136:, they initially attempted to restrict movement by imposing a system of compulsory registration at police stations, insisting on the targeted people being in their own village overnight unless they had permission for absence, and loading of responsibility for their location and actions on to the village headmen. These measures were easily evaded by many nomads, who just dispersed or proffered different identities.
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which, together with the long prior history of being stigmatised as a criminal community, means that the
Bawaria remain a socially oppressed people, are still subject to harassment by law enforcement bodies such as the police and forestry departments, and are still stereotyped as criminals. Fear and
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communities, of which they once may have been a part and whom Andrew Major describes as being originally "predatory nomadic tribes from central Asia". Their shift from being mercenary soldiers and cultivators, and the scattering of their communities in India, came towards the end of the 13th century
139:
Thus, by the mid-1850s, the
British turned instead to internment as a solution to their problem. The experiment failed and indeed was forecast to fail by several British administrators, who noted that the communities were so averse to engaging in agriculture that it could never work and that they
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The 1981 census of India recorded the
Babaria living in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, with populations of 31,296, 62,624, 31,903, and 4,893, respectively. They remain largely a nomadic community but their traditional lifestyle, which revolved around hunting in forests and selling
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became frustrated by the criminal behaviour they perceived to be exhibited by some nomadic and semi-itinerant communities, including the
Babaria, some of whom had developed a tactic of raiding British-controlled territories and then seeking refuge in areas controlled by native princes. The
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The
Babaria are traditionally a nomadic tribe and held a reputation as skilled trackers and hunters of animals large and small, the product of which they consumed themselves and sold to villagers. Their abilities were such that their services were used by royalty and nobility.
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authorities thought that limiting the movement of these groups would minimise this as well as allowing for better monitoring of their activities and encouraging them to switch from criminality to agricultural pursuits. Inspired by the reported successes of
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Rather than letting a bad idea die after the courts deemed internment illegal in 1867, the ruling spurred the administrations of both Punjab and the North-Western
Provinces to seek a national system. Using data compiled from then accepted theories of
111:. The new rulers took control of Rajput kingdoms and caused the Babaria and various other groups to adopt thieving and vagrancy as a means of survival, as well as developing a mutual distrust with the more settled landowning peoples.
191:. Their ability to move has also been affected by changing land use, caused by urbanisation and agricultural strategies that are significantly reducing areas of common land on which they traditionally camped in tents.
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and poorly-sourced ethnographic surveys of folk tales, which suggested entire groups of people as hereditarily criminal, this ultimately resulted in the introduction of the
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in 1871. The
Babaria of the Punjab became subject to it by order in August 1875 and their alleged characteristics were subsequently documented by
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Although they were sometimes historically believed to be aboriginal, modern studies suggest that there is little difference between them and the
302:
Brown, Mark (2003). "Ethnology and
Colonial Administration in Nineteenth-Century British India: The Question of Native Crime and Criminality".
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Major, Andrew J. (1999). "State and
Criminal Tribes in Colonial Punjab: Surveillance, Control and Reclamation of the 'Dangerous Classes'".
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A survey of the
Babaria in Rajasthan indicates two myths of origin. One is the claim of descent from a man called Dana, who lived near
95:. Their other belief is that they were cursed by god at the time of creation and thereby banished to live in forest and to steal.
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anything surplus to their own requirements, has been severely affected, as also has their movement, by the introduction of the
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and whom they believe married a goddess over a millennium ago; they still worship that goddess, together with
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would just become a burden on food supplies, for they would either have to starve or be fed via aid.
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Dutt, Bahar (2004). "Livelihood Strategies of a Nomadic Hunting Community of Eastern Rajasthan".
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wariness of outsiders has persisted among them as a consequence.
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The Criminal Tribes Act was repealed in 1952, after the
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