561:
574:
545:
282:
446:
335:, can survive and even reproduce at temperatures found in autoclaves, their growth rate is so slow at the lower temperatures in the less extreme environments occupied by humans that it is unlikely they could compete with other organisms. None of them are known to be infectious or otherwise pose a health risk to humans; in fact, their biochemistry is so different from that of humans, and their multiplication rate is so slow, that microbiologists need not worry about them.
412:. Many medical-grade autoclaves are therefore limited to running regulator-approved cycles. Because they are optimized for continuous hospital use, they favor rectangular designs, require demanding maintenance regimens, and are costly to operate. (A properly calibrated medical-grade autoclave uses thousands of gallons of water each day, independent of task, with correspondingly high electric power consumption.)
586:
437:
medical-grade autoclaves used in their research labs were each consuming 700 gallons of water and 90 kWh of electricity per day (1,134MWh of electricity and 8.8 million gallons of water total), because they consumed energy and water continuously, even when not in use. UCR's research-grade autoclaves performed the same tasks with equal effectiveness, but used 83% less energy and 97% less water.
205:(but not eliminate) potentially infectious agents by using pressurized steam and superheated water. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the same effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media, rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves, etc. It is particularly useful for materials that cannot withstand the higher temperature of a hot air oven.
76:
488:
difficult challenge device, named the Bowie-Dick device after its inventors, is also used to verify a full cycle. This contains a full sheet of chemical indicator placed in the center of a stack of paper. It is designed specifically to prove that the process achieved full temperature and time required for a normal minimum cycle of 134 °C for 3.5–4 minutes.
142:
325:, may not be destroyed by autoclaving at the typical 134 °C for three minutes or 121 °C for 15 minutes and instead should be immersed in sodium hydroxide (1M NaOH) and heated in a gravity displacement autoclave at 121 °C for 30 min, cleaned, rinsed in water and subjected to routine sterilization. Although a wide range of
421:
where efficiency, ease-of-use, and flexibility are at a premium. Research-grade autoclaves may be configured for "pass-through" operation. This makes it possible to maintain absolute isolation between "clean" and potentially contaminated work areas. Pass-through research autoclaves are especially important in
560:
204:
A notable recent and increasingly popular application of autoclaves is the pre-disposal treatment and sterilization of waste material, such as pathogenic hospital waste. Machines in this category largely operate under the same principles as conventional autoclaves in that they are able to neutralize
436:
In 2016, the Office of
Sustainability at the University of California, Riverside (UCR) conducted a study of autoclave efficiency in their genomics and entomology research labs, tracking several units' power and water consumption. They found that, even when functioning within intended parameters, the
432:
Research-grade autoclaves—which are not approved for use in sterilizing instruments that will be directly used on humans—are primarily designed for efficiency, flexibility, and ease-of-use. They display a wide range of designs and sizes, and are frequently tailored to their use and load type. Common
420:
Autoclaves used in education, research, biomedical research, pharmaceutical research and industrial settings (often called "research-grade" autoclaves) are used to sterilize lab instruments, glassware, culture media, and liquid media. Research-grade autoclaves are increasingly used in these settings
487:
change color once the correct conditions have been met, indicating that the object inside the package, or under the tape, has been appropriately processed. Autoclave tape is only a marker that steam and heat have activated the dye. The marker on the tape does not indicate complete sterility. A more
476:
There are physical, chemical, and biological indicators that can be used to ensure that an autoclave reaches the correct temperature for the correct amount of time. If a non-treated or improperly treated item can be confused for a treated item, then there is the risk that they will become mixed up,
232:
As steam enters the chamber, it fills the upper areas first as it is less dense than air. This process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop. Flow is usually controlled
532:
values are set for the number of minutes of sterilization equivalent to 121 °C (250 °F) at 103 kPa (14.9 psi) above atmospheric pressure for 15 minutes. Since exact temperature control is difficult, the temperature is monitored, and the sterilization time adjusted accordingly.
393:
due to environmental and health concerns about the combustion by-products emitted by incinerators, especially from the small units which were commonly operated at individual hospitals. Incineration or a similar thermal oxidation process is still generally mandated for pathological waste and other
224:
It is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at 134 °C (273 °F) can achieve a desired level of sterility in three minutes, while achieving the same level of
208:
Autoclaves are also widely used to cure composites, especially for melding multiple layers without any voids that would decrease material strength, and in the vulcanization of rubber. The high heat and pressure that autoclaves generate help to ensure that the best possible physical properties are
472:
when run on the factory default setting. The study found that 18 of 18 (100%) mock patient loads (6 PPE, 6 linen, and 6 liquid loads) passed sterilization tests with the optimized parameters compared to only 3 of 19 (16%) mock loads that passed with use of the factory default settings.
144:
148:
147:
143:
452:
bags often have a "sterilization indicator mark" that typically darkens when the bag and its contents have been adequately processed. Comparing the marks on an unprocessed bag (L) and on a bag that has been properly cycled (R) will reveal an obvious visual
149:
209:
repeatable. Manufacturers of spars for sailboats have autoclaves well over 50 feet (15 m) long and 10 feet (3 m) wide, and some autoclaves in the aerospace industry are large enough to hold whole airplane fuselages made of layered composites.
1164:
Garibaldi, Brian T.; Reimers, Mallory; Ernst, Neysa; Bova, Gregory; Nowakowski, Elaine; Bukowski, James; Ellis, Brandon C.; Smith, Chris; Sauer, Lauren; Dionne, Kim; Carroll, Karen C.; Maragakis, Lisa L.; Parrish, Nicole M. (February 2017).
338:
Autoclaves are found in many medical settings, laboratories, and other places that need to ensure the sterility of an object. Many procedures today employ single-use items rather than sterilizable, reusable items. This first happened with
146:
566:
The machine on the right is an autoclave used for processing substantial quantities of laboratory equipment prior to reuse, and infectious material prior to disposal. (The machines on the left and in the middle are washing
272:
Stovetop autoclaves used in poorer or non-medical settings do not always have automatic air removal programs. The operator is required to manually perform steam pulsing at certain pressures as indicated by the gauge.
892:
Australian/New
Zealand Standard: Office-based health care facilities— Reprocessing of reusable medical and surgical instruments and equipment, and maintenance of the associated environment (AS/NZS 4815:2006)
34:
433:
variations include either a cylindrical or square pressure chamber, air- or water-cooling systems, and vertically or horizontally opening chamber doors (which may be electrically or manually powered).
262:
Achieved with a vacuum pump. It starts with a vacuum followed by a steam pulse followed by a vacuum followed by a steam pulse. The number of pulses depends on the particular autoclave and cycle chosen.
382:
and other products that may be damaged by steam must also be sterilized another way. In all autoclaves, items should always be separated to allow the steam to penetrate the load evenly.
145:
866:"A new approach to making airplane parts, minus the massive infrastructure: Carbon nanotube film produces aerospace-grade composites with no need for huge ovens or autoclaves"
673:
1004:
Immerse in sodium hydroxide (NaOH)20 and heat in a gravity displacement autoclave at 121°C for 30 min; clean; rinse in water and subject to routine sterilization.
1167:"Validation of Autoclave Protocols for Successful Decontamination of Category A Medical Waste Generated from Care of Patients with Serious Communicable Diseases"
241:, but bleed holes are sometimes used. As the steam and air mix, it is also possible to force out the mixture from locations in the chamber other than the bottom.
1234:
544:
776:
585:
268:
Similar to the superatmospheric cycles, but chamber pressure never exceeds atmospheric pressure until they pressurize up to the sterilizing temperature.
247:
Air dilution by using a series of steam pulses, in which the chamber is alternately pressurized and then depressurized to near atmospheric pressure.
517:
designed to melt only after being subjected to a given temperature for the relevant holding time. If the alloy melts, the change will be visible.
457:
In order to sterilize items effectively, it is important to use optimal parameters when running an autoclave cycle. A 2017 study performed by the
916:
573:
1327:
2556:
2535:
1228:
611:
2645:
2171:
87:
is a machine used to carry out industrial and scientific processes requiring elevated temperature and pressure in relation to
842:
808:
621:
1131:
363:). Autoclaves are of particular importance in poorer countries due to the much greater amount of equipment that is re-used.
669:
1222:
1320:
1281:
118:(about double atmospheric pressure) depending on the size of the load and the contents. The autoclave was invented by
2232:
653:
2209:
395:
213:
888:
497:
890:
2664:
2500:
2389:
1730:
1313:
318:
107:. Industrial autoclaves are used in industrial applications, especially in the manufacturing of composites.
2204:
525:
449:
294:
96:
47:
985:
610:
Menge, John A. (1984). "Chapter 9: Inoculom
Production". In Powel, Conway L.; Bagyaraj, D. Joseph (eds.).
955:
2669:
2280:
2249:
2161:
20:
1256:
1017:
225:
sterility in hot air requires two hours at 160 °C (320 °F). Methods of air removal include:
2404:
1735:
981:
216:
functions as a single-purpose autoclave designed for the sterilization of liquid waste and effluent.
1806:
1223:"Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities (2008): Steam Sterilization"
551:
190:. They vary in size and function depending on the media to be sterilized and are sometimes called
2239:
2156:
1620:
1409:
889:
Joint
Technical Committee HE-023, Processing of Medical and Surgical Instruments (6 April 2006),
865:
197:
Typical loads include laboratory glassware, other equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and
1842:
1590:
1559:
798:
458:
110:
Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to pressurized
104:
832:
777:"Sterilization of liquids, solids, waste in disposal bags and hazardous biological substances"
75:
1832:
1710:
1422:
930:
386:
1336:
2128:
1788:
1630:
694:
Hugo WB (July 1991). "A brief history of heat and chemical preservation and disinfection".
344:
285:
Dental equipment in an autoclave to be sterilized for 2 hours at 150 to 180 degrees
Celsius
8:
1816:
1625:
1540:
1477:
119:
57:
33:
2343:
2326:
2265:
2166:
2090:
2026:
2021:
1939:
1760:
1199:
1166:
1107:
1074:
707:
480:
385:
Autoclaving is often used to sterilize medical waste prior to disposal in the standard
340:
2611:
2601:
2409:
2399:
2176:
1980:
1811:
1725:
1720:
1472:
1204:
1186:
1112:
1094:
1055:
1047:
910:
838:
804:
729:
711:
649:
617:
426:
422:
352:
1970:
1965:
1949:
1914:
1896:
1871:
1855:
1765:
1672:
1575:
1467:
1194:
1178:
1102:
1086:
1037:
1029:
703:
469:
445:
187:
92:
88:
1904:
491:
To prove sterility, biological indicators are used. Biological indicators contain
2626:
2353:
2219:
2001:
1975:
1750:
1645:
409:
360:
111:
67:
986:"WHO Infection Control Guidelines for Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies"
114:
at 121 °C (250 °F) for 30–60 minutes at a pressure of 205 kPa or 2.02
2621:
2571:
2461:
2435:
2379:
2336:
2331:
2270:
1929:
1919:
1580:
1462:
1427:
1389:
1374:
484:
461:
238:
123:
1033:
2658:
2566:
2445:
2275:
1944:
1881:
1545:
1379:
1286:
1190:
1098:
1051:
980:
465:
405:
281:
198:
183:
100:
2606:
2394:
2358:
2285:
2181:
2151:
2146:
2074:
1909:
1695:
1650:
1567:
1535:
1518:
1497:
1487:
1417:
1399:
1208:
1116:
1059:
390:
163:
1090:
715:
2520:
2348:
2308:
2244:
2227:
2100:
2069:
2054:
2049:
2011:
1886:
1850:
1700:
1502:
1457:
1182:
502:
501:. If the autoclave does not reach the right temperature, the spores will
250:
175:
127:
2525:
2515:
2466:
2384:
2196:
2041:
2016:
1876:
1755:
1715:
1685:
1640:
1635:
1615:
1585:
1482:
1384:
1305:
755:
506:
331:
234:
115:
401:
In dentistry, autoclaves provide sterilization of dental instruments.
2616:
2414:
2064:
1492:
1452:
1394:
1042:
389:
stream. This application has become more common as an alternative to
322:
179:
2561:
2440:
2430:
2186:
2095:
2059:
1740:
1690:
375:
371:
367:
298:
171:
167:
2581:
2576:
2374:
2031:
2006:
1996:
1924:
1745:
1705:
359:
handles) are commonly single-use rather than reusable items (see
356:
348:
326:
38:
Cutaway illustration of a jacketed rectangular-chamber autoclave
1934:
492:
256:
A vacuum pump sucks air or air/steam mixtures from the chamber.
191:
2551:
2530:
1018:"The upper temperature for life – where do we draw the line?"
514:
394:
very toxic or infectious medical waste. For liquid waste, an
379:
314:
310:
306:
302:
290:
591:
Illustration of a cylindrical-chamber pass-through autoclave
513:-sensitive chemical. Some physical indicators consist of an
95:. Autoclaves are used before surgical procedures to perform
2105:
1404:
962:. ScienceEquip Quality Laboratory Equipment and Consumables
579:
Horizontal high-capacity autoclave with cylindrical chamber
1163:
321:, and some toxins released by certain bacteria, such as
510:
79:
Cutaway illustration of a cylindrical-chamber autoclave
464:
unit tested the ability of pass-through autoclaves to
1235:
United States
Department of Health and Human Services
796:
748:
477:which, in some areas such as surgery, is critical.
378:) cannot be sterilized this way or they will melt.
1073:Davies, Julian; Davies, Dorothy (September 2010).
99:and in the chemical industry to cure coatings and
297:equipment and other objects. This means that all
2656:
1075:"Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance"
1321:
982:Communicable Disease Surveillance and Control
830:
800:Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation
1072:
520:Some computer-controlled autoclaves use an F
162:Sterilization autoclaves are widely used in
2281:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
995:. World Health Organization. pp. 29–32
915:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
898:, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
837:. iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 161.
122:in 1879, although a precursor known as the
1328:
1314:
1229:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1129:
1079:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
824:
289:A medical autoclave is a device that uses
32:
1257:"The Autoclave, effectivity and low cost"
1198:
1106:
1041:
138:meaning key, thus a self-locking device.
2646:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2127:
1335:
790:
687:
444:
280:
229:Downward displacement (or gravity-type):
140:
74:
2162:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
693:
153:Video demonstrating how autoclaves work
2657:
2210:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
974:
672:. Pasteur Institute. 9 November 2018.
2487:
2306:
2126:
1786:
1347:
1309:
1132:"Laboratory autoclaves: a case study"
1015:
803:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
643:
609:
194:in the chemical and food industries.
134:, ultimately meaning self, and Latin
1130:Faugeroux, Delphine; Wells, Barbra.
931:"All American Autoclave Sterilizers"
736:. Etymonline.com. September 16, 2018
536:
440:
404:In most of the industrialized world
670:"Charles Chamberland, the inventor"
662:
550:Stovetop autoclaves, also known as
130:in 1679. The name comes from Greek
16:Temperature and pressure instrument
13:
2205:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
758:. Consolidated Machine Corporation
708:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1991.tb04657.x
14:
2681:
2250:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2060:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1171:Journal of Clinical Microbiology
584:
572:
559:
543:
524:(F-nought) value to control the
317:, such as those associated with
2307:
1274:
1249:
1215:
1157:
1123:
1066:
1009:
948:
923:
882:
858:
696:Journal of Applied Bacteriology
676:from the original on 2021-11-22
495:of a heat-resistant bacterium,
396:effluent decontamination system
214:effluent decontamination system
797:Seymour Stanton Block (2001).
769:
722:
648:. Prentice Hall. p. 334.
637:
603:
498:Geobacillus stearothermophilus
415:
276:
219:
1:
1787:
956:"How Does an Autoclave Work?"
596:
398:is the equivalent hardware.
7:
1348:
1016:Cowan, D. A. (2004-02-01).
993:Communicable Diseases (CDS)
734:Online Etymology Dictionary
554:—the simplest of autoclaves
509:will change the color of a
10:
2686:
2488:
313:are inactivated. However,
21:Autoclave (disambiguation)
18:
2643:
2594:
2544:
2511:
2498:
2494:
2483:
2454:
2423:
2405:Time-domain reflectometer
2367:
2319:
2315:
2302:
2258:
2218:
2195:
2172:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
2139:
2135:
2122:
2083:
2040:
1989:
1958:
1895:
1864:
1841:
1825:
1799:
1795:
1782:
1665:
1599:
1511:
1436:
1358:
1354:
1343:
1034:10.1016/j.tim.2003.12.002
644:Black, Jacquelyn (1993).
505:when incubated and their
483:on medical packaging and
408:autoclaves are regulated
319:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
63:
53:
43:
31:
937:. Red Hill General Store
259:Superatmospheric cycles:
2240:Melting-point apparatus
1621:Cryogenic storage dewar
1263:. Kalstein France. 2022
374:products (such as some
157:
2177:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2167:Gas chromatograph (GC)
1022:Trends in Microbiology
831:R. B. Simpson (2002).
756:"Sterilization Cycles"
459:Johns Hopkins Hospital
454:
286:
265:Subatmospheric cycles:
154:
105:hydrothermal synthesis
80:
2552:Acid-resistant gloves
2233:differential scanning
1091:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10
935:AllAmericanCanner.com
448:
387:municipal solid waste
284:
152:
78:
2665:Laboratory equipment
2129:Analytical chemistry
1631:Laminar flow cabinet
1337:Laboratory equipment
1183:10.1128/JCM.02161-16
345:surgical instruments
19:For other uses, see
2501:Personal protective
1410:Meker–Fisher burner
1237:. November 28, 2023
481:Chemical indicators
468:loads of simulated
329:species, including
120:Charles Chamberland
58:Charles Chamberland
28:
2344:Function generator
2327:Bench power supply
2266:Analytical balance
2027:Ostwald viscometer
2022:Graduated cylinder
1761:Inoculation needle
455:
341:hypodermic needles
287:
155:
81:
26:
2670:Medical equipment
2652:
2651:
2639:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2612:Fire extinguisher
2602:Biosafety cabinet
2590:
2589:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2410:Transistor tester
2400:Spectrum analyzer
2298:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2113:
1990:Measuring devices
1812:Soxhlet extractor
1778:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1726:Spectrophotometer
1721:Pipeclay triangle
1473:Mortar and pestle
1139:Laboratory Design
844:978-1-85957-307-5
810:978-0-683-30740-5
623:978-1-351-09441-2
537:Additional images
441:Quality assurance
343:, but today many
332:Geogemma barossii
188:funerary practice
150:
73:
72:
2677:
2509:
2508:
2496:
2495:
2485:
2484:
2390:Network analyzer
2317:
2316:
2304:
2303:
2137:
2136:
2124:
2123:
1797:
1796:
1784:
1783:
1766:Inoculation loop
1636:Microtiter plate
1576:Test tube holder
1468:Magnetic stirrer
1356:
1355:
1345:
1344:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1307:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1202:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1136:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1110:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1045:
1013:
1007:
1006:
1001:
1000:
990:
978:
972:
971:
969:
967:
952:
946:
945:
943:
942:
927:
921:
920:
914:
906:
905:
903:
897:
886:
880:
879:
877:
876:
862:
856:
855:
853:
851:
828:
822:
821:
819:
817:
794:
788:
787:
785:
784:
779:. 2 January 2017
773:
767:
766:
764:
763:
752:
746:
745:
743:
741:
730:"autoclave (n.)"
726:
720:
719:
691:
685:
684:
682:
681:
666:
660:
659:
641:
635:
634:
632:
630:
607:
588:
576:
563:
547:
470:biomedical waste
151:
89:ambient pressure
36:
29:
25:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2631:
2627:Solvent cabinet
2586:
2557:Eyewash station
2540:
2505:
2503:equipment (PPE)
2502:
2490:
2471:
2450:
2419:
2363:
2354:Pulse generator
2320:Control devices
2311:
2290:
2254:
2220:Thermochemistry
2214:
2191:
2131:
2110:
2079:
2036:
2002:Conical measure
1985:
1954:
1891:
1860:
1837:
1821:
1791:
1770:
1751:Test tube brush
1661:
1646:Picotiter plate
1609:
1595:
1591:Lab drying rack
1550:Extension clamp
1526:
1507:
1446:
1432:
1368:
1350:
1339:
1334:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1240:
1238:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1146:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1071:
1067:
1014:
1010:
998:
996:
988:
979:
975:
965:
963:
954:
953:
949:
940:
938:
929:
928:
924:
908:
907:
901:
899:
895:
887:
883:
874:
872:
864:
863:
859:
849:
847:
845:
829:
825:
815:
813:
811:
795:
791:
782:
780:
775:
774:
770:
761:
759:
754:
753:
749:
739:
737:
728:
727:
723:
692:
688:
679:
677:
668:
667:
663:
656:
642:
638:
628:
626:
624:
608:
604:
599:
592:
589:
580:
577:
568:
564:
555:
552:pressure cooker
548:
539:
531:
523:
443:
418:
410:medical devices
361:waste autoclave
279:
222:
160:
141:
126:was created by
112:saturated steam
103:rubber and for
68:Waste autoclave
39:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2683:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2622:Safety cabinet
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2582:Safety goggles
2579:
2577:Safety glasses
2574:
2572:Nitrile gloves
2569:
2567:Medical gloves
2564:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2506:
2499:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2462:Alligator clip
2458:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2436:Soldering iron
2433:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2380:Logic analyzer
2377:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2337:Voltage source
2334:
2332:Current source
2323:
2321:
2313:
2312:
2300:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2271:Colony counter
2268:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2201:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2143:
2141:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2046:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Vacuum (Dewar)
1907:
1901:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1803:
1801:
1793:
1792:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1581:Test tube rack
1578:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1557:
1556:Funnel support
1554:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1463:Liquid whistle
1460:
1455:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1428:Vacuum dry box
1425:
1420:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1390:Heating mantle
1387:
1382:
1377:
1375:Alcohol burner
1371:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1340:
1333:
1332:
1325:
1318:
1310:
1302:
1301:
1290:. Elsevier B.V
1273:
1248:
1214:
1177:(2): 545–551.
1156:
1122:
1085:(3): 417–433.
1065:
1008:
984:(1999-03-26).
973:
947:
922:
881:
857:
843:
823:
809:
789:
768:
747:
721:
686:
661:
654:
636:
622:
601:
600:
598:
595:
594:
593:
590:
583:
581:
578:
571:
569:
565:
558:
556:
549:
542:
538:
535:
529:
521:
485:autoclave tape
462:biocontainment
442:
439:
417:
414:
370:heat is used,
278:
275:
270:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
248:
245:
244:Steam pulsing:
242:
239:solenoid valve
230:
221:
218:
159:
156:
124:steam digester
71:
70:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
45:
41:
40:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2682:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2647:
2642:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2536:Safety shower
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2482:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2446:Wire stripper
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2276:Spiral plater
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2140:Compositional
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:Balance brush
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1658:Weighing dish
1657:
1655:Weighing boat
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1546:Burette clamp
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1380:Bunsen burner
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1326:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1289:
1288:
1287:ScienceDirect
1283:
1277:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1160:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1005:
994:
987:
983:
977:
961:
957:
951:
936:
932:
926:
918:
912:
894:
893:
885:
871:
867:
861:
846:
840:
836:
835:
834:Rubber Basics
827:
812:
806:
802:
801:
793:
778:
772:
757:
751:
735:
731:
725:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
675:
671:
665:
657:
655:9780135829172
651:
647:
640:
625:
619:
616:. CRC Press.
615:
614:
613:VA Mycorrhiza
606:
602:
587:
582:
575:
570:
562:
557:
553:
546:
541:
540:
534:
527:
526:sterilization
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
499:
494:
489:
486:
482:
478:
474:
471:
467:
466:decontaminate
463:
460:
451:
450:Sterilization
447:
438:
434:
430:
428:
424:
413:
411:
407:
406:medical-grade
402:
399:
397:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
355:holders, and
354:
350:
346:
342:
336:
334:
333:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
283:
274:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
236:
231:
228:
227:
226:
217:
215:
210:
206:
202:
200:
199:medical waste
195:
193:
189:
185:
184:body piercing
181:
178:fabrication,
177:
173:
169:
165:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
97:sterilization
94:
90:
86:
77:
69:
66:
64:Related items
62:
59:
56:
52:
49:
48:Sterilization
46:
42:
35:
30:
22:
2607:Fire blanket
2545:Eye and hand
2531:Rubber apron
2395:Oscilloscope
2359:Potentiostat
2286:Plate reader
2182:pH indicator
2152:CHN analyzer
2147:AutoAnalyzer
1940:Round-bottom
1833:Boston round
1696:Filter paper
1677:
1651:Refrigerator
1568:Retort stand
1536:Clamp holder
1532:Beaker clamp
1498:Vortex mixer
1493:Stirring rod
1488:Static mixer
1418:Teclu burner
1292:. Retrieved
1285:
1282:"Sterilizer"
1276:
1265:. Retrieved
1260:
1251:
1239:. Retrieved
1226:
1217:
1174:
1170:
1159:
1147:. Retrieved
1142:
1138:
1125:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1028:(2): 58–60.
1025:
1021:
1011:
1003:
997:. Retrieved
992:
976:
964:. Retrieved
960:ScienceEquip
959:
950:
939:. Retrieved
934:
925:
900:, retrieved
891:
884:
873:. Retrieved
870:ScienceDaily
869:
860:
848:. Retrieved
833:
826:
814:. Retrieved
799:
792:
781:. Retrieved
771:
760:. Retrieved
750:
738:. Retrieved
733:
724:
699:
695:
689:
678:. Retrieved
664:
646:Microbiology
645:
639:
627:. Retrieved
612:
605:
519:
496:
490:
479:
475:
456:
435:
431:
429:facilities.
419:
403:
400:
391:incineration
384:
365:
337:
330:
288:
271:
251:Vacuum pumps
223:
211:
207:
203:
196:
164:microbiology
161:
135:
131:
109:
84:
82:
2595:Other items
2521:Face shield
2368:Measurement
2349:Galvanostat
2309:Electronics
2259:Other items
2245:Thermometer
2228:Calorimeter
2157:Colorimeter
2101:Gas syringe
2084:Other items
2012:Eye dropper
1887:Watch glass
1872:Evaporating
1851:Cold finger
1666:Other items
1572:Screw clamp
1564:Pinch clamp
1553:Flask clamp
1503:Wash bottle
1458:Homogenizer
702:(1): 9–18.
453:difference.
416:In research
372:heat-labile
277:In medicine
220:Air removal
176:prosthetics
128:Denis Papin
93:temperature
2659:Categories
2526:Respirator
2467:Test probe
2385:Multimeter
2197:Microscopy
2017:Eudiometer
1981:Separatory
1950:Volumetric
1915:Erlenmeyer
1843:Condensers
1807:Dean–Stark
1756:Wire brush
1716:Microscope
1711:Centrifuge
1686:Cork borer
1641:Petri dish
1616:Agar plate
1603:Containers
1586:Wire gauze
1423:Water bath
1385:Desiccator
1267:2023-10-21
1145:(6): 10–12
999:2002-02-05
941:2022-04-30
875:2020-01-13
850:19 January
816:19 January
783:2017-04-20
762:2009-06-30
680:2021-12-15
597:References
567:machines.)
507:metabolism
235:steam trap
212:A thermal
2617:Fume hood
2562:Glove box
2415:Voltmeter
1800:Apparatus
1789:Glassware
1678:Autoclave
1673:Aspirator
1626:Incubator
1560:Iron ring
1483:Sonicator
1453:Chemostat
1395:Hot plate
1191:0095-1137
1099:1092-2172
1052:0966-842X
1043:10566/147
503:germinate
347:(such as
323:Cereulide
295:sterilize
180:tattooing
101:vulcanize
85:autoclave
27:Autoclave
2516:Lab coat
2441:Tweezers
2431:Heat gun
2187:pH meter
2096:Bell jar
1976:Dropping
1930:Florence
1920:Fernbach
1882:Syracuse
1741:Scoopula
1691:Crucible
1400:Lab oven
1261:Kalstein
1241:June 11,
1209:27927920
1117:20805405
1060:15040324
911:citation
740:June 11,
674:Archived
629:June 11,
528:cycle. F
376:plastics
366:Because
299:bacteria
172:medicine
168:mycology
54:Inventor
2455:General
2375:Ammeter
2075:Thistle
2032:Pipette
2007:Cuvette
1997:Burette
1966:BĂĽchner
1959:Funnels
1945:Schlenk
1925:Fleaker
1905:BĂĽchner
1826:Bottles
1746:Spatula
1736:Stopper
1706:Forceps
1606:Storage
1523:Holders
1443:Shakers
1414:Striker
1362:Heaters
1349:General
1294:11 June
1200:5277525
1149:May 24,
1108:2937522
966:11 June
902:11 June
716:1894581
357:scalpel
349:forceps
327:archaea
303:viruses
91:and/or
2489:Safety
2091:Beaker
2070:Thiele
2055:Cragie
2050:Drying
1971:Hirsch
1935:Retort
1897:Flasks
1865:Dishes
1856:Liebig
1817:Kipp's
1731:Splint
1541:Tripod
1519:Clamps
1515:Stands
1478:Shaker
1440:Mixers
1365:Dryers
1207:
1197:
1189:
1115:
1105:
1097:
1058:
1050:
841:
807:
714:
652:
620:
493:spores
353:needle
315:prions
311:spores
309:, and
192:retort
186:, and
136:clavis
2424:Tools
2042:Tubes
1877:Petri
1231:(CDC)
1227:U.S.
1135:(PDF)
989:(PDF)
896:(pdf)
515:alloy
427:BSL-4
423:BSL-3
380:Paper
307:fungi
291:steam
237:or a
233:by a
132:auto-
2106:Vial
2065:Test
1701:File
1405:Kiln
1296:2024
1243:2024
1205:PMID
1187:ISSN
1151:2017
1113:PMID
1095:ISSN
1056:PMID
1048:ISSN
968:2024
917:link
904:2024
852:2013
839:ISBN
818:2013
805:ISBN
742:2024
712:PMID
650:ISBN
631:2024
618:ISBN
368:damp
182:and
174:and
166:and
158:Uses
44:Uses
1195:PMC
1179:doi
1103:PMC
1087:doi
1038:hdl
1030:doi
704:doi
425:or
293:to
116:atm
83:An
2661::
1284:.
1259:.
1233:.
1225:.
1203:.
1193:.
1185:.
1175:55
1173:.
1169:.
1143:20
1141:.
1137:.
1111:.
1101:.
1093:.
1083:74
1081:.
1077:.
1054:.
1046:.
1036:.
1026:12
1024:.
1020:.
1002:.
991:.
958:.
933:.
913:}}
909:{{
868:.
732:.
710:.
700:71
698:.
511:pH
351:,
305:,
301:,
201:.
170:,
1329:e
1322:t
1315:v
1298:.
1270:.
1245:.
1211:.
1181::
1153:.
1119:.
1089::
1062:.
1040::
1032::
970:.
944:.
919:)
878:.
854:.
820:.
786:.
765:.
744:.
718:.
706::
683:.
658:.
633:.
530:0
522:0
253::
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
