Availability heuristic

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questionnaire. Approximately half of the participants were asked for their study methods during the third week of classes, and the other half were asked on the last day of classes. Next, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to get an A in their easiest and hardest classes. Participants were then asked to rank the difficulty they experienced in recalling the examples they had previously listed. The researchers hypothesized that students would use the availability heuristic, based on the number of study methods they listed, to predict their grade only when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. Students were not expected to use the availability heuristic to predict their grades at the end of the semester or about their easiest final. The researchers predicted this use of the availability heuristic because participants would be uncertain about their performance throughout the semester. The results indicated that students used the availability heuristic, based on the ease of recall of the study methods they listed, to predict their performance when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. If the student listed only three study methods, they predicted a higher grade at the end of the semester only on their hardest final. If students listed eight study methods, they had a harder time recalling the methods and thus predicted a lower final grade on their hardest final. The results were not seen in the easy final condition because the students were certain they would get an A, regardless of the study method. The results supported this hypothesis and gave evidence to the fact that levels of uncertainty affect the use of the availability heuristic.

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available to them. When participants were asked to complete tasks involving estimation, they would often underestimate the end result. Participants were basing their final estimation on a quick first impression of the problem. Participants particularly struggled when the problems consisted of multiple steps. This occurred because participants were basing their estimation on an initial impression. Participants failed to account for the high rate of growth in the later steps due to the impression they formed in the initial steps. This was shown again in a task that asked participants to estimate the answer to a multiplication task, in which the numbers were presented as either 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 or 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1. Participants who were presented the equation with the larger numbers first (8x7x6...), estimated a significantly higher result than participants with the lower numbers first (1x2x3...). Participants were given a short amount of time to make the estimation, thus participants based their estimates off of what was easily available, which in this case was the first few numbers in the sequence.

198:. One simplifying strategy people may rely on is the tendency to make a judgment about the frequency of an event based on how many similar instances are brought to mind. In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first studied this phenomenon and labeled it the "availability heuristic". An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. As follows, people tend to use a readily available fact to base their beliefs on a comparably distant concept. There has been much research done with this heuristic, but studies on the issue are still questionable with regard to the underlying process. Studies illustrate that manipulations intended to increase the subjective experience of ease of recall are also likely to affect the amount of recall. Furthermore, this makes it difficult to determine whether the obtained estimates of frequency, likelihood, or typicality are based on participants' phenomenal experiences or on a biased sample of recalled information. 420:

evaluation form. He asked the first group to write two recommended improvements for the course (a relatively easy task) and then write two positives about the class. The second group was asked to write ten suggestions where the professor could improve (a relatively difficult task) and then write two positive comments about the course. At the end of the evaluation, both groups were asked to rate the course on a scale from one to seven. The results showed that students asked to write ten suggestions (difficult task) rated the course less harshly because it was more difficult for them to recall the information. Most of the students in the group that was asked to fill in 10 suggestions didn't fill in more than two being unable to recall more instances where they were unsatisfied with the class. Students asked to do the easier evaluation with only two complaints had less difficulty in terms of availability of information, so they rated the course more harshly.

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words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but that it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words in which "K" is the third letter (acknowledge, ask). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter "K" and underestimated the number of words that had "K" as the third letter. Tversky and Kahneman concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter.

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participants would use exemplars to determine the size of each set. Participants would derive their answers on ease of recall of the names that stood out. Participants read a list of names of members of a class for 30 seconds, and then participants were asked the male to female ratio of the class. The participant's answer would depend on the recall of exemplars. If the participant reading the list recalled seeing more common male names, such as Jack, but the only female names in the class were uncommon names, such as Deepika, then the participant will recall that there were more men than women. The opposite would be true if there were more common female names on the list and uncommon male names. Due to the availability heuristic, names that are more easily available are more likely to be recalled, and can thus alter judgments of probability.

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Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was represented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list. The presence of photographs affected judgments about the proportion of male and female students at the two universities. Such effects have typically been attributed to the ready accessibility of vividly presented information in memory—that is, to the availability heuristic.

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unassertive behavior. Participants were later asked to rate their own assertiveness. Pretesting had indicated that although most participants were capable of generating twelve examples, this was a difficult task. The results indicated that participants rated themselves as more assertive after describing six examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior, but rated themselves as less assertive after describing twelve examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior. The study reflected that the extent to which recalled content impacted judgment was determined by the ease with which the content could be brought to mind (it was easier to recall 6 examples than 12), rather than the amount of content brought to mind.

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20 less famous women. Subsequently, some participants were asked to recall as many names as possible whereas others were asked to estimate whether male or female names were more frequent on the list. The names of the famous celebrities were recalled more frequently compared to those of the less famous celebrities. The majority of the participants incorrectly judged that the gender associated with more famous names had been presented more often than the gender associated with less famous names. Tversky and Kahneman argue that although the availability heuristic is an effective strategy in many situations when judging probability, use of this heuristic can lead to predictable patterns of errors.

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the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating the frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena of frequency of co-occurrence, illusory correlations also often play a big role.

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third letter being K could arise from how we categorize and process words into our memory. If we categorize words by the first letter and recall them through the same process, this would show more support for the representative heuristic than the availability heuristic. Based on the possibility of explanations such as these, some researchers have claimed that the classic studies on the availability heuristic are too vague in that they fail to account for people's underlying mental processes. Indeed, a study conducted by Wanke et al. demonstrated this scenario can occur in situations used to test the availability heuristic.

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these effects may be due to effects of new information. Researchers tested the new information effect by showing movies depicting dramatic risk events and measuring their risk assessment after the film. Contrary to previous research, there were no long-term effects on risk perception due to exposure to dramatic movies. However, the study did find evidence of idiosyncratic effects of the movies - that is, people reacted immediately after the movies with enhanced or diminished risk beliefs, which faded after a period of 10 days.

3548: 224:. Tversky and Kahneman suggested that availability provides a natural account for the illusory-correlation effect. The strength of the association between two events could provide the basis for the judgment of how frequently the two events co-occur. When the association is strong, it becomes more likely to conclude that the events have been paired frequently. Strong associations will be thought of as having occurred together frequently. 25: 424:

impressions of their ability to recall names. Those children who were tasked with generating a shorter list had a higher perception of their ability to recall names than those who were tasked with generating a longer list. According to the study, this suggests that the children based their assessment of their recall abilities on their subjective experience of ease of recall.

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dolphins had less of an impact on their memory. Due to the greater impact of seeing a shark, the availability heuristic can influence the probability judgement of the ratio of sharks and dolphins in the water. Thus, an individual who saw both a shark and a dolphin would assume a higher ratio of sharks in the water, even if there are more dolphins in reality.

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hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from

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In study 2, a series of male and female names were presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual.

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Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to

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lying than when the witness was caught lying first before telling the truth. If the availability heuristic played a role in this, lying second would remain in jurors' minds (since it was more recent) and they would most likely remember the witness lying over the truthfulness. To test the hypothesis,

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A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then

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In effect, investors are using the availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making

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does in fact have a direct causal impact on participants' social reality beliefs. Repeated exposure to vivid violence leads to an increase in people's risk estimates about the prevalence of crime and violence in the real world. Counter to these findings, researchers from a similar study argued that

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For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts when more people actually die from falling airplane parts. When a shark attack occurs, the deaths are widely reported in the media whereas deaths as a

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Tversky and Kahneman argue that the number of examples recalled from memory is used to infer the frequency with which such instances occur. In an experiment to test this explanation, participants listened to lists of names containing either 19 famous women and 20 less famous men or 19 famous men and

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A second line of study has shown that frequency estimation may not be the only strategy we use when making frequency judgments. A recent line of research has shown that our situational working memory can access long-term memories, and this memory retrieval process includes the ability to determine

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In the original Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon is that

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In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of

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However, some textbooks have chosen the latter interpretation introducing the availability heuristic as "one's judgments are always based on what comes to mind". For example, if a person is asked whether there are more words in the English language that start with a k or have k as the third letter,

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The mental availability of an action's consequences is positively related to those consequences' perceived magnitude. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater those consequences are often perceived to be. Most notably, people often rely on the content of

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One of the earliest and most powerful critiques of the original Tversky and Kahneman study on the availability heuristic was the Schwarz et al. study which found that the ease of recall was a key component in determining whether a concept became available. Many studies since this criticism of the

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Another example of the availability heuristic and exemplars would be seeing a shark in the ocean. Seeing a shark has a greater impact on an individual's memory than seeing a dolphin. If someone sees both sharks and dolphins in the ocean, they will be less aware of seeing the dolphins, because the

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A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to cause death. In the study, they asked participants to choose between a stroke and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The

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Participants in a 1992 study read case descriptions of hypothetical patients who varied on their sex and sexual preference. These hypothetical patients showed symptoms that could have been caused by five different diseases (AIDS, leukemia, influenza, meningitis, or appendicitis). Participants were

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Much of the criticism against the availability heuristic has claimed that making use of the content that becomes available in our mind is not based on the ease of recall as suggested by Schwarz et al. For example, it could be argued that recalling more words that begin with K than words with the

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Another study by Marie Geurten sought to test the availability heuristic in young children. Children of varying ages (from 4 to 8 years old) were tasked with generating a list of names, with some being asked for a shorter list and some for a longer list. The study then assessed the children's own

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Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the

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In study 1, Subjects listened to a tape recording that described a woman who lived with her 7-year-old son. Subjects then heard arguments about the woman's fitness as a parent and were asked to draw their own conclusions regarding her fitness or unfitness. The concrete and colorful language were

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A study done by Craig R. Fox provides an example of how availability heuristics can work in the classroom. In this study, Fox tests whether the difficulty of recall influences judgment, specifically with course evaluations among college students. In his study he had two groups complete a course

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In Tversky & Kahneman's first examination of availability heuristics, subjects were asked, "If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" They argue that English-speaking people would immediately think of many

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performed in 2009, 2010, and 2011. 66 percent of respondents stated that they believed the market was either flat or down in 2009, 48 percent said the same about 2010 and 53 percent also said the same about 2011. In reality, the S&P 500 saw 26.5 percent annual returns in 2009, 15.1 percent

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explanation, wherein the ease with which examples come to mind, not the number of examples, is used to infer the frequency of a given class. In a study by Schwarz and colleagues to test their explanation, participants were asked to recall either six or twelve examples of their assertive or very

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When participants were shown two visual structures and asked to pick the structure that had more paths, participants saw more paths in the structure that had more obvious available paths. In the structure that participants chose, there were more columns and shorter obvious paths, making it more

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selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the

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The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with

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Another factor that affects the availability heuristic in frequency and probability is exemplars. Exemplars are the typical examples that stand out during the process of recall. If asked what participants thought different set sizes were (how many men and how many women are in the class),

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of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings. To test this idea, participants were given information about several hypothetical mental patients. The data for each patient consisted of a clinical diagnosis and a drawing made by the patient. Later,

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on the use of the availability heuristic. College students were asked to list either three or eight different study methods they could use in order to get an A on their final exams. The researchers also manipulated the time during the semester they would ask the students to complete the

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economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this.

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Additionally, a study by Hayibor and Wasieleski found that the availability of others who believe that a particular act is morally acceptable is positively related to others' perceptions of the morality of that act. This suggests that availability heuristic also has an effect on

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stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries.

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participants estimated the frequency with which each diagnosis had been accompanied by various features of the drawing. The subjects vastly overestimated the frequency of this co-occurrence (such as suspiciousness and peculiar eyes). This effect was labeled the

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as the first letter than the third. In this Knowledge article itself, for example, there are multiple instances of words such as "likely", "make", "take", "ask" and indeed "Knowledge", but (aside from names) only a couple of initial K's: "know" and "key".

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availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct.

299:. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides, 459:

312 university students played the roles of mock jurors and watched a videotape of a witness presenting testimony during a trial. Results confirmed the hypothesis, as mock jurors were most influenced by the most recent act.

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researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to die from.

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processing. Soon, this idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, medicine, and political science. This research questioned the descriptive adequacy of idealized models of judgment, and offered insights into the

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evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-

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In both studies, vividness affected both availability (ability to recall) and judgments. However, causal modeling results indicated that the availability heuristic did not play a role in the judgment process.

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moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors.

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In Tversky and Kahneman's seminal paper, they include findings from several other studies, which also show support for the availability heuristic. Apart from their findings in the "K" study, they also found:

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instructed to indicate which disease they thought the patient had and then they rated patient responsibility and interaction desirability. Consistent with the availability heuristic, either the more common (

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judgments, people watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world than those not exposed to vivid television. These results suggest that

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original availability heuristic model have repeated this initial criticism, that the ease of recall factor became an integral facet of the availability heuristic itself (see Research section).

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annual returns in 2010, and 2.1 percent annual returns in 2011, meaning lingering perceptions based on dramatic, painful events are impacting decision-making even when those events are over.

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exposure, and experience with patients who have HIV. By analyzing answers to questionnaires handed out, researchers concluded that availability of AIDS information did not relate strongly to

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Two studies with 108 undergraduates investigated vivid information and its impact on social judgment and the availability heuristic and its role in mediating vividness effects.

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Stalans, Loretta J. (1993). "Citizens' crime stereotypes, biased recall, and punishment preferences in abstract cases: The educative role of interpersonal sources".

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One study sought to analyze the role of the availability heuristic in financial markets. Researchers defined and tested two aspects of the availability heuristic:

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Riddle, Karen (2010). "Always on My Mind: Exploring How Frequent, Recent, and Vivid Television Portrayals Are Used in the Formation of Social Reality Judgments".

137:, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions not as readily recalled, is inherently biased toward recently acquired information. 1122:

Triplet, R.G (1992). "Discriminatory biases in the perception of illness: The application of availability and representativeness heuristics to the AIDS crisis".

129:, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This 1739:

Wänke, Michaela; Schwarz, Norbert; Bless, Herbert (1995). "The availability heuristic revisited: Experienced ease of retrieval in mundane frequency estimates".

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Gilovich, T. D.; Griffin, D.; Kahneman, D. (2002). "Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment". New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

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Manis, Melvin; Jonides, Jonathan; Shedler, John; Nelson, Thomas (1993). "Availability Heuristic in Judgments of Set Size and Frequency of Occurrence".

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Carroll, John S. (1978). "The effect of imagining an event on expectations for the event: An interpretation in terms of the availability heuristic".

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Read, J.D. (1995). "The availability heuristic in person identification: The sometimes misleading consequences of enhanced contextual information".

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deTurck, M. A.; Texter, L. A.; Harszlak, J. J. (1989). "Effects of Information Processing Objectives on Judgments of Deception Following Perjury".

185:. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive 2437: 863: 2665: 1562:

Pachur, Thorsten; Hertwig, Ralph; Steinmann, Florian (2012). "How do people judge risks: Availability heuristic, affect heuristic, or both?".

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Another measurable effect is the inaccurate estimation of the fraction of deaths caused by terrorism compared to homicides with other causes.

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Hayibor, Sefa; Wasieleski, David M. (2008). "Effects of the Use of the Availability Heuristic on Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations".

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it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments. To illustrate,

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Lee, Byunghwan; O'Brien, John; Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2008). "An Analysis of Financial Analysts' Optimism in Long-term Growth Forecasts".

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Sjöberg, Lennart; Engelberg, Elisabeth (2010). "Risk Perception and Movies: A Study of Availability as a Factor in Risk Perception".

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Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the

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Hulme, Charles; Roodenrys, Steven; Brown, Gordon; Mercer, Robin (1995). "The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span".

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Kliger, Doron; Kudryavtsev, Andrey (2010). "The Availability Heuristic and Investors' Reaction to Company-Specific Events".

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the person will probably be able to think of more words that begin with the letter k, concluding incorrectly that k is more

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Heath, Linda; Acklin, Marvin; Wiley, Katherine (1991). "Cognitive Heuristics and AIDS Risk Assessment Among Physicians".

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Schwarz, Norbert; Bless, Herbert; Strack, Fritz; Klumpp, Gisela; Rittenauer-Schatka, Helga; Simons, Annette (1991).

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Many researchers have attempted to identify the psychological process which creates the availability heuristic.

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Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1973). "Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability".

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are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases.

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their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it.

1311:"The availability heuristic in the classroom: How soliciting more criticism can boost your course ratings" 4031: 3691: 3671: 3080: 2824: 2019: 908: 287:

can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as

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Shedler, Jonathan; Manis, Melvin (1986). "Can the availability heuristic explain vividness effects?".

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Diamond, Shari Seidman; Stalans, Loretta J. (1989). "The myth of judicial leniency in sentencing".

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Outcome Availability – availability of positive and negative investment outcomes, and

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Tversky, A.; Kahneman, D. (1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases".

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Geurten, Marie; Willems, Sylvie; Germain, Sophie; Meulemans, Thierry (November 2015).

783: 4043: 4003: 3956: 3780: 3762: 3650: 3370: 3207: 3197: 3173: 3150: 3106: 3032: 2984: 2942: 2902: 2744: 2739: 2561: 2392: 2329: 2314: 2237: 2219: 2154: 1950: 1866: 1791: 1756: 1752: 1725: 1713: 1705: 1632: 1597: 1589: 1544: 1540: 1513: 1501: 1466: 1435: 1423: 1388: 1333: 1295: 1283: 1226: 1214: 1183: 1171: 1104: 1050: 1042: 1038: 1003: 825: 821: 739: 626: 585: 567: 395:'s annual Global Investor Sentiment Survey 1 asked individuals how they believed the 191: 1062: 4065: 3961: 3951: 3723: 3640: 3520: 3361: 3260: 3202: 3140: 2935: 2814: 2809: 2794: 2759: 2719: 2647: 2642: 2459: 2319: 2259: 2184: 2169: 2029: 1982: 1891: 1886: 1871: 1783: 1748: 1697: 1662: 1624: 1579: 1571: 1536: 1493: 1458: 1415: 1380: 1372: 1345: 1325: 1275: 1206: 1163: 1131: 1096: 1034: 991: 964: 867: 859: 817: 779: 711: 699: 434: 396: 292: 203: 1701: 3983: 3810: 3277: 3241: 3217: 3037: 3009: 2989: 2837: 2805: 2789: 2754: 2427: 2417: 2194: 2174: 2089: 1992: 1967: 1962: 1935: 1913: 1825: 620: 408: 166: 134: 1135: 864:

10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3<407::aid-ejsp943>3.0.co;2-3

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In a 2010 study exploring how vivid television portrayals are used when forming

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result of being hit by falling airplane parts are rarely reported in the media.

4013: 3928: 3918: 3906: 3822: 3795: 3740: 3686: 3178: 3163: 3085: 3004: 2930: 2570: 2469: 2464: 2454: 2377: 2294: 2254: 2204: 2149: 2139: 2124: 2119: 2084: 2039: 2004: 1908: 1857: 1666: 1497: 715: 468: 371: 344: 315: 284: 182: 1628: 1329: 1279: 1210: 1167: 995: 700:"Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic" 4227: 4113: 4060: 3988: 3834: 3645: 3303: 3193: 2925: 2888: 2832: 2700: 2695: 2407: 2387: 2350: 2324: 2309: 2289: 2269: 2232: 2144: 2104: 2099: 2094: 1972: 1876: 1795: 1760: 1709: 1636: 1593: 1548: 1505: 1470: 1427: 1337: 1287: 1218: 1175: 1108: 1046: 829: 300: 216: 195: 1360: 279:

After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the

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Researchers in 1989 predicted that mock jurors would rate a witness to be

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risk-assessment process. 331 physicians reported worry about on-the-job

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Kahneman's research established that common human errors can arise from

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Chapman, L.J (1967). "Illusory correlation in observational report".

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found to influence judgments about the woman's fitness as a mother.

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Gilovich, Thomas; Griffin, Dale; Kahneman, Daniel (2002-07-08).

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Researchers examined the role of cognitive heuristics in the

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Schwarz and his colleagues, on the other hand, proposed the

177:. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human 1848: 1076:

This Is How Your Fear and Outrage Are Being Sold for Profit

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Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment

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began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and

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that explained human error without invoking motivated

1814:– an article on the origins of the availability bias. 1483: 1259: 1010: 557: 501: 355:) or the more publicized (AIDS) disease was chosen. 133:, operating on the notion that, if something can be 1673: 261:Research by Vaughn (1999) looked at the effects of 49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1767: 1442: 727: 725: 1738: 1477: 1265: 1153: 4225: 1608: 1086: 1016: 1679: 1080: 807: 722: 622:An Introduction to Applied Cognitive Psychology 612: 531: 2666:Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise 1655:Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 1448: 454:deceptive if the witness testified truthfully 3578: 2671:Negative conclusion from affirmative premises 2541: 1833: 1648: 1646: 934:"Odds and ends - The San Diego Union-Tribune" 1617:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1614: 704:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 618: 4076:Political polarization in the United States 3592: 2555: 1564:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 1520: 1399: 1365:British Journal of Developmental Psychology 540: 3585: 3571: 2548: 2534: 2496:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making 1840: 1826: 1643: 16:Bias towards recently acquired information 4129:Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal 3249: 1583: 1529:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1149: 1147: 1145: 871: 803: 801: 799: 797: 795: 793: 693: 691: 689: 687: 370:Risk Availability – availability of 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 3402: 148: 1526: 1405: 1121: 769: 619:Esgate, Anthony; Groome, David (2005). 411:and ethical behavior in organizations. 358: 144: 4226: 1142: 981: 842: 790: 684: 511:is explained as an availability bias. 4171:Psychological effects of Internet use 3566: 2529: 1821: 1732: 852:European Journal of Social Psychology 663: 1190: 1089:Journal of Applied Social Psychology 954: 481: 47:adding citations to reliable sources 18: 4146:Digital media use and mental health 1308: 1124:Basic and Applied Social Psychology 664:Phung, Albert (February 25, 2009). 507:repeated events. The phenomenon of 427: 161:In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 13: 1788:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x 1101:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00509.x 909:"Social Media's Impact on Society" 14: 4265: 4151:Effects of violence in mass media 3855:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 1805: 1451:Behavioral Sciences & the Law 625:. Psychology Press. p. 201. 502:Judging frequency and probability 462: 4124:2021 Facebook company files leak 3850:Mobile phones and driving safety 3547: 3546: 1039:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01335.x 560: 23: 4096:2020 U.S. presidential election 4091:2016 U.S. presidential election 1555: 1352: 1302: 1233: 1115: 1069: 975: 948: 938:legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com 926: 901: 880: 269: 241: 34:needs additional citations for 3044:Correlation implies causation 1585:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-F052-7 836: 763: 752: 738:. Cambridge University Press. 657: 639: 1: 3667:Betteridge's law of headlines 1776:British Journal of Psychology 1702:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 1199:Journal of Behavioral Finance 1156:Journal of Behavioral Finance 784:10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80066-5 606: 550:more accurate probabilities. 4181:Social aspects of television 4081:Social media use in politics 3731:Missing white woman syndrome 1753:10.1016/0001-6918(93)E0072-A 1541:10.1016/0022-1031(78)90062-8 1318:Judgment and Decision Making 957:Applied Cognitive Psychology 822:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9 532:Ease of recall as a critique 526: 414: 7: 3692:Least objectionable program 2362:Déformation professionnelle 1136:10.1207/s15324834basp1303_3 553: 210: 10: 4270: 4027:Algorithmic radicalization 3468:I'm entitled to my opinion 2356:Basking in reflected glory 1847: 1667:10.1037/0022-3514.65.3.448 1498:10.1177/009365089016003006 1268:Journal of Business Ethics 843:Vaughn, Leigh Ann (1999). 772:Journal of Verbal Learning 716:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195 466: 283:of this event is greater. 4141:Cultural impact of TikTok 4106: 4012: 3927: 3771: 3659: 3604: 3542: 3451: 3390: 3324: 3240: 3149: 3124: 3099: 3023: 2975: 2911: 2886: 2858: 2823: 2773: 2727: 2718: 2656: 2622: 2578: 2569: 2504: 2486:Cognitive bias mitigation 2478: 2343: 2218: 1855: 1629:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.26 1330:10.1017/S1930297500000371 1280:10.1007/s10551-008-9690-7 1211:10.1080/15427560802341889 1168:10.1080/15427561003591116 996:10.1080/15213261003800140 330: 173:" used in judgment under 4213:Violence and video games 4191:Social impact of YouTube 4071:Knowledge gap hypothesis 3994:Social-desirability bias 3892:Information–action ratio 3494:Motte-and-bailey fallacy 2594:Affirming the consequent 2070:Illusion of transparency 647:"Availability Heuristic" 591:List of cognitive biases 541:Alternative explanations 274: 58:"Availability heuristic" 4166:Mass shooting contagion 3619:Evolutionary psychology 3514:Two wrongs make a right 2845:Denying the correlative 378:On days of substantial 4156:Fascination with death 4019:Political polarization 3947:Availability heuristic 3912:Television consumption 3499:Psychologist's fallacy 3436:Argument to moderation 3426:Argument from anecdote 3376:Chronological snobbery 3000:Quoting out of context 2967:Overwhelming exception 2850:Suppressed correlative 2750:Quoting out of context 2625:quantificational logic 2599:Denying the antecedent 1486:Communication Research 1463:10.1002/bsl.2370070106 1408:Law and Human Behavior 1309:Fox, Craig R. (2006). 969:10.1002/acp.2350090202 576:Attribute substitution 158: 123:availability heuristic 4119:Criticism of Facebook 3999:Social influence bias 3887:Information pollution 3877:Information explosion 3860:Texting while driving 3816:Low information voter 3714:Pink-slime journalism 3462:The Four Great Errors 3442:Argumentum ad populum 3431:Argument from silence 3135:Argumentum ad baculum 2913:Faulty generalization 2604:Argument from fallacy 2438:Arab–Israeli conflict 2165:Social influence bias 2110:Out-group homogeneity 467:Further information: 155:heuristics and biases 152: 4136:Criticism of Netflix 3942:Availability cascade 3882:Information overload 3791:Attention management 3786:Attention inequality 3682:Human-interest story 3624:Behavioral modernity 3609:Cognitive psychology 3480:Invincible ignorance 3286:Reductio ad Stalinum 3272:Reductio ad Hitlerum 3228:Wisdom of repugnance 2995:Moving the goalposts 2860:Illicit transference 2785:Begging the question 2706:Undistributed middle 2614:Mathematical fallacy 2589:Affirming a disjunct 2080:Mere-exposure effect 2010:Extrinsic incentives 1956:Selective perception 810:Cognitive Psychology 581:Cache language model 509:illusory correlation 359:Business and economy 222:illusory correlation 181:was that humans are 145:Overview and history 43:improve this article 4249:Inductive fallacies 4049:Post-truth politics 3979:Mean world syndrome 3213:Parade of horribles 3189:In-group favoritism 3015:Syntactic ambiguity 2658:Syllogistic fallacy 2581:propositional logic 2305:Social desirability 2200:von Restorff effect 2075:Mean world syndrome 2050:Hostile attribution 1694:1974Sci...185.1124T 1688:(4157): 1124–1131. 1031:2010RiskA..30...95S 321:television violence 192:cognitive processes 3867:Influence-for-hire 3845:Media multitasking 3840:Human multitasking 3758:Tabloid television 3709:Media manipulation 3299:Poisoning the well 3116:Proof by assertion 3091:Texas sharpshooter 3025:Questionable cause 2962:Slothful induction 2921:Anecdotal evidence 2781:Circular reasoning 2676:Exclusive premises 2638:Illicit conversion 2220:Statistical biases 1998:Curse of knowledge 1420:10.1007/BF01044378 1377:10.1111/bjdp.12114 890:. 27 February 2022 601:Streetlight effect 393:Franklin Templeton 159: 4221: 4220: 4044:Fake news website 4004:Spiral of silence 3957:Confirmation bias 3781:Attention economy 3763:Yellow journalism 3651:Social psychology 3560: 3559: 3538: 3537: 3534: 3533: 3474:Ignoratio elenchi 3386: 3385: 3236: 3235: 3198:Not invented here 2903:Converse accident 2825:Correlative-based 2802:Compound question 2745:False attribution 2740:False equivalence 2714: 2713: 2523: 2522: 2160:Social comparison 1941:Choice-supportive 1741:Acta Psychologica 1247:. October 6, 2012 1095:(22): 1859–1867. 632:978-1-84169-318-7 586:Confirmation bias 568:Psychology portal 482:Vividness effects 397:S&P 500 Index 293:airline accidents 255:ease of retrieval 127:availability bias 119: 118: 111: 93: 4261: 4239:Cognitive biases 4234:Causal fallacies 4066:Knowledge divide 3962:Crowd psychology 3952:Bandwagon effect 3724:Public relations 3641:Media psychology 3587: 3580: 3573: 3564: 3563: 3550: 3549: 3521:Special pleading 3400: 3399: 3261:Appeal to motive 3247: 3246: 3223:Stirring symbols 3203:Island mentality 3141:Wishful thinking 3122: 3121: 2838:Perfect solution 2815:No true Scotsman 2810:Complex question 2795:Leading question 2774:Question-begging 2760:No true Scotsman 2725: 2724: 2648:Quantifier shift 2643:Proof by example 2576: 2575: 2550: 2543: 2536: 2527: 2526: 2320:Systematic error 2275:Omitted-variable 2190:Trait ascription 2030:Frog pond effect 1858:Cognitive biases 1842: 1835: 1828: 1819: 1818: 1812:How Belief Works 1800: 1799: 1771: 1765: 1764: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1677: 1671: 1670: 1650: 1641: 1640: 1612: 1606: 1605: 1587: 1576:10.1037/a0028279 1559: 1553: 1552: 1524: 1518: 1517: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1403: 1397: 1396: 1356: 1350: 1349: 1315: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1263: 1257: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1245:Business Insider 1237: 1231: 1230: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1151: 1140: 1139: 1119: 1113: 1112: 1084: 1078: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1014: 1008: 1007: 984:Media Psychology 979: 973: 972: 952: 946: 945: 940:. Archived from 930: 924: 923: 921: 920: 905: 899: 898: 896: 895: 884: 878: 877: 875: 858:(2/3): 407–410. 849: 840: 834: 833: 805: 788: 787: 767: 761: 760: 756: 750: 749: 729: 720: 719: 695: 682: 681: 679: 677: 661: 655: 654: 651:Oxford Reference 643: 637: 636: 616: 570: 565: 564: 563: 435:long-term memory 428:Criminal justice 125:, also known as 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4258: 4254:Prospect theory 4224: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4102: 4017: 4008: 3984:Negativity bias 3932: 3923: 3811:Cognitive miser 3767: 3660:Media practices 3655: 3600: 3591: 3561: 3556: 3530: 3504:Rationalization 3447: 3394: 3382: 3320: 3242:Genetic fallacy 3232: 3145: 3120: 3095: 3019: 3010:Sorites paradox 2990:False precision 2971: 2952:Double counting 2907: 2882: 2854: 2819: 2806:Loaded question 2790:Loaded language 2769: 2710: 2652: 2618: 2565: 2554: 2524: 2519: 2500: 2474: 2339: 2214: 2195:Turkey illusion 1963:Compassion fade 1860: 1851: 1846: 1808: 1803: 1772: 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