105: 2068: 2065:Konungs Skuggsjá 2060: 2032: 1999: 1977: 1949:magnetic storm. 1936: 1935: 1930: 1929: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1917: 1912: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1861: 1855: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1767: 1760: 1756: 1753: 1747: 1745: 1704: 1680: 1672: 1595:Boston Traveller 1497:Carrington event 971:conjugate points 851:auroral substorm 762:discrete auroras 668: 594: 582: 552: 551: 530: 529: 500: 499: 447:Carrington Event 156:aurora australis 134: 103: 94: 83: 74: 63: 21: 7748: 7747: 7743: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7737: 7703:Earth phenomena 7673: 7672: 7671: 7659: 7649: 7647: 7637: 7635: 7625: 7623: 7611: 7601: 7599: 7587: 7579: 7577: 7572: 7519: 7468: 7425: 7349: 7281: 7215: 7174: 7172:Magnetospherics 7169: 7125:(time-lapse) – 7097:2011 (video on 7095:Finnish Lapland 7062:Northern Lights 7048:Northern Lights 7034:. December 2011 7006: 6992:Wayback Machine 6973:Northern Lights 6939: 6929: 6907: 6905: 6889: 6862: 6835: 6804: 6789: 6765: 6665: 6663:Further reading 6660: 6659: 6649: 6647: 6636: 6632: 6622: 6620: 6619:on 31 July 2015 6609: 6605: 6542: 6538: 6528: 6526: 6457: 6446: 6436: 6434: 6421: 6420: 6416: 6406: 6404: 6391: 6390: 6386: 6376: 6374: 6331: 6327: 6317: 6315: 6306: 6305: 6298: 6290: 6286: 6276: 6274: 6261: 6260: 6256: 6247: 6243: 6234: 6230: 6223: 6207: 6203: 6193: 6191: 6171: 6167: 6162:Wayback Machine 6152: 6148: 6123: 6119: 6109: 6107: 6106:on 21 July 2011 6098: 6097: 6093: 6061: 6057: 6047: 6045: 6032: 6028: 6018: 6016: 6009: 5989: 5982: 5972: 5970: 5966: 5917: 5911: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5867: 5865: 5850: 5846: 5836: 5834: 5827: 5801: 5797: 5786: 5782: 5771: 5767: 5758: 5754: 5744: 5742: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5714: 5712: 5703: 5702: 5698: 5688: 5686: 5677: 5676: 5672: 5662: 5660: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5600: 5581: 5577: 5536: 5529: 5519: 5517: 5488: 5484: 5447: 5443: 5433: 5431: 5416: 5412: 5359: 5355: 5345: 5343: 5336:IOWA university 5328: 5324: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5289: 5285: 5254: 5247: 5243: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5188: 5181: 5177: 5132: 5128: 5089:(5891): 931–5. 5074: 5070: 5060: 5058: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5015:J. Geophys. Res 5007: 5003: 4976:J. Geophys. Res 4972: 4968: 4958: 4956: 4947: 4946: 4942: 4932:Wayback Machine 4923: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4872: 4868: 4823: 4819: 4805: 4801: 4770: 4766: 4735: 4731: 4721: 4719: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4692: 4691: 4687: 4648: 4644: 4612: 4608: 4577: 4573: 4566: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4527: 4523: 4513: 4511: 4450: 4446: 4429: 4428: 4424: 4414: 4412: 4399: 4398: 4394: 4384: 4382: 4369: 4368: 4364: 4327: 4320: 4310: 4308: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4280: 4278: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4217: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4171: 4167: 4130: 4123: 4113: 4111: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4049: 4040: 4039: 4035: 4025: 4023: 4022:on 27 June 2016 4014: 4013: 4009: 3978: 3974: 3943: 3939: 3929: 3927: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3860: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3821: 3817: 3807: 3805: 3796: 3795: 3791: 3781: 3779: 3770: 3769: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3677: 3673: 3636: 3629: 3622: 3608: 3601: 3570: 3566: 3535: 3531: 3500: 3496: 3486: 3484: 3477:Geiranger Guide 3471: 3470: 3466: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3368: 3362: 3358: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3309: 3303: 3299: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3246: 3238: 3237: 3233: 3202: 3198: 3185: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3152: 3148: 3136: 3134: 3107: 3105: 3078: 3076: 3049: 3047: 3020: 3018: 2991: 2989: 2962: 2960: 2933: 2931: 2904: 2902: 2880: 2873: 2863: 2861: 2854: 2838: 2834: 2803: 2796: 2786: 2784: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2760: 2758: 2741: 2737: 2720: 2718: 2701: 2697: 2682: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2626: 2624: 2623:on 22 July 2010 2615: 2614: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2573: 2555:southern lights 2551:aurora borealis 2547:northern lights 2544: 2540: 2531: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2467: 2449:The first ever 2426:photoionization 2414:far-ultraviolet 2279: 2273: 2235:Maunder minimum 2193:Aurora Borealis 2165:travelled with 2159:Native American 2151:Aurora Borealis 2103: 2030:Tahunui-a-rangi 2006:Kangaroo Island 1992:South Australia 1972:called auroras 1890:Chinese culture 1847:Natural History 1842:Pliny the Elder 1768: 1757: 1751: 1748: 1705: 1703: 1693: 1681: 1670: 1652:In May 2024, a 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1591:Portland, Maine 1540:Kew Observatory 1512:Kew Observatory 1485: 1411:magnetic mirror 1391: 1328: 1267:), rather than 1257:Michael Faraday 1234:magnetic storms 1222: 1189:ohmic conductor 1181: 1103: 1090: 1072:The Blue Marble 1004:radiation belts 983: 967: 958: 948:in presence of 934: 921: 904:citizen science 900: 895: 879: 867: 830: 788: 777: 706:Different forms 697: 659: 657: 643: 642: 641: 640: 639: 634: 622: 600: 599: 598: 595: 587: 586: 583: 574: 573: 564: 563: 562: 561: 560: 553: 543: 539: 538: 531: 521: 517: 516: 501: 491: 486: 485: 327: 259:aurora borealis 255: 152:southern lights 148:aurora borealis 144:northern lights 113: 112: 111: 110: 106: 105: 104: 96: 95: 86: 85: 84: 76: 75: 66: 65: 64: 51: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7746: 7736: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7670: 7669: 7657: 7645: 7633: 7621: 7609: 7597: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7527: 7525: 7524:Related topics 7521: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7469: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7444: 7439: 7433: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7423: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7399: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7361: 7357: 7355: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7295:Magnetic cloud 7291: 7289: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7214: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7182: 7180: 7176: 7175: 7168: 7167: 7160: 7153: 7145: 7139: 7138: 7120: 7102: 7088: 7071: 7065: 7055: 7041: 7035: 7025: 7019: 7013: 7005: 7002: 7001: 7000: 6994: 6982: 6976: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6950: 6945: 6938: 6937:External links 6935: 6934: 6933: 6927: 6914: 6893: 6887: 6866: 6860: 6839: 6833: 6812: 6782: 6769: 6763: 6750: 6737: 6704: 6687:Chree, Charles 6683: 6664: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6630: 6603: 6536: 6444: 6414: 6397:Universe Today 6384: 6325: 6296: 6284: 6254: 6241: 6228: 6221: 6201: 6165: 6146: 6117: 6091: 6078:(5): 587–598. 6055: 6026: 6007: 5980: 5928:(2): 207–219. 5905: 5875: 5844: 5825: 5795: 5780: 5765: 5752: 5722: 5709:BBC News فارسی 5696: 5670: 5644: 5610: 5591:. 2nd series. 5575: 5546:(2): 145–154. 5527: 5482: 5441: 5410: 5353: 5322: 5299: 5241: 5175: 5126: 5068: 5042: 5001: 4966: 4940: 4917: 4866: 4817: 4799: 4764: 4745:(1): 247–256. 4729: 4703: 4685: 4642: 4606: 4571: 4564: 4546: 4539: 4521: 4444: 4437:. 4 May 2021. 4422: 4392: 4362: 4318: 4288: 4227: 4196: 4165: 4121: 4090: 4059: 4033: 4007: 3988:(2): 551–564. 3972: 3937: 3870: 3840: 3833: 3815: 3789: 3760: 3730: 3671: 3627: 3620: 3599: 3564: 3545:(3): 104–109. 3529: 3510:(4): 501–504. 3494: 3464: 3423: 3356: 3297: 3256: 3231: 3196: 3179: 3157:Das Polarlicht 3146: 3144: 3143: 3125:. 2nd series. 3114: 3096:. 2nd series. 3085: 3067:. 2nd series. 3056: 3038:. 2nd series. 3027: 3009:. 2nd series. 2998: 2980:. 2nd series. 2969: 2951:. 2nd series. 2940: 2922:. 2nd series. 2911: 2893:. 2nd series. 2871: 2852: 2832: 2794: 2768: 2735: 2695: 2680: 2643: 2634: 2608: 2581: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2571: 2567:aurora polaris 2538: 2525: 2511: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2504: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2466: 2463: 2459:LSR J1835+3259 2395:Terra Cimmeria 2272: 2269: 2132:Anders Celsius 2039:Southern Ocean 2035:Ui-te-Rangiora 1870:cave paintings 1770: 1769: 1684: 1682: 1675: 1669: 1666: 1484: 1481: 1468:ion gyroradius 1390: 1387: 1327: 1324: 1221: 1218: 1180: 1177: 1157: 1156: 1153: 1147: 1144: 1102: 1099: 1089: 1086: 1059: 1058: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1016: 982: 979: 966: 963: 957: 954: 933: 930: 920: 917: 899: 896: 894: 891: 878: 875: 866: 863: 829: 826: 825: 824: 816: 813: 809: 796: 795: 786: 782: 776: 773: 757: 756: 750: 744: 734: 724: 696: 693: 656: 653: 632: 620: 602: 601: 596: 589: 588: 584: 577: 576: 575: 568: 567: 566: 565: 554: 541: 540: 532: 519: 518: 502: 489: 488: 487: 479: 478: 477: 476: 475: 326: 323: 261:was coined by 254: 251: 181:caused by the 108: 107: 98: 97: 89: 88: 87: 78: 77: 69: 68: 67: 58: 57: 56: 55: 54: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7745: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7728:Space weather 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7713:Light sources 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7688:Space plasmas 7686: 7684: 7681: 7680: 7678: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7656: 7646: 7644: 7634: 7632: 7622: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7608: 7598: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7585: 7582: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7548: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7526: 7522: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7471: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7453: 7450: 7449: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7428: 7422: 7421: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7404: 7400: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7365: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7345:Space weather 7343: 7341: 7340:Space climate 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 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4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4126: 4110:on 4 May 2019 4109: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4047: 4043: 4037: 4021: 4017: 4011: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3836: 3834:0-87590-030-5 3830: 3826: 3819: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3765: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3632: 3623: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3604: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3468: 3459: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3427: 3408: 3404: 3403:2027.42/94796 3400: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3360: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3301: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3276:(1): RG1003. 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3245: 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L. 2647: 2638: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2582: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2542: 2535: 2529: 2522: 2516: 2512: 2502: 2501:Space weather 2499: 2497: 2496:Space tornado 2494: 2492: 2491:Paschen's law 2489: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2416:wavelengths. 2415: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2391: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2366:magnetosphere 2363: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2346: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2268: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2163:Samuel Hearne 2160: 2157:A variety of 2153: 2152: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2088: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2066: 2059: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1904: 1898: 1897: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1863: 1860: 1854: 1849: 1848: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1818:('bearded'); 1816: 1810: 1804: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1778: 1777:Bamboo Annals 1766: 1763: 1755: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1713: – 1712: 1708: 1707:Find sources: 1701: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1685:This section 1683: 1679: 1674: 1673: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1649: 1644: 1641: 1635: 1633: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1504:Royal Society 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1456: 1454: 1453:electric load 1450: 1445: 1443: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399:magnetosphere 1395: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1358: 1352: 1349: 1344: 1343:magnetosphere 1337: 1336:magnetosphere 1332: 1326:Magnetosphere 1323: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1300: 1298: 1297:Parker spiral 1293: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1281:dynamo effect 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1176: 1174: 1169: 1165: 1163: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1130:excited state 1127: 1123: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1098: 1094: 1085: 1078: 1074: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1055: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1028:magnetic flux 1025: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1001: 996: 995: 994: 992: 988: 978: 976: 972: 962: 953: 951: 947: 944:layer in the 943: 939: 929: 927: 916: 913: 909: 905: 893:Unusual types 890: 888: 884: 874: 872: 862: 858: 856: 852: 848: 839: 834: 821: 817: 814: 810: 806: 805: 800: 793: 783: 779: 778: 772: 770: 765: 763: 754: 751: 748: 745: 742: 738: 735: 732: 728: 725: 722: 718: 717: 712: 704: 700: 692: 689: 685: 681: 673: 652: 649: 637: 635: 631: 625: 623: 619: 613: 611: 606: 593: 585:North America 581: 571: 558: 536: 514: 510: 506: 483: 482:Expedition 28 474: 470: 468: 464: 460: 459:magnetic pole 455: 450: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 431:Faroe Islands 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 399:Southern Cone 396: 392: 387: 385: 381: 377: 373: 368: 360: 356: 355:edge of space 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 331: 322: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 280: 278: 275: 271: 268: 264: 260: 250: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 227: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 187:coronal holes 184: 180: 179:magnetosphere 175: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 130: 122: 117: 102: 93: 82: 73: 62: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Auroral light 7733:Geomagnetism 7655:Solar System 7546:Ring systems 7541:Lunar swirls 7418: 7401: 7272:Ring current 7267:Plasmasphere 7242:Magnetopause 7190: 7085:Terschelling 7077: 7068:Video (5:00) 7061: 7047: 6972: 6918: 6906:. 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