Aztec society - Knowledge

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commerce, but also to the socialization, as the markets provided a place for the people to exchange information within their regions. This type of trade market was used primarily for locally produced goods, as there was not much traveling needed to exchange goods at the market. With no domestic animals as an effective way to transport goods, the local markets were an essential part of Aztec commerce. However, the Aztec nobility obtained much of their merchandise from neighboring highland basins, distant places within the empire, and from land beyond the empire therefore creating the need for a long-distance trade organization. The long-distance trade was carried out by merchants called pochteca, who were defined by their positions within the system. These professional merchants occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. The pochteca were responsible for providing the materials that the noble class used to display their wealth. These materials were often obtained from foreign sources. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of the merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. The pochteca were an advanced group who reported to 12 locations throughout the Empire, where the high officials were located.

527:, who specializes in the historical description of the Nahua, said Aztec society was characterized by a "tendency to create larger wholes by the aggregation of parts that remain relatively separate and self-contained brought together by their common function and similarity". This understanding entails a social stratification that is built from the bottom – up, rather than from the top – down. Aztec hierarchy by this understanding was not of the type "where a unit of one type – the capital – controls subordinate units of another type" but instead a type where the main unit is composed out of several constituent parts. 362:). Nobles held a large number of privileges not shared by the commoners, most importantly the right to receive tribute from commoners on their land. Commoners on the other hand were free to own and cultivate land and to manage their own possessions, while still completing the services required by their lords and their calpulli, such as tribute payment and military service. Mobility between the two social layers was difficult, but in practice both the commoner and noble groups were structured into finer hierarchies and a high degree of social mobility was possible within a given layer. For example, the 932: 464:. The altepetl was the unit that held sway over a given territory and defended and possibly expanded it by military might. The tlatoani was the head of the most influential calpulli, often because of having the most prestigious lineage. The word altepetl, however, did not only refer to the area but also to its population, and altepetl affiliation is thought to have been the primary criterion for ethnic divisions in Mesoamerica – rather than linguistic affinities. 664:

water, and were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers first created "seedbeds", or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and allowed them to germinate. Once they had germinated, they were re-planted on the chinampas. This cut the growing time down considerably.

1010:. As the steam accumulates in the upper part of the room a person in charge uses a bough to direct the steam to the bathers who are lying on the ground, with which he later gives them a massage, then the bathers scrub themselves with a small flat river stone and finally the person in charge introduces buckets with water with soap and grass used to rinse. This bath had also ritual importance, and was vinculated to the goddess 31: 629:. Terraces were built by piling a wall of stones parallel to the contour of the hillside. Dirt was then filled in, creating viable, flat farmland. There were three distinct types of terrace, each used for specific circumstances: hillslope contour terraces (steeper slopes), semi-terraces (gentle slopes, walls were made with Maguey plants rather than stones), and cross-channel terraces. 508:. Aztecs married at a later age, during their late teens and early twenties, whereas in Mayan culture it was not unusual for marriages to be arranged by parents for a son and daughter who were still children. Aztec marriages were initiated by the parents of the potential groom. After consulting with the extended kinship group, the parents would approach a professional 230:), which were again usually composed of one or more extended kinship groups. Socially, the society depended on a rather strict division between nobles and free commoners, both of which were themselves divided into elaborate hierarchies of social status, responsibilities, and power. Economically the society was dependent on agriculture, and also to a large extent on 294:

developed as a synthesis between Mesoamerican societies and Aztec traditions, although today it cannot easily be discerned which parts come from where. Aztec society was not isolated from the larger Mesoamerican context, and in fact, most aspects of it were similar in structure to what existed in the surrounding societies.

753:("The sayings of the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals. It included speeches and sayings for every occasion, the words to salute the birth of children, and to say farewell at death. Fathers admonished their daughters to be respectful and very clean, but not to use makeup, because they would look like 880:. Female tizitl would treat women throughout their reproductive life. They would admonish young wives, and after the second month of pregnancy, they began to watch for any problems. They preferred to save the woman's life over that of a fetus, resorting to embryotomy. Because of this, their work, called 709:

upon their arrival. The regional merchants, known as tlacuilo, would barter utilitarian items and food, which included gold, silver, and other precious stones, cloth and cotton, animal skins, both agriculture and wild game, and woodwork. The trade market of the Aztec people was not only important to

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All trade throughout the Aztec Empire was regulated by officers who patrolled the markets to ensure that the buyers were not being cheated by the merchants. Because markets were so numerous, in large cities reaching upwards of 20,000 people, the organization was crucial, and the Aztecs were able to

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In Aztec society, dance could be used for entertainment, religious and sacrificial purposes, or for politics. When the intent was entertainment, it was performed in either a temple, temple or secluded areas for nobles. These performances often included songs, instrumental music and sometimes comic

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The highest officials of the pochteca were the pochteca tlatoque. The pochteca tlatoque were the elder of the pochteca, and were no longer travelers, but rather acted as administrators, overseeing young pochteca and administering the marketplace. The second group of pochteca was the slave traders,

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Altepetl states would normally strive to dominate neighboring altepetl through warfare. Weak altepetl would be subjugated by stronger ones and made to pay tribute. Often subordinate altepetl would form alliances in order to overthrow a dominant altepetl. Some alliances were short-lived and others

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meaning "big house") was a political unit composed of several interrelated family groups. The exact nature of the calpulli is not completely understood and it has been variously described as a kind of clan, a town, a ward, a parish or an agriculture based cooperative. In Nahuatl another word for

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the proto-Aztecs became sedentary agriculturalists and achieved the same levels of technology as their neighbouring peoples. They held on to their language, many of their religious systems, and probably aspects of their previous social customs. Resultingly the foundations of "Aztec society" were

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Aztec society can trace its roots to Mesoamerican Origins. Their language, lifestyle, and technology were all impacted by contact with neighboring cultures. But, while they were impacted by various sources, they developed their own distinct social groupings, political structures, traditions, and

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Chinampas, areas of raised land in a body of water, were created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake and plant matter/other vegetation. These "raised beds" were between 2 and 4 meters wide, and 20 to 40 meters long. They rose approximately 1 meter above the surface of the

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A group of trader spies, known as the natural oztomeca, made up the last group of pochteca. The natural oztomeca were forced to disguise themselves as they traveled, as they sought after rare goods. The natural oztomeca were also used for gathering information at the markets and reporting the

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Aztec armed forces were typically composed of large numbers of commoners with basic military training, who were stiffened by smaller numbers of professional warriors belonging to the nobility. The professional warriors were organized into warrior societies and often ranked according to their

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The economic practices of the Aztec relied upon both trade and military conquest. Furthermore, each Altepetl usually produced some form of unique trade good, meaning there were significant merchant and artisan classes. While the Aztec traded with each other and others for goods and services,

884:, has sometimes been translated as "obstetrics" (Medicine in Mexico, before the Discovery. Dr. Manuel Valdez 1992). All women were taught to be involved "in the things of god"; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. 2152: 636:

farming was used. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. This allowed for more regular harvests because the prosperity of an irrigated field was not dependent upon the rain. Irrigation systems had been in place long before the Aztecs. However, they built

516:), who would approach the potential bride's family. The parents of the young woman would advise the matchmaker whether or not they accepted the proposal. Brides were expected to be virgins before marriage, although young people of both sex were advised to be celibate. 978:

that "Bathing and the custom of washing oneself is so quotidian (common) amongst the Indians, both of cold and hot lands, as is eating, and this is done in fountains and rivers and other water to which they have access, without anything other than pure water..."

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were long-term relationships wherein a group of altepetl would converge to form what could almost be considered a single political entity. One example of a long-term alliance between independent city-states would be that between the four altepetl of Tlaxcallan,

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and living patterns were largely determined by family ties, because networks of family groups settled together to form calpollis. Lineage was traced through both the maternal and paternal lines, although with a preference for paternal lineage.

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Aztec farmers could be divided into general laborers and specialists. General laborers could be slaves, menial workers, or farm hands, while specialists were responsible for things like choosing the most successful seeds and crop rotations.

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Prior to the fall of the Aztec, the Aztec people had a stable economy driven by a successful trade market. The markets, which were located in the center of many communities, were well organized and diverse in goods, as noted by the Spanish

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Children were taught at home until about 15 years of age, but all Aztec children, boys and girls, were expected to attend school for some time when they were between 10 and 20 years old. Boys and girls went to school at age 15.

1054:. In recent decades the archaeological study of precolumbian Aztec civilization has also unearthed important information about Aztec society which has led to a deeper understanding particularly of social structures and trade. 780:, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. 757:. Mothers admonished their daughters to support their husbands, even if they turned out to be humble peasants. Boys were admonished to be humble, obedient and hard workers. Judging by their language, most of the 973:

as being "...Very neat and cleanly, bathing every day each afternoon...". Bathing was not restricted to the elite, but was practised by all people; the chronicler Tomás López Medel wrote after a journey to

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Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. Some of them were educated as midwives and received the full training of a healer; they were also called

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Family and lineage were the basic units of Aztec society. One's lineage determined social standing, and noble traced their lineage back to the mythical past, as they were said to be descended from the god

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achievements. As the Aztec state was centered on expansion, dominance, and extraction of tribute from other city-states, warfare became the basic dynamic force in Aztec politics, economy, and religion.

853:) propounded a spartan regime of education – cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bleeding with maguey thorns and endurance tests – with the purpose of forming a stoical people. 408:

where young men were trained, predominantly in martial arts. In some Aztec city-states calpullis practiced a specialized or specific trade, and these calpullis functioned something like a medieval

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There were also two other opportunities for those few who had talent. Some were chosen for the house of song and dance, and others were chosen for the ball game. Both occupations had high status.

737:, the founders and dominant group of the Aztec Empire, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station. 899:, the ball game, was a large part of the indigenous society and had ritual aspects. Dance, however could be used in many different ways such as entertainment, religion or politics. 838:) had several specialities. Some were trained to just inspect and classify medicinal plants, others were trained in the preparation of medicines that were sold in special places ( 1633: 1006:(teʃict͜ɬe) that heats a small portion of the room's wall made of volcanic rocks; after this wall has been heated, water is poured on it to produce steam, an action known as 714:

known as the tlatoani. These people were often referred to as the richest of merchants, as they played a central role in capturing the slaves used for sacrificial victims.

576:. Recent studies have countered the claim that the Aztec Empire ran the triple alliance by suggesting that Tenochtitlan was actually the dominant altepetl all along. 625:

The Aztecs implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, typically in the highlands of the Aztec Empire. Terracing allowed for an increased soil depth and impeded

552:, which is normally thought of as a single entity even though it had four independent rulers and a certain level of internal competition. Another is the so-called 324:. This definition is referring to specific circumstances of one particular Aztec group it will be done with the ethnonym referring specifically to that group e.g. 1472: 604: 642: 572:. The Aztec Triple Alliance eventually achieved political hegemony and control over the greater part of Mesoamerica, becoming known to posterity as the 1685: 788:

or House of the Young, taught history, religion, military fighting arts, and a trade or craft (such as agriculture or handicrafts). Some of the

366:, long-distance traders, were considered commoners yet at the same time held a number of privileges comparable to those of the lesser nobility. 923:

and its ritual cycle. Dance could also be used in politics to show imperial power and to impress the gods for successful wars and conquest.

1642: 819:). They studied rituals, ancient and contemporary history, literacy, calendrics, some elements of geometry, songs (poetry), and, as at the 831:

specialized in some handicrafts, and this was an important part of the income of the city. The teaching of handicraft was highly valued.

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The sources for information about Aztec society are primarily documents written in the Spanish language in the first century after the

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The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries

842:). More than a hundred preparations are known, including deodorants, remedies for smelly feet, dentifric paste etc. Also there were 641:

systems that were longer and more elaborate than any previous irrigation systems. They even managed to divert a large portion of the

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Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their

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speaking peoples of central Mexico, that is in opposition to a definition restricting the term "Aztec" to cover the inhabitants of

424:. Other calpullis were composed of immigrant groups from other areas of Mesoamerica who settled together. There is evidence that 1207:

Smith, Michael E.; Montiel, Lisa (2001). "The Archaeological Study of Empires and Imperialism in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico".

1956: 1858: 1268: 1278: 1031: 950: 234:. Other economically important factors were commerce, long-distance and local, and a high degree of trade specialization. 211: 138: 717:

The third group of long-distance traders was the tencunenenque, who worked for the rulers by carrying out personal trade.

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seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures.

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Temazcal. (2012, 25 de agosto). Knowledge, La enciclopedia libre. Fecha de consulta: 08:24, diciembre 18, 2012 desde

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The earliest, and most basic, form of agriculture implemented by the Aztecs is known as " rainfall cultivation."

2167: 345: 2118: 1850: 1595: 1557: 1523: 864:; some accounts said they could choose where to study. It is possible that the common people preferred the 599:

The pre-conquest Aztecs were an empire that prospered agriculturally, and they did so without the wheel or

397:), to whom its members were normally related. He provided the calpulli members with lands for cultivation ( 1970: 646: 1948: 1794: 1410: 1467: 1051: 954: 2191: 1706: 524: 2158: 1714: 1691: 1234: 1002:("house"), consists of a room, often in the form of a small dome, with an exterior firebox known as 477:. Prestigious lineages also traced their kin back through ruling dynasties, preferably ones with a 1798: 1749: 1554:

Trade, Tribute, and Transportation: The Sixteenth-Century Political Economy of the Valley of Mexico

1846: 1824: 1775: 1039: 868:, because a warrior could advance more readily by his military abilities; becoming a priest or a 274: 2181: 1299:

Power and Identity in Archaeological Theory and Practice: Case Studies from Ancient Mesoamerica

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The calpulli ran a temple for adoration of the calpulli's deity and also a school called the

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Evans, Susan (1998). "Sexual Politics in the Aztec Palace: Public, Private, and Profane".

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agricultural trade was less common, leading to a large class of agricultural laborers.

561: 417: 1371: 401:) or with access to non-agricultural occupations in exchange for tribute and loyalty. 2163: 2132: 2122: 2097: 2087: 2066: 2056: 2035: 2025: 2017: 2009: 1997: 1985: 1952: 1928: 1918: 1894: 1884: 1864: 1854: 1812: 1802: 1763: 1753: 1728: 1718: 1654: 1646: 1609: 1599: 1571: 1561: 1537: 1527: 1495: 1485: 1455: 1445: 1424: 1414: 1351: 1302: 1175: 505: 282: 161: 1267:

The Effects of Colonization on the Aztecs: Early Colonial Period 1521-1550, Page 18

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create a successful market due to the success of enforcing the laws of the empire.

63: 1441: 1038:, a 12 volume ethnographic description of precolumbian Aztec society compiled by 975: 653: 437: 350:

The most basic social division in Aztec society was that between nobles (Nahuatl

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specialized in surgery, digestive diseases, teeth and nose, skin diseases, etc.

770: 2186: 2083: 1838: 1398: 1167: 920: 600: 73: 68: 53: 1507: 1043: 218:. Politically, the society was organized into independent city-states, called 2175: 1993: 1650: 1499: 1481: 690: 545: 231: 118: 113: 2136: 2101: 2070: 2039: 1932: 1898: 1868: 1767: 1732: 1613: 1575: 1541: 1459: 1014:; it is also therapeutic when medicinal herbs are used in the water for the 792:

students were chosen for the army, but most of them returned to their homes.

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Hernández, J. C. (n.d.). www.izt.uam.mx. Retrieved December 18, 2012, from

1220: 958: 706: 626: 573: 569: 565: 501: 482: 474: 429: 425: 405: 317: 143: 128: 123: 88: 83: 1816: 746:. Periodically they attended their local temples, to test their progress. 214:, and which was built on the cultural foundations of the larger region of 1621: 1583: 1549: 1477: 946: 749:

Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called

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The definition of the term "Aztec" which will be applied here is that of

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sketches. When used for religion or sacrifice, it followed the sacred

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The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica

1833:. The Civilization of the American Indians Series vol. 200, part 2. 261:, the first waves of tribes speaking the forefather language of the 108: 1046:, and the descriptions of the first conquistadors such as those of 776: 742: 658: 616: 557: 541: 461: 449: 375: 363: 352: 226: 220: 1480:(trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England: 1372:

http://es.wikipedia.org/search/?title=Temazcal&oldid=59102538

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which was originally formed to end the dominance of the altepetl

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at a highly advanced technological level. Under the influence of

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The Aztecs are credited with domestication of the subspecies of

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The Aztec Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-Spanish Mexico

1739: 1594:. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 188. Norman: 1556:. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 171. Norman: 1019: 734: 478: 433: 325: 207: 30: 22: 1520:

Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de Tierra Firme

656:, the Aztecs implemented a unique method of crop cultivation, 1301:. Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press. p. 8. 942: 638: 303: 265:

languages migrated south into Mesoamerica. They were nomadic

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Daily Life of the Aztecs: On the Eve of the Spanish Conquest

1879:(2000). "Aztec City-States". In Mogens Herman Hansen (ed.). 1849:, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.). Norman: 1781:

Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain

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Ancient American Poets: The Flower Songs of Nezahualcoyotl

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chronicles describe the bathing habits of the peoples of

1641:. México, D.F.: Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas— 603:. They primarily practiced four methods of agriculture: 500:

Aztec marriage practices were similar to those of other

1837:(English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with 1590:

Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control

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heritage. The extended family group was also the basic

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Society in central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest

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and arrived in a region that was already populated by

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Barbara A. Somervill - Empire of the Aztecs, page 101

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Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España

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Recreation came in different forms in Aztec society.

2046: 1883:. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Videnskabernes Selskab. 1626:"Xicotencatl: rethinking an indigenous Mexican hero" 1514:. Civilization of the American Indian series, #210. 2024:. Patrick O’Brian (Trans.). London: Phoenix Press. 1409:. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology. New York: 1131: 1129: 530: 2110: 2016: 1741: 1587: 1402: 872:was not a way to rise rapidly from a low station. 1965: 1939: 1905: 1881:A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures 1875: 1789:(eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of 1683: 1405:The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society 1320: 1318: 856:There is contradictory information about whether 2173: 1791:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España 1126: 2159:Pre-Columbian America: Empires of the New World 1705: 1397: 860:was reserved for the sons and daughters of the 1684:Hogan, C. Michael (2008). N. Stromberg (ed.). 1315: 1235:"Agriculture and Exchange Ancient Aztec World" 774:, for practical and military studies, and the 721:information to the higher levels of pochteca. 1793: ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: 1296: 460:composed of several calpullis and ruled by a 169: 1971:"City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica" 1690:. Sweden: GlobalTwitcher.com. Archived from 1620: 1582: 1548: 1506: 1206: 328:for the inhabitants of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, 496:Women in Aztec civilization § Marriage 1435: 926: 645:to provide irrigation to large areas. The 312:. He defines "Aztec" as including all the 176: 162: 519: 393:The calpulli was ruled by a local chief ( 1740:Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1990). 930: 595:Aztec § Agriculture and subsistence 1643:Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 277:Mesoamerican civilizations such as the 246: 2174: 1512:The History of the Indies of New Spain 1356:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1209:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 803:, was focused on turning out leaders ( 339: 257:In the middle of the first millennium 1785:. vols. I-XII. Charles E. Dibble and 1744:Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition 1292: 1290: 1288: 1286: 1153: 1025: 768:There were two types of schools: the 699: 467: 212:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 139:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 13: 1283: 681:, which is native to this region. 14: 2203: 799:, attended mostly by the sons of 224:, composed of smaller divisions ( 2161:The Rosen Publishing Group, 2010 2051:(Revised 2nd ed.). London: 1687:Wild turkey: Meleagris gallopavo 1156:RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 1034:. Important among these are the 982:The Mesoamerican bath, known as 938:from the Loubat collection, 1904 649:was very complex and intricate. 531:Alliances and political hegemony 29: 2146: 2082:(3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: 1377: 1364: 1297:Harrison-Buck, Eleanor (2015). 1272: 1261: 1252: 1227: 1200: 1191: 1182: 1147: 902: 807:), priests, scholars/teachers ( 759:huehuetlatolli who what is that 2109:Zantwijk, Rudolph van (1985). 2078:Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). 1138: 1117: 1108: 1099: 1090: 1081: 1072: 1063: 632:In the valleys of the empire, 588: 210:in the centuries prior to the 1: 2047:Townsend, Richard F. (2000). 1389: 1096:Van Zantwijk (1977) pp. 16.17 890: 346:Social class in Aztec society 2119:University of Oklahoma Press 1913:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA: 1851:University of Oklahoma Press 1596:University of Oklahoma Press 1558:University of Oklahoma Press 1524:University of Oklahoma Press 1411:Holt, Rinehart & Winston 728: 652:In the swampy regions along 579: 7: 1949:University Press of Florida 1795:School of American Research 1634:Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 1258:C. Michael Hogan (2008) p 1 489: 443: 390:– "a partition of houses". 369: 237: 10: 2208: 1168:10.1086/RESv33n1ms20167007 906: 688: 684: 592: 504:civilizations such as the 493: 428:had calpullis composed of 343: 301: 250: 1984:(4). Beverley Hills, CA: 1945:Aztec City State Capitals 1715:Stanford University Press 1473:The Conquest of New Spain 1468:Díaz del Castillo, Bernal 1123:Van Zantwijk (1977) p. 17 1087:Van Zantwijk (1977) p. 16 601:domestic beasts of burden 356:) and commoners (Nahuatl 297: 202:that developed among the 1994:10.1177/0096144204274396 1978:Journal of Urban History 1799:University of Utah Press 1750:Rutgers University Press 1188:Lockhart qp(1992) p. 436 1105:Smith (2001) pp. 107–113 1057: 1052:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 990:, from the Nahuatl word 955:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 913: 456:"water-mountain") was a 961:(the Mexica, or Aztec, 927:Bathing and cleanliness 412:. This was the case in 1825:Sahagún, Bernardino de 1776:Sahagún, Bernardino de 1221:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372 1018:. It is still used in 939: 815:) and codex painters ( 520:Political organization 320:or the parties in the 1847:Eloise Quiñones Keber 1845:, Charles E. Dibble, 1748:. New Brunswick, NJ: 1069:Smith (2001) pp. 6–13 1040:Bernardino de Sahagún 949:during and after the 934: 909:Mesoamerican ballgame 554:Aztec Triple Alliance 322:Aztec Triple Alliance 1915:Blackwell Publishing 1843:Arthur J.O. Anderson 1787:Arthur J.O. Anderson 1670:online reproduction) 1522: ed.). Norman: 1476:. Penguin Classics. 1197:Hassig (2001) passim 936:Codex Magliabechiano 605:rainfall cultivation 247:Mesoamerican origins 243:leisure activities. 149:Fall of Tenochtitlan 2053:Thames & Hudson 1947:. Gainesville, FA: 1830:Primeros Memoriales 1436:Curl, John (2005). 1383:Smith (2001) p. 6-7 1144:Berdan (1982) p. 47 1135:Smith (2000) p. 584 1114:Berdan (1982) p. 57 1042:, the chronicle of 678:Meleagris gallopavo 609:terrace agriculture 340:Social organization 2157:Kathleen Kuiper - 2018:Soustelle, Jacques 1835:Thelma D. Sullivan 1239:blogs.stockton.edu 1026:Historical records 965:at the arrival of 940: 700:Trade and commerce 468:Family and lineage 23:Aztec civilization 2192:Society of Mexico 1986:SAGE Publications 1967:Smith, Michael E. 1958:978-0-8130-3245-0 1941:Smith, Michael E. 1907:Smith, Michael E. 1877:Smith, Michael E. 1860:978-0-8061-2909-9 1241:. 4 December 2013 1078:Smith (2001) p. 5 647:network of canals 643:Cuauhtitlan River 271:complex societies 186: 185: 2199: 2155:) specifically: 2140: 2116: 2105: 2074: 2043: 2013: 1975: 1962: 1936: 1902: 1872: 1820: 1783:, 13 vols. in 12 1771: 1747: 1736: 1713:. Stanford, CA: 1702: 1700: 1699: 1680: 1678: 1677: 1671: 1661:. Archived from 1630: 1624:(January 2001). 1617: 1593: 1579: 1545: 1503: 1463: 1432: 1408: 1384: 1381: 1375: 1368: 1362: 1361: 1355: 1347: 1345: 1344: 1338: 1332:. 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Smith 267:hunter-gatherers 178: 171: 164: 49:Nahuatl language 33: 19: 18: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2172: 2171: 2149: 2144: 2143: 2129: 2094: 2063: 2032: 1973: 1959: 1925: 1891: 1861: 1809: 1760: 1725: 1707:Lockhart, James 1697: 1695: 1675: 1673: 1665: 1628: 1606: 1568: 1534: 1492: 1452: 1442:Bilingual Press 1421: 1399:Berdan, Frances 1392: 1387: 1382: 1378: 1369: 1365: 1349: 1348: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1329: 1327:"Archived copy" 1325: 1323: 1316: 1309: 1295: 1284: 1277: 1273: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1244: 1242: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1183: 1162:(Spring): 173. 1152: 1148: 1143: 1139: 1134: 1127: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1050:himself and of 1028: 976:Central America 929: 916: 911: 905: 893: 731: 702: 693: 687: 654:Lake Xochimilco 597: 591: 582: 533: 522: 498: 492: 470: 446: 372: 348: 342: 332:for those from 306: 300: 255: 249: 240: 182: 153: 93: 79:Human sacrifice 17: 12: 11: 5: 2205: 2195: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2127: 2106: 2092: 2084:Academic Press 2075: 2061: 2044: 2030: 2014: 1963: 1957: 1937: 1923: 1903: 1889: 1873: 1859: 1839:H.B. 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Retrieved 1692:the original 1686: 1674:. Retrieved 1663:the original 1638: 1632: 1622:Hassig, Ross 1589: 1584:Hassig, Ross 1553: 1550:Hassig, Ross 1519: 1516:Doris Heyden 1511: 1508:Durán, Diego 1471: 1437: 1404: 1379: 1366: 1341:. Retrieved 1334:the original 1298: 1274: 1263: 1254: 1243:. 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Cohen 1044:Diego Durán 947:Mesoamerica 851:tlamatimine 673:wild turkey 589:Agriculture 483:social unit 410:trade guild 399:calpullālli 359:mācehualtin 336:and so on. 330:Tlaxcaltecs 253:Mesoamerica 216:Mesoamerica 206:of central 2176:Categories 2168:161530150X 2117:. Norman: 2049:The Aztecs 1911:The Aztecs 1698:2009-08-16 1676:2008-05-09 1390:References 1343:2012-12-18 1245:2017-09-29 992:temazcalli 957:describes 907:See also: 891:Recreation 689:See also: 634:irrigation 613:irrigation 593:See also: 550:Tepeticpac 538:Ocotelolco 514:ah atanzah 510:matchmaker 494:See also: 458:city-state 422:Tlatelolco 344:See also: 334:Tlaxcallan 302:See also: 251:See also: 197:stratified 134:Tlaxcallan 64:Philosophy 2010:145452272 1827:(1997) . 1709:(1996) . 1651:0071-1675 1645:: 29–49. 1510:(1994) . 1500:162351797 1470:(1963) . 1440:. Tempe: 1176:157697424 969:) in his 959:Moctezuma 817:tlacuilos 809:tlatimini 729:Education 659:chinampas 580:Economics 438:Tlapanecs 221:altepetls 59:Mythology 2137:11261299 2102:25832740 2071:43337963 2040:50217224 2020:(1961). 1943:(2008). 1933:48579073 1909:(2003). 1899:44698452 1869:35848992 1797:and the 1768:20798977 1733:24283718 1614:17106411 1586:(1988). 1576:11469622 1552:(1985). 1542:29565779 1460:52813965 1401:(1982). 1352:cite web 1004:texictle 984:temazcal 951:conquest 870:tlacuilo 858:calmecac 840:tlapalli 829:calpulli 805:tlatoque 797:calmecac 777:calmecac 755:ahuianis 743:calpulli 617:Chinampa 558:Tlacopan 556:between 542:Tizatlan 490:Marriage 462:tlatoani 454:āltepētl 450:altepetl 444:Altepetl 395:calpuleh 383:calpulli 376:calpulli 370:Calpulli 364:pochteca 353:pīpiltin 291:Huastecs 289:and the 287:Totonacs 238:Overview 227:calpulli 74:Medicine 69:Calendar 54:Religion 2002:1798556 1659:1568281 1429:7795704 988:Spanish 963:emperor 943:Spanish 685:Warfare 562:Texcoco 434:Mixtecs 418:Texcoco 416:and in 414:Otompan 380:Nahuatl 314:Nahuatl 275:classic 232:warfare 200:society 193:complex 119:Codices 114:Warfare 2166: 2135: 2125: 2100: 2090: 2069: 2059: 2038: 2028: 2008: 2000: 1955: 1931: 1921: 1897: 1887: 1867: 1857: 1817:276351 1815: 1805: 1766: 1756: 1731: 1721: 1657: 1649: 1612: 1602: 1574: 1564: 1540: 1530: 1498: 1488: 1458: 1448: 1427: 1417: 1305: 1174: 1020:Mexico 1016:tlasas 1008:tlasas 967:Cortés 878:tizitl 862:pillis 844:tizitl 836:tizitl 813:tizitl 801:pillis 735:Mexica 615:, and 506:Mayans 479:Toltec 430:Otomis 378:(from 326:Mexica 298:Aztecs 285:, the 281:, the 263:Nahuan 208:Mexico 204:Aztecs 109:Aztlán 2187:Aztec 2006:S2CID 1974:(PDF) 1629:(PDF) 1337:(PDF) 1330:(PDF) 1172:S2CID 1058:Notes 1000:calli 996:temaz 914:Dance 827:Each 639:canal 304:Aztec 2164:ISBN 2133:OCLC 2123:ISBN 2098:OCLC 2088:ISBN 2067:OCLC 2057:ISBN 2036:OCLC 2026:ISBN 1998:OCLC 1953:ISBN 1929:OCLC 1919:ISBN 1895:OCLC 1885:ISBN 1865:OCLC 1855:ISBN 1813:OCLC 1803:ISBN 1764:OCLC 1754:ISBN 1729:OCLC 1719:ISBN 1655:OCLC 1647:ISSN 1610:OCLC 1600:ISBN 1572:OCLC 1562:ISBN 1538:OCLC 1528:ISBN 1496:OCLC 1486:ISBN 1456:OCLC 1446:ISBN 1425:OCLC 1415:ISBN 1358:link 1303:ISBN 1012:Toci 795:The 784:The 733:The 564:and 548:and 448:The 436:and 420:and 374:The 283:Maya 195:and 1990:doi 1668:PDF 1217:doi 1164:doi 986:in 2178:: 2131:. 2121:. 2096:. 2086:. 2065:. 2055:. 2034:. 2004:. 1996:. 1982:31 1980:. 1976:. 1951:. 1927:. 1917:. 1893:. 1863:. 1853:. 1841:, 1811:. 1801:. 1762:. 1752:. 1727:. 1717:. 1653:. 1639:32 1637:. 1631:. 1608:. 1598:. 1570:. 1560:. 1536:. 1526:. 1494:. 1484:. 1454:. 1444:. 1423:. 1413:. 1354:}} 1350:{{ 1317:^ 1285:^ 1237:. 1213:20 1211:. 1170:. 1160:33 1158:. 1128:^ 1022:. 953:. 675:, 619:. 611:, 607:, 560:, 544:, 540:, 440:. 432:, 259:CE 2151:( 2139:. 2104:. 2073:. 2042:. 2012:. 1992:: 1961:. 1935:. 1901:. 1871:. 1819:. 1770:. 1735:. 1701:. 1679:. 1666:( 1616:. 1578:. 1544:. 1502:. 1462:. 1431:. 1374:. 1360:) 1346:. 1311:. 1248:. 1223:. 1219:: 1178:. 1166:: 661:. 512:( 177:e 170:t 163:v

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