Back-to-Africa movement

4176:, since they shared his racial separatist views. In January 1962, Rockwell wrote to his followers that Elijah Muhammad "has gathered millions of the dirty, immoral, drunken, filthy-mouthed, lazy and repulsive people sneeringly called 'niggers' and inspired them to the point where they are clean, sober, honest, hard working, dignified, dedicated and admirable human beings in spite of their color...Muhammad knows that mixing is a Jewish fraud and leads only to aggravation of the problems that it is supposed to solve...I have talked to the Muslim leaders and am certain that a workable plan for separation of the races could be effected to the satisfaction of all concerned—except the communist-Jew agitators." He also said of the N.O.I, "I am fully in concert with their program, and I have the highest respect for Elijah Muhammad." Rockwell referred to Elijah Muhammad as "The Black People's Hitler" and donated $ 20 (~$ 204.00 in 2023) to the Nation of Islam at their "Freedom Rally" event on June 25, 1961, at Uline Arena in Washington, where he and 10–20 of his "stormtroopers" attended a speech given by Malcolm X. Rockwell was a guest speaker at a N.O.I event in the International Amphitheater in Chicago hosted by Elijah Mohammed and Malcolm X on February 25, 1962. 4362: 45: 4396:.) Along the Pepper Coast, local African groups were variably forced or convinced to give the Americans tracts of land; most probably assumed they were providing short term land leases based on ancestral patterns of landlord-stranger relationships. Over the course of twenty years, a series of fragmented settlements sprung across Liberia's coast, which had been inhabited by indigenous people since at least the 16th century. Along with the difficulty of gaining enough land, life proved hard for these early settlers. Disease was widespread, along with the lack of food. Almost 50% of the new settlers died in the first twenty years after their arrival in Liberia. 132: 3168: 199: 4598: 204: 8458: 3020: 1348: 1360: 4111:

began to draft what came to be known as the Greater Liberia Bill. The bill suggested that the United States should purchase 400,000 square miles of African land from England and France, it should credit them as war debts, and it should provide financial assistance to black Americans in order to encourage them to relocate to Africa. It is unclear who, if anyone, the PME sent to Liberia in order to facilitate the emigration which this bill would have encouraged.

3834:, who believed that the amalgamation of the races was desirable, was forced to leave Florida for Haiti. In the South, until it was forbidden, free black people learned to read and write, and often came into contact with the widely circulated abolitionist writings. The slave owners who controlled the Southern states saw these free black people as a threat to the stability of the economy and society, and made no secret of their desire to be rid of them. 3133:. During these years, some free African Americans also relocated to Haiti, where a slave revolution had effected a free black state by 1800. On 18 November 1803, Haiti became the first nation ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. In the following years, Liberia was founded by free Africans from the United States. The emigration of African Americans both free and recently emancipated was funded and organized by the 4219: 3867:). The back-to-Africa movement was seen as the solution to these problems by both groups, with more support from the white population than the black population. Blacks often viewed the project with skepticism, particularly among the middle-class, who feared that the Colonization movement was a ploy to deport freed African Americans to restrict their efforts against slavery. Shortly after the foundation of the 4413:

Liberian government offered 25 acres of free land for each immigrant family, and 10 acres for a single adult, who came to the Black republic. In the early 19th century, Liberia evoked mixed images in the minds of black Americans. They viewed Liberia as a destination for black families who left the United States in search of a better way of life, returning to their ancestral homeland of Africa.

3999:, "a black man who was a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks", began to explore the idea of Black people returning to their native land; convinced that "opportunities for the advancement of black people were limited in America, and he became interested in African colonization." With the help of Quakers in Philadelphia, he was able to transport 38 blacks to 4033:. Interest among the South's black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place. The continued experience of segregation, discrimination, and the belief that they would never achieve true equality attracted many blacks to a Pan-African emancipation in their motherland. 4385:. The first American ships were uncertain of where they were heading. Their plan was to follow the paths that the British had taken, or simply take a chance on where they would land. At first, they followed the previous routes of the British and reached the coast of Sierra Leone. After leaving Sierra Leone, the Americans slowly reached a more southern part of the African coastline. 4408:

opportunities (mainly because they had lost all hope of achievement). In the 1830s, the movement became increasingly dominated by Southern slave owners, who did not want free blacks and saw sending them to Liberia as a solution. Slaves freed from slave ships were sent there instead of their countries of origin. The emigration of free blacks to Liberia particularly increased after

4404:, Virginia, left for Liberia in 1830, but suffered high mortality. "Eighty percent of the emigrants were dead within ten years of landing there, most of them victims of malaria; another ten percent quit the colony, with the majority fleeing to Sierra Leone." Many African Americans who survived this period of adjustment in Liberia became fond of the country. 3922:, it was composed of two core groups: abolitionists and slave owners. Abolitionist members believed in freeing African slaves, along with their descendants, and providing them with the opportunity to return to Africa. Slave-owning members believed free blacks endangered the system of slavery and sought to expel them from America by means of migration. 4134:, viewed black people as a "primitive, lethargic race who desired only simple pleasures and a life of irresponsibility." Like Bilbo, Rockwell was a white nationalist who supported the resettlement of all African Americans in a new African state to be funded by the U.S. government. Rockwell attempted to draw attention to his cause by starting a small 4102:. An ardent white nationalist, Bilbo had been campaigning for racial separatism within the government for a while. He proposed an amendment to the House Joint Resolution 679—a work relief bill—in 1938, that would have "repatriated" African American volunteers to Liberia, providing them with financial assistance. This amendment was endorsed by 4095:

he gave the issue of black emigration political exposure when he managed to convince members of the Virginia General Assembly to recommend the US Congress provide financial aid for this in 1936. Despite Cox's racial beliefs, the PME retained support amongst black communities because Gordon described him as a necessary, Moses-like figure.

3948:, "as early as 1820, black Americans had begun to return to their ancestral homeland through the auspices of the American Colonization Society." By 1847, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia, a land to be settled by black people returning from the United States of America. Between 1822 and the 4037:

free blacks simply did not want to go "home" to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home, and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not their own." They often said that they were no more African than white Americans were British.

3859:, was quoted as having said: "I am not willing that the Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain in the United States.... Am opposed to slavery and also opposed to freeing blacks to stay in our Country and do sincerely hope that the time is approaching when our Land shall be rid of them." 4260:

brought the first group of thirty-eight emigrant freed slaves from the United States to Sierra Leone. In 1820, minister Daniel Coker led a group of ninety free blacks in hopes of founding a new colony in Sierra Leone. He intended to proselytize Christianity among the Africans. Leaving New York on the

4152:

by a band called Odis Cochran and the Three Bigots with the songs "Ship Those Niggers Back" and "We Is Non-Violent Niggers", and a second single by a group called the Coon Hunters: "We Don't Want No Niggers For Neighbors" backed with "Who Needs A Nigger?". They were sold mostly through mail order and

4036:

The movement declined again following many hoaxes and fraudulent activities associated with the movement. According to Crumrin, however, the most important reason for the decline in the back-to-Africa movement was that the "vast majority of those who were meant to colonize did not wish to leave. Most

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refusing to endorse it and the national press lambasting it. Other African Americans did not support emigration to Liberia due to charges of slavery and political corruption which were filed against its government by the League of Nations. Additionally, the bill received very little support from the

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from Richmond, Virginia. She convinced him to support their cause by using her gender in order to appear submissive and thus appeal to Cox's masculinity, as well as by playing on their mutual goal of racial separatism. Cox provided influential connections that the movement had previously lacked, and

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decision made clear. Usually seen as racially inferior, few whites believed them a desirable or even possible part of American society. They were prohibited from living in some areas and there was much completely legal discrimination. Black passengers on river boats were not allowed in the cabin but

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and a belief that the Americanisation they would provide would heal Liberia's social and economic troubles. This reflects the imperialist assumption of the PME and other back-to-Africa proponents that African-Americans had the right to return to and determine Africa's future. Others were unaware or

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that African Americans would want to return to the continent of Africa. In general, the political movement was an overwhelming failure; very few former slaves wanted to move to Africa. The small number of freed slaves who did settle in Africa—some under duress—initially faced brutal conditions, due

3940:

In spite of this, several black critics were outspoken against the back-to-Africa movement and the activities of the American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference in New York warned: "all kinds of chicanery and stratagem will be employed to allure the people ...the

3899:

in particular found difficulty in continued support for the enslavement of their brothers in Christ. For example, Reverend Moses Tichnell and Reverend Samuel R. Houston freed slaves and sent them to Liberia in 1855 and 1856 respectively. These two men, believing that they were morally obligated to

4412:

of 1831. Middle-class blacks were more resolved to live as black Americans; many rural poor folks gave up on the United States and looked to Liberia to construct a better life. Liberia promised freedom and equality; it also represented a chance for a better life for the South's black farmers. The

4399:

Liberia declared independence on 26 July 1847. With an elected black government and the offer of free land to African-American settlers, Liberia became the most common destination of emigrating African Americans during the 19th century. Newly arriving African Americans to Liberia experienced many

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at the Eight International UNIA convention. This amendment provided the precedent for the movement to progress; Bilbo had the political capital which he needed in order to get the issue of black repatriation into wide-scale political debate. This issue continued to exist, and in early 1939, Bilbo

4416:

As noted by researcher Washington Hyde, "Black Americans—who in the time of slavery lost their original languages and much of their original culture, gained a distinctly American, English-speaking Christian identity, and had no clear idea of precisely where in the wide continent of Africa their

4407:

Black interest in Liberian emigration emerged when the Civil War promised the end of slavery and meaningful change to the status of Black Americans. Some 7,000 enslaved people were freed by their masters, so at that point those free African Americans left the U.S. to escape racism and have more

3862:

Riots swept the free states in waves, usually in urban areas where there had been recent immigration of blacks from the South. The height of these riots was in 1819, with 25 riots recorded, resulting in many injuries and fatalities, although riots continued up through the 1830s (see

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organisation were committed to black emigration to West Africa in order to escape from the torrid social conditions which they were experiencing in the United States due to the Depression. They harboured an almost utopian vision of Liberia, created from a simultaneous vision of

4060:

congregation help to finance the construction of a passenger ship. Many of those who migrated to the Northern States from the South found that, although they were financially better off, they remained at the bottom both economically and socially. Garvey supported a proposal by

3137:(ACS), which hoped that slavery could be ended as an institution, without releasing millions of former slaves into American society. The mortality rate of these settlers was high. Of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived. 4417:

ancestors had come from—were perceived by the natives of Liberia as foreign settlers. Having an African ancestry and a black skin color were definitely not enough. Indeed, their settlement in Liberia had much in common with the contemporary white settlement of the

4044:(1905–1909) called for blacks to be permanently moved to land the federal government would purchase, either foreign or domestic. After buying their respective properties, a territory would be established in which blacks could not leave, and whites could not enter. 3820:

The number of free black people in the new United States skyrocketed and the question of "what to do with them" steadily grew in importance. Even when free, nowhere in the United States did they have the same rights as white people. They were not citizens, as the

4230:

Many freed slaves were discontent with where they were resettled in Canada after the Revolutionary War and were eager to return to their homeland. Beginning in 1787, the British government made their first attempt to settle people in Sierra Leone. About 300

3842:

Much of the African-American population was freed people seeking opportunity. Many Southern freed blacks migrated to the industrial North to seek employment, while others moved to surrounding Southern states. No one anywhere wanted them; they were seen as

4265:, his voyage ended on an island off the coast of Sierra Leone. Arriving just before the rains of spring, the group of immigrants were soon stricken with fever. The survivors ultimately fled to Freetown, and the settlement disintegrated. 4437:

a century and more to become truly accepted as one of Liberia's ethnic groups.... All of which certainly contributed to most Black Americans rejecting the Back-to-Africa option and opting instead for seeking equal rights in America."

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between 1913 and 1915. The eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to the North and the frustrations of struggling to cope with urban life set the scene for the back-to-Africa movement of the 1920s, established by

4381:; starting neither as a native state, nor as a European colony. With the departure of the first ship to Africa in 1820, the American Colonization Society established settlements for free American blacks on the coast of 3851:

In the North, many whites believed that blacks could not achieve equality in the United States and therefore pushed for their emigration to Africa, even though most had been born in the U.S. and had never seen Africa.

3936:

provided the United States government ample power to recapture fugitive slaves. Following its passage, many black leaders promoted emigration and colonization to a nation that would provide and protect their rights.

3121:", beginning a long process of settlement of formerly enslaved African Americans in Sierra Leone. During these same years, some African Americans launched their own initiatives to return to Africa, and by 1811, 5120:

Irvine, Russell W.; Dunkerton, Donna Zani (Winter 1998). "The Noyes Academy, 1834–35: The Road to the Oberlin Collegiate Institute and the Higher Education of African-Americans in the Nineteenth Century".

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Senate, thus, the idea of black repatriation lost much of its traction. US participation in the Second World War led to a decline in public racism, which made any passing of the bill unlikely after that.

3847:

who, by working for less, took jobs from citizens. Whites were not used to sharing space with blacks in a context outside of chattel slavery. Many did not believe that free blacks had a place in America.

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Rommel-Ruiz, Bryan (2007). "Sister Societies: Women's Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America, and: Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (review)".

7837: 2827: 7578: 4107: 3765:. There were a small number of free black people. Pressures for ending slavery began small but steadily increased. Various philosophical and religious condemnations of slavery, especially by 3928:

Since its inception, the American Colonization Society struggled to garner support from within free black communities. During the late 1840s and early 1850s, the creation of an independent

3925:

The American Colonization Society came under attack from American abolitionists, who insisted that the removal of freed slaves from the United States reinforced the institution of slavery.

2759: 31: 2837: 5424: 7842: 2822: 3753:

The question of where free black people of American birth should reside was not much discussed by white writers, and by some black thinkers, in the 18th century: "At the time of the

265: 1475: 528: 7513: 5180:"Abolition, Anti-Slavery Movements, and the Rise of the Sectional Controversy - The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship | Exhibitions (Library of Congress)" 2121: 4241:

of London, were settled on the Sierra Leonean peninsula in West Africa. Within two years, most members of the settlement would die from disease or conflict with the local

1534: 1486: 4433:—with Jews similarly seeking redemption through a return to an ancestral land and similarly being regarded as foreign interlopers by the local Arab tribes. It would take 3875:

and issued forth a declaration stating that they "will never separate ourselves voluntarily from the slave population of the country." Similarly, black leaders, such as

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to diseases to which they no longer had biological resistance. As the failure became known in the United States in the 1820s, it spawned and energized the radical

1263: 513: 6425:"Reclaiming the Middle Passage: African-American Actor Isaiah Washington becomes first to use DNA Testing to gain Citizenship to an African Nation (Sierra Leone)" 2774: 1391: 8363: 8358: 7907: 6639: 6496: 3830:, each free black man had to have a white man who could be sued for the Negro's misdeeds, if any, since black people could neither sue nor be sued. The Quaker 1677: 400: 8170: 8042: 6627: 2709: 2699: 1518: 523: 502: 220: 2779: 1456: 5390: 4400:

challenges, including broken family ties, very high mortality rates from disease, and a difficult adjustment period. A group of 43 African Americans from

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His support soon began to diminish so Gordon looked elsewhere, once again finding an unlikely ally on the opposite side of the moral compass in Senator

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had a strong religious component—some individuals freed their slaves or left instructions in their will, to free them upon the owner's death.

8422: 8417: 7349: 6797: 5713: 3333: 3199: 3053: 874: 395: 257: 5150:

White, Deborah Gray. "Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic." In ''Freedom on my mind''. S.l.: Bedford Bks St Martin's, 2012, pp. 186–188.

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The Americans were eventually successful at finding a suitable spot to establish their colonies, arriving at what the British had named the

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independence of its inhabitants; the enjoyment and privileges of its citizens, will be pictured forth in glowing colors, to deceive you."

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in 1780, slavery was gradually abolished in all the Northern states, although this did not mean that existing slaves were always freed.

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Fitzgerald, Michael W. (May 1997). "'We Have Found a Moses': Theodore Bilbo, Black Nationalism, and the Greater Liberia Bill of 1939".

4675: 4620: 4578:(died 1826), emigrated to Sierra Leone and became the first female teacher and principal of a girls' school in the missionary in Africa 4273: 4245:. In 1792, a second attempt at settlement was made when 1,100 freed slaves established Freetown with support from British abolitionist 2000: 1461: 1321: 1316: 1179: 508: 4056:. Garvey contemporaneously served as a major inspiration for a number of 1920s activists and preachers, such as James E. Lewis, whose 3879:, who had previously supported the Colonization Movement, changed their minds as a result of widespread black resistance to the idea. 8059: 7563: 6672: 3726: 3712: 2664: 2541: 1575: 1326: 962: 864: 315: 304: 8538: 8407: 8037: 7558: 6780: 6612: 3046: 2984: 2749: 2704: 1139: 994: 6432: 8498: 8373: 8333: 8175: 8079: 8008: 7613: 4026: 3498: 3256: 3221: 2950: 2694: 2689: 2674: 1130: 143: 8483: 8432: 8427: 8395: 8165: 8069: 8032: 7979: 7813: 3194: 2669: 2654: 2561: 1377: 1192: 1161: 1117: 1091: 1031: 1011: 909: 894: 537: 413: 212: 6155:

Burin, Eric (2006). "A Manumission in the Mountains: Slavery and the African Colonization Movement in Southwestern Virginia".

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Mills, Brandon (2014). "'The United States of Africa': Liberian Independence and the Contested Meaning of a Black Republic".

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The back-to-Africa movement returned to national prominence in the 1960s, due to the racial unrest which occurred during the

3956: 3801:, which at the time was not part of the United States, abolished adult slavery in its foundational document, of 1777. In the 3781:, it was abolished in French colonies in 1794, although it was restored from 1802 to 1848. Starting in 1791, the enslaved of 3707: 3702: 2621: 1698: 1687: 1549: 1503: 1498: 1471: 1152: 1036: 883: 332: 8338: 8323: 8187: 8096: 8091: 8025: 6486: 5852: 4324: 4114:

Outside the black nationalist movement, the bill did not garner much support, with leading civil rights groups such as the

3149: 2724: 2684: 2626: 2581: 1441: 1253: 253: 3125:, a wealthy New England African-American/Native-American shipper, had transported some members of the group known as the " 8313: 8150: 8120: 7902: 7481: 6693: 6295: 5178:

Douglass, Frederick; Brown, John; Stowe, Harriet Beecher; Reynolds, William; Garrison, William Lloyd (February 9, 1998).

2611: 2591: 2436: 2005: 1851: 1169: 1046: 566: 357: 282: 8303: 8197: 8113: 7957: 7738: 7538: 6689: 6667: 5895: 5814: 5515: 4655: 4316: 3674: 3443: 2739: 2719: 2273: 2138: 1570: 1311: 1291: 1066: 1061: 1016: 704: 586: 429: 421: 169: 5065:

Ailes, Jane; Tyler-McGraw, Marie (2012). "Leaving Virginia for Liberia: Western Virginia Emigrants and Emancipators".

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that passed the Mississippi State Senate in 1922, though it was widely rejected and ridiculed by the Black press.

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The back-to-Africa movement eventually began to decline but would see a revival again in 1877 at the end of the

8155: 8049: 7964: 7568: 6019: 5387: 3855:

Such sentiment was not exclusive to Northerners. One proponent of the colonization movement, Solomon Parker of

2940: 2616: 2566: 1076: 1071: 571: 551: 374: 340: 5257: 8523: 8192: 8125: 8108: 8054: 8003: 7942: 7847: 7808: 7748: 7548: 6937: 6917: 6724: 6703: 5241: 4635: 4453: 3918:(ACS) was an early advocate of the idea of resettling American-born blacks in Africa. Founded in 1816 by Dr. 3915: 3909: 3868: 3571: 3438: 3368: 3353: 3261: 3134: 2631: 2601: 2586: 2571: 2546: 2526: 2148: 1782: 1649: 1056: 1041: 759: 164: 119: 83: 6408: 8015: 7991: 7986: 7969: 7937: 7880: 6993: 6942: 6775: 3810: 3611: 3468: 3458: 3398: 3388: 3373: 2659: 2551: 2536: 2521: 2488: 1787: 1466: 498: 390: 4292:, Sierra Leone, in smaller numbers in efforts led by black merchants or beneficiaries such as Paul Cuffe. 4196:

former slaves to Africa occurred mainly during the late 18th century to mid-19th century. In the cases of

8528: 8280: 8272: 8215: 8130: 7618: 7523: 7379: 7361: 7263: 6922: 6892: 6617: 6537: 6516: 4615: 3891:, in which America was swept by a wave of religious fervor, many enslaved African Americans converted to 3757:, there had been few free blacks anywhere in the country." In 1776, slavery was legal everywhere in the 3323: 2882: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2606: 2078: 1869: 1839: 1777: 1726: 1654: 1544: 1331: 1145: 929: 854: 799: 764: 4885:"A quantitative analysis of Liberian colonization from 1820 to 1843 with special reference to mortality" 3895:. At the same time, many religious people in America struggled to reconcile slavery with their beliefs. 8298: 8235: 8225: 7775: 7533: 7493: 6850: 6544: 5179: 4996: 4759:

Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty,

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Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty

5881:

After the treaties: a social, economic and demographic history of Maroon society in Jamaica, 1739-1842

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by statute in 1833. In France, slavery was illegal at least since the 16th century. As part of the

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Behold the promised land: a history of Afro-American settler society in nineteenth-century Liberia

4553:(died 1805), missionary who migrated to Freetown, where he led a strike of carpenters against the 3952:, the American Colonization Society had migrated approximately 15,000 free blacks back to Africa. 8230: 7780: 7403: 7183: 7123: 6988: 6731: 4761:(Beacon Press, Boston, 2006); Graham Russell Hodges, Susan Hawkes Cook, Alan Edward Brown (eds), 4213: 4204:, both were established by former slaves who were repatriated to Africa within a 28-year period. 4127: 3679: 3473: 3413: 3408: 3343: 3338: 2945: 2887: 2350: 2310: 1932: 1810: 1624: 754: 749: 624: 8145: 7875: 7113: 6907: 6897: 6835: 6645: 6584: 6172: 5961: 4475: 4457: 4447: 4289: 4062: 4017:. He visited Liberia and made plans, largely unrealized, to assist Blacks in relocating there. 4000: 3649: 3586: 3463: 3453: 3428: 3358: 1644: 1634: 1614: 1235: 844: 809: 714: 689: 190: 182: 72: 26: 5956:

The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870

5745: 4082:

ignored that Liberia had been crippled by the Depression and instead viewed it as prosperous.

3106:, and other African Americans supported the concept, but few actually left the United States. 8533: 8220: 7733: 7598: 7553: 7369: 7088: 7053: 6872: 6855: 6662: 6579: 6055: 5987: 5164: 5130: 5034: 4625: 4392:. (The name of this region referred to the type of ginger spice used for medicine flavoring, 4308: 4123: 3541: 3526: 3423: 3085:

slaves to the African continent. The movement originated from a widespread belief among some

2268: 2258: 2190: 2153: 1937: 1927: 1827: 1508: 829: 779: 734: 724: 709: 699: 684: 664: 639: 629: 619: 476: 5311: 4860:

Swing Low, Sweet Chariot: The Mortality Cost of Colonizing Liberia in the Nineteenth Century

4670: 131: 8462: 7870: 7633: 7444: 7396: 7268: 7158: 7063: 6830: 6820: 6792: 6657: 6511: 6268: 4701: 4554: 4469: 4336: 4277: 4232: 3591: 3561: 3556: 3403: 3126: 3024: 2476: 1721: 1513: 1446: 1352: 849: 824: 729: 669: 644: 614: 604: 274: 78: 5516:"A century ago, Mississippi's Senate voted to send all the state's Black people to Africa" 3805:, there were still hundreds of slaves in the North and millions more in the South. By the 3117:. In 1787, the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the " 8: 8245: 7603: 7518: 6998: 6787: 6677: 6607: 4544: 4131: 3844: 3754: 3621: 3363: 2892: 2370: 2332: 1749: 1580: 784: 739: 679: 654: 609: 8250: 4086:, the founder of the PME, was essential to this campaign as she acquired the support of 3167: 2375: 8318: 8255: 7998: 7456: 7223: 7203: 7108: 7033: 6860: 6765: 6755: 6743: 6634: 6531: 6506: 6210: 6164: 6036: 5954: 5695: 5676:"Challenging Historical Iconography: A Look at Women's Everyday Political Mobilization" 5656: 5615: 5563: 5224: 5082: 4960: 4912: 4840: 4824: 4783: 4680: 4393: 4370: 4356: 4087: 3949: 3831: 3770: 3659: 3531: 3521: 3295: 3211: 3189: 3103: 3086: 3078: 2263: 2048: 1815: 1792: 1481: 979: 814: 694: 659: 5100: 4764:

The Black Loyalist Directory: African Americans in Exile After the American Revolution

198: 7765: 7486: 7148: 7118: 6713: 6470: 6416: 6360: 6301: 6248: 6214: 6061: 6040: 5993: 5965: 5793: 5699: 5660: 5603: 5593: 5525: 5342: 5317: 5290: 5228: 5086: 5042: 5000: 4971: 4935: 4904: 4863: 4832: 4740: 4730: 4499: 4418: 4300: 4157: 4099: 4091: 3984: 3778: 3758: 3631: 3266: 2068: 1909: 1416: 989: 859: 819: 774: 674: 576: 471: 6015:

The Sierra Leone Creoles - Creoledom: A Study of the Development of Freetown Society

5765:"When George Lincoln Rockwell, Elijah Muhammad, and Malcolm X Shared the Same Stage" 5443: 4916: 4844: 2448: 7921: 7892: 7887: 7785: 7753: 7726: 7451: 7068: 7038: 7028: 7023: 6590: 6202: 6028: 5931: 5687: 5648: 5555: 5313:

Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America, 1848-1880

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Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience

4896: 4814: 4660: 4575: 4563: 4495: 4434: 4250: 4185: 4173: 4048: 3960: 3786: 3769:, were published. Slavery became illegal in England in 1772 by court decision (see 3664: 3493: 3082: 2443: 2300: 2128: 2063: 2043: 1952: 581: 6089:

Landlords And Strangers: Ecology, Society, And Trade In Western Africa, 1000-1630.

5652: 5590:

Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom

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tribes.... The Liberian experience can also be considered as anticipating that of

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Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

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Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society, And Trade In Western Africa, 1000-1630

6242: 5819: 5783: 5764: 5520: 5431: 5394: 5107: 4803:"Extreme mortality in nineteenth-century Africa: the case of Liberian immigrants" 4630: 4540: 4525: 4281: 4246: 4165: 4161: 4014: 3968: 3888: 3626: 3596: 3233: 2471: 2278: 2028: 1947: 1364: 984: 466: 449: 439: 382: 318: 245: 5856: 5636: 5134: 8353: 7758: 7721: 7711: 7471: 7466: 7408: 7243: 7173: 7103: 7098: 6602: 6526: 5921: 5362: 4778: 4691: 4665: 4521: 4269: 4149: 4078: 3976: 3782: 3774: 3697: 3616: 3488: 3110: 2930: 2355: 2325: 2083: 2073: 1904: 1283: 1210: 62: 6032: 5607: 4900: 8477: 7311: 7293: 7283: 7253: 7198: 7153: 7138: 7083: 7073: 7058: 7008: 7003: 6973: 6770: 6698: 6521: 5789: 5529: 5287:

Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons: from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone

4884: 4602: 4569: 4530: 4515: 4193: 4103: 4053: 4010: 3980: 3972: 3919: 3900:

finance such voyages, played an important role in the colonization movement.

3794: 3216: 3099: 3098:. In the 20th century, the Jamaican political activist and black nationalist 3090: 3081:

in the 19th and 20th centuries advocating for a return of the descendants of

2999: 2994: 365: 307: 285: 234: 203: 22: 4744: 3785:

revolted, gaining their freedom, and establishing the free black country of

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Reclaiming the Women of Britain's First Mission to West Africa: Three Lives

4967: 4908: 4550: 4505: 4389: 4374: 4332: 4320: 4285: 4242: 4197: 4135: 4069: 4030: 4004: 3964: 3892: 3876: 3872: 3790: 3300: 3278: 3273: 2483: 2295: 2023: 1886: 461: 444: 432: 296: 223: 97: 6325:

Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s

6206: 6130:

Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s

5976:, originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976). 5691: 5412:

Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s

5220: 5078: 4836: 4068:

The movement picked up steam once again in the decade or so preceding the

16:

Political movement in the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries

7643: 7628: 7476: 7439: 7278: 7233: 7218: 6983: 6978: 6825: 5923:

The African-American Emigration Movement in Georgia during Reconstruction

4724: 4645: 4537:, the first black newspaper in the United States who emigrated to Liberia 4481: 4382: 4253:

were transported first to Nova Scotia, and then to Sierra Leone in 1800.

4057: 4013:, an African American, in 1854 led the National Emigration Convention in 3806: 3802: 2649: 2305: 2158: 2038: 1822: 454: 6168: 5746:"Hatenanny Records Advertisement [American Nazi Party handbill]" 5675: 4047:

Early 20th century attempts at resettlement were made, such as those by

1359: 7178: 7163: 7133: 7128: 6877: 6845: 6684: 6652: 5896:"Jan. 15, 1817: The Vote on Colonization of Free Blacks in West Africa" 5567: 4955: 4828: 4762: 4559: 4488: 4304: 4257: 4237: 4145: 4140: 3996: 3822: 3654: 3601: 3503: 3122: 3118: 1754: 1493: 7514:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

5879: 4218: 7792: 7638: 7143: 6927: 6865: 6760: 5935: 4729:(1st ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Encounter Books. p. 148. 4543:(1784–1847), founder of what was to become one of the most prominent 4485: 4441: 4189: 4169: 4029:, as many blacks in the South faced violence from groups such as the 3551: 3206: 2979: 2320: 2053: 1832: 1659: 348: 6439: 5952:

Walker, James W (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone".

5559: 4819: 4802: 3932:

state splintered the nearly uniform voice against colonization. The

8265: 8260: 7770: 6357:

Black Zion: The Return of Afro-Americans and West Indians to Africa

5501:

Black Zion: The Return of Afro-Americans and West Indians to Africa

4993:

Black Zion: The Return of Afro-Americans and West Indians to Africa

4640: 4344: 4340: 2365: 2290: 2283: 7529:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

4962:

Gateway to Freedom. The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad

6882: 6349:

The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia

5399:

America's Reconstruction, People and Politics After the Civil War

5369:. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve University. March 4, 1998 4426: 4201: 3929: 3827: 3798: 3766: 3130: 2453: 1759: 101: 50: 6397:"Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context" 7716: 6433:"Hatenanny Records The Record Label of the American Nazi Party" 5714:"Theodore G. Bilbo and the Decline of Public Racism, 1938-1947" 4430: 4378: 3837: 3813:. In the South, sometimes influenced by appeals from preachers— 2360: 6339:

Middle Passage: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005

6143:

Middle Passage: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005

5637:"Chicago, Garveyism, and the history of the diasporic Midwest" 5478:"Los Angeles Noah: Reverend J. E. Lewis and the Liberian Arks" 5425:"'Back to Africa?' The Colonization Movement in Early America" 5414:(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), p. 2. 5310:

Lapsansky-Werner, Emma J.; Bacon, Margaret Hope, eds. (2010).

3955:

Notable members of the American Colonization Society included

7528: 5339:

1001 Things Everyone Should Know about Irish American History

4115: 3669: 2133: 7573: 5023:(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 3. 2163: 1273: 6417:"African American Nation Radio Online Radio by AA Nation1" 5177: 5450:

The Encyclopedia Africana Dictionary of African Biography

3882: 1278: 6351:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. 6327:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. 6132:(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). 5465:

Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History

4456:, African-American Black Loyalist leader and founder of 4138:

named Hatenanny Records. The name was based on the word

6382:

Ebony Kinship: Africa, Africans, and the Afro-American

5884:(Thesis). University of Southampton. pp. 136–154. 4688:, a Canadian church which is named after Bishop Turner 4172:, who later changed his views and opposed the N.O.I's 5309: 5021:

Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkan

4586: 4524:, President of Liberia, and first president from the 4249:. Their numbers were further bolstered when over 500 5947: 5945: 5110:, The History of Jim Crow. Accessed 14 October 2007. 5067:

West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies

4566:

colonist and businesswoman in Freetown, Sierra Leone

5467:(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981), p. 62. 5060: 5058: 4478:, African-American Baptist preacher in Sierra Leone 2956:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

5953: 5363:"National Emigration Convention of Colored People" 5037:. In Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (eds.). 4959: 4442:Notable emigrants from the United States to Africa 5960:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 5942: 5064: 4460:(departed after settling in Halifax, Nova Scotia) 4323:of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885. The 4156:Rockwell got along well with many leaders of the 529:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review 8475: 7564:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 6012: 5285:Campbell, Mavis Christine; Ross, George (1993). 5258:"July 26, 1847 Liberian independence proclaimed" 5246:The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture 5055: 4450:, first President and founding father of Liberia 3903: 7609:Black players in professional American football 7559:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 6054:Hodge, Carl Cavanagh; Nolan, Cathal J. (2007). 5541: 5539: 5274:. Richmond, VA: William Byrd Press. p. 13. 5119: 4276:. This organization was later succeeded by the 3990: 6047: 5989:Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History 4498:), African-born slave to first U.S. President 4268:The repatriation of slaves to Africa from the 3826:had to stay on deck, whatever the weather. In 1683:Education of freed people during the Civil War 6455: 6377:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021. 6375:Black Resettlement and the American Civil War 5920:Sims-Alvarado, Falechiondro (June 20, 2011). 5919: 5336: 4572:, medical and business family in Sierra Leone 4508:, African-American missionary to Sierra Leone 3734: 3054: 1385: 7322:Historically black colleges and universities 6229:The Tortuous Route of Black American History 5877: 5536: 5284: 5248:. 2007. The Central Arkansas Library System. 5202: 5200: 4851: 4794: 4787:(Vintage Press, 1963) and Rosalind Wiggins, 3871:, 3,000 free blacks gathered in a church in 3838:The emergence of the back-to-Africa movement 1694:Historically black colleges and universities 6405:"Back to Africa: The Colonization Movement" 6192: 4343:. The settlers called their new settlement 4184:Ex-slave repatriation or the emigration of 3946:Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture 1678:Education during the slave period in the US 6462: 6448: 6053: 5812: 5620:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5545: 4621:African Americans in the Revolutionary War 4365:African Americans depart for Liberia, 1896 4274:Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor 4272:and its dependencies was initiated by the 4148:performances. The label released a 45 RPM 3761:that became the United States through the 3741: 3727: 3113:joined British military forces during the 3061: 3047: 2001:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 1392: 1378: 43: 8519:Pre-emancipation African-American history 7539:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 6384:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973. 6240: 6145:. (New York: Penguin Press, 2006), xxiii. 6124: 6122: 6120: 5446:Dictionary of African Christian Biography 5197: 4923: 4876: 4818: 4179: 3713:Mass racial violence in the United States 1457:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 8514:Political movements in the United States 5986:Taylor, Bankole Kamara (February 2014). 5775: 5762: 5663:– via Taylor & Francis Online. 5634: 5401:. University of Houston Digital History. 4857: 4800: 4360: 4217: 6354: 6317: 6100: 5781: 5673: 5498: 5463:Daniel M. Johnson and Rex R. Campbell, 5260:, This Day In History, History website. 4990: 4108:Universal Negro Improvement Association 3109:In the late 18th century, thousands of 524:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 514:Multidistrict Litigation Judicial Panel 113:This article is part of a series on the 8504:Anti-black racism in the United States 8476: 8438:Topics related to the African diaspora 7544:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 6394: 6275:. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation 6117: 5985: 5979: 5951: 5853:"The Nation of Islam — BLVCK Vrchives" 5763:Schmaltz, William H. (June 25, 1961). 5513: 5113: 4722: 3883:Religious motivations for colonization 3582:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County 8418:Landmark African-American legislation 6469: 6443: 6293: 6154: 5587: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5367:The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History 5206: 5146: 5144: 5032: 4954: 4929: 4882: 2199:Athletic associations and conferences 1688:History of African-American education 884:Elections in the District of Columbia 7549:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 6013:Hargreaves, J.; Porter, A. (1963). " 5514:Benton, Joshua (February 19, 2022). 5437: 5251: 4718: 4716: 4020: 2122:Association for the Study of African 1254:United States and the United Nations 486:Inferior Courts of the United States 8509:People of Liberated African descent 7903:African-American Vernacular English 5878:Sivapragasam, Michael (June 2018). 5269: 5161:"The American Colonization Society" 4801:McDaniel, Antonio (November 1992). 4547:families in Freetown, Sierra Leone. 2936:Race and ethnicity in the US census 2437:African-American Vernacular English 2006:National Conference of Black Mayors 358:Vice President of the United States 13: 7821:U.S. cities with large populations 7524:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 5813:McPheeters, Sam (April 16, 2015). 5574: 5141: 4934:. Johns Hopkins University Press. 4656:Afro-American settlement in Africa 4421:and these settlers' struggle with 4373:(after European arrival) is, with 3809:, there weren't any slaves in the 2139:National Black Chamber of Commerce 422:Supreme Court of the United States 130: 49:Departure of African Americans to 14: 8550: 6694:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 6690:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 6497:African American founding fathers 6395:Palmer, Barbara (March 1, 2006). 6388: 5341:. Random House Value Publishing. 5041:. Visible Ink Press. p. 28. 4726:Black rednecks and white liberals 4713: 4288:would immigrate to the colony of 4224:Voyages to the River Sierra Leone 3815:abolitionism in the United States 3708:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 3703:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 3334:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer 2843:Places by plurality of population 1509:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 1499:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 1452:Abolitionism in the United States 152:Constitution of the United States 8456: 7574:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 6719:Nadir of American race relations 6341:. New York: Penguin Press, 2006. 6057:US Presidents and Foreign Policy 5992:. New Africa Press. p. 68. 5750:Virginia Commonwealth University 5444:S. K. B. Asante, "Sam, Alfred", 5123:Western Journal of Black Studies 4858:McDaniel, Antonio (April 1995). 4791:(Howard University Press, 1996). 4596: 3394:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker 3166: 3018: 1540:Black Belt in the American South 1358: 1346: 597:Elections by State and Territory 202: 197: 8539:Transatlantic cultural exchange 6580:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 6570:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 6419:. BlogTalkRadio. June 25, 2010. 6287: 6261: 6234: 6221: 6186: 6148: 6135: 6094: 6081: 6006: 5913: 5888: 5871: 5845: 5827: 5806: 5756: 5738: 5706: 5667: 5628: 5548:The Journal of Southern History 5507: 5492: 5470: 5457: 5417: 5404: 5381: 5355: 5330: 5316:. Penn State Press. p. 8. 5303: 5278: 5263: 5235: 5171: 5153: 5093: 5026: 5013: 4862:. University of Chicago Press. 4207: 3547:Wilmington insurrection of 1898 3537:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895 3257:Expulsions of African Americans 2144:National Council of Negro Women 1259:United Nations Security Council 1162:District of Columbia Government 8499:American colonization movement 7569:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 6575:Civil right movement 1896–1954 6020:The Journal of African History 5815:"When Malcolm X Met the Nazis" 5388:"The Ending of Reconstruction" 4984: 4948: 4889:The Journal of African History 4883:Shick, Tom W. (January 1971). 4789:letters of Captain Paul Cuffee 4772: 4751: 3865:anti-abolitionism in the North 2941:Racism against Black Americans 375:United States Attorney General 341:President of the United States 1: 8484:African and Black nationalism 7749:Cherokee freedmen controversy 6725:The Negro Motorist Green Book 6427:. SwitSalone. April 26, 2010. 6269:"Mary Perth 1740- after 1813" 6195:Journal of the Early Republic 6101:Butcher, Tim (October 2010). 5785:The Portable Malcolm X Reader 5653:10.1080/17528631.2015.1027332 5337:O'Donnell, Edward T. (2006). 5209:Journal of the Early Republic 4636:American Colonization Society 4502:who emigrated to Sierra Leone 4222:The Province of Freedom from 3916:American Colonization Society 3910:American Colonization Society 3904:American Colonization Society 3869:American Colonization Society 3572:Springfield race riot of 1908 3140: 3135:American Colonization Society 3089:in the 18th and 19th century 2149:National Pan-Hellenic Council 519:Alien Terrorist Removal Court 84:American Colonization Society 5674:Sanders, Crystal R. (2019). 4707: 4280:. In time, African American 3991:Other pre-Civil War attempts 3612:Washington race riot of 1919 2951:School segregation in the US 2489:Black American Sign Language 2463:Languages and other dialects 509:Court of International Trade 7: 7619:Black players in ice hockey 7554:National Urban League (NUL) 7380:American Society of Muslims 6618:Selma to Montgomery marches 6538:Brown v. Board of Education 5680:Reviews in American History 4616:African Americans in Africa 4582: 3499:James Harvey and Joe Jordan 1778:African-American businesses 96:Creation and settlement of 10: 8555: 7776:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 7534:Nashville Student Movement 6545:Children of the plantation 5641:African and Black Diaspora 5635:McDuffie, Erik S. (2015). 5454:. Retrieved August 8, 2016 5033:Dixon, Rebecca S. (2009). 4697:Year of Return, Ghana 2019 4671:Genealogy tourism (Africa) 4651:African Americans in Ghana 4518:missionary to Sierra Leone 4354: 4350: 4319:slaves who settled in the 4297:Sierra Leone Creole people 4211: 4074:Peace Movement of Ethiopia 4042:Napoleon Bonaparte Broward 3934:Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 3907: 3857:Hampshire County, Virginia 3763:American Revolutionary War 3174:1906 Atlanta race massacre 3115:American Revolutionary War 2316:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1991:Congressional Black Caucus 1958:African Diaspora Religions 1745:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 8446: 8413:Index of related articles 8291: 8206: 7930: 7863: 7801: 7701: 7662: 7594: 7587: 7502: 7422: 7414:Doctrine of Father Divine 7360: 7302: 6951: 6806: 6798:Women's suffrage movement 6751:Reconstruction Amendments 6558:Voting Rights Act of 1965 6477: 6033:10.1017/S0021853700004394 5782:Marable, Manning (2013). 5702:– via Project MUSE. 5588:Blain, Keisha N. (2018). 5393:October 28, 2007, at the 5242:"Back-to-Africa Movement" 5035:"Back to Africa Movement" 4901:10.1017/S0021853700000062 4611:African-American diaspora 3607:Chicago race riot of 1919 2823:US states and territories 2124:American Life and History 1846:Lift Every Voice and Sing 1555:Treatment of the enslaved 950:List of political parties 92: 68: 58: 42: 8494:African diaspora history 8463:United States portal 7898:African-American English 7327:Inventors and scientists 7019:George Washington Carver 6623:Chicago Freedom Movement 6060:. ABC-CLIO. p. 49. 4084:Mittie Maude Lena Gordon 3567:Atlanta Massacre of 1906 3025:United States portal 2432:African-American English 1943:African-American Muslims 1504:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 1353:United States portal 865:Northern Mariana Islands 213:House of Representatives 8386:African-American firsts 7435:Back-to-Africa movement 7404:Black Hebrew Israelites 7184:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 6732:Partus sequitur ventrem 6355:Jenkins, David (1975). 6273:Slavery and Remembrance 6027:(3, 0000539): 468–469. 4991:Jenkins, David (1975). 4768:(subscription required) 4723:Sowell, Thomas (2005). 4681:Right of return (Ghana) 4562:(1740–1813), prominent 4327:was established by the 4214:History of Sierra Leone 4128:George Lincoln Rockwell 3680:Back to Africa movement 3227:Anti-miscegenation laws 3075:back-to-Africa movement 2946:Reparations for slavery 2034:Back-to-Africa movement 1933:Black Hebrew Israelites 1811:African-American beauty 1082:Individualist anarchism 254:Congressional districts 38:Back-to-Africa movement 20: 8354:Spingarn Medal winners 7843:States and territories 7614:Black NFL quarterbacks 7114:Martin Luther King Jr. 6646:Dred Scott v. Sandford 6585:Montgomery bus boycott 6399:. Stanford University. 6300:. Brill. p. 239. 5900:Zinn Education Project 5289:. Africa World Press. 5272:Lincoln's Negro Policy 5167:on September 23, 2017. 4930:Shick, Tom W. (1980). 4570:Easmon medical dynasty 4472:, President of Liberia 4466:, President of Liberia 4458:Freetown, Sierra Leone 4448:Joseph Jenkins Roberts 4410:Nat Turner's Rebellion 4366: 4227: 4226:by John Matthews, 1788 4180:Repatriation to Africa 4063:Torrey George McCallum 3650:Anti-lynching movement 3587:1917 Chester race riot 3577:Johnson–Jeffries riots 3444:Laura and L. D. Nelson 2416:Dialects and languages 1576:Second Great Migration 1219:Diplomatic missions of 1097:Political polarization 567:Presidential elections 191:United States Congress 135: 73:Colonization societies 32:considered for merging 7664:Athletic associations 7599:Negro league baseball 7370:African-American Jews 7089:Ketanji Brown Jackson 7054:Henry Highland Garnet 6913:Negro National Anthem 6663:George Floyd protests 6628:Post–civil rights era 6294:Leach, Fiona (2019). 6227:Dr. Washington Hyde, 6207:10.1353/jer.2007.0013 5928:History Dissertations 5692:10.1353/rah.2019.0087 5430:May 24, 2015, at the 5270:Cox, Earnest (1938). 5221:10.1353/jer.2014.0012 5079:10.1353/wvh.2012.0021 4626:Nova Scotian Settlers 4494:Henry Washington (or 4364: 4221: 4130:, the founder of the 4124:Civil Rights Movement 3542:Phoenix election riot 3527:Rock Springs massacre 3184:Historical background 3096:abolitionist movement 2828:US metropolitan areas 2655:List of neighborhoods 2269:Alabama Creole people 2259:African-American Jews 2191:Negro league baseball 2154:National Urban League 2106:Civic/economic groups 1938:African-American Jews 1828:African-American hair 1690:, after the Civil War 1519:Post–civil rights era 294:President Pro Tempore 134: 8524:Repatriated Africans 7871:Afro-Seminole Creole 7397:Azusa Street Revival 7269:Booker T. Washington 6793:Underground Railroad 6658:Free people of color 6512:Atlantic slave trade 6411:on February 2, 2007. 6380:Weisbord, Robert G. 6345:Clegg, Claude A. III 6318:General bibliography 6128:Barnes, Kenneth C., 6103:"Our Man In Liberia" 5839:pro.magnumphotos.com 5835:"Magnum Photos Home" 5099:Ronald L. F. Davis, 4702:Zionist antisemitism 4555:Sierra Leone Company 4470:Stephen Allen Benson 4337:Sierra Leone Company 4278:Sierra Leone Company 3845:perpetual foreigners 3592:East St. Louis riots 3562:Evansville race riot 3557:Robert Charles riots 3127:Free African Society 2985:Criminal stereotypes 2760:District of Columbia 2477:Afro-Seminole Creole 1919:Non-Christian groups 1514:Black power movement 1478:during the Civil War 1447:Atlantic slave trade 1223:in the United States 963:Political ideologies 587:Presidential primary 79:Sierra Leone Company 8266:Trinidad and Tobago 7881:Black American Sign 7708:By African descent 7702:Ethnic subdivisions 7689:Southwestern (SWAC) 7604:Baseball color line 7519:Black Panther Party 7423:Political movements 7340:in computer science 6999:Carol Moseley Braun 6788:Tulsa race massacre 6781:Treatment of slaves 6613:March on Washington 6608:Birmingham movement 6373:Page, Sebastian N. 6323:Barnes, Kenneth C. 6157:Appalachian Journal 5480:. February 11, 2022 5410:Kenneth C. Barnes, 5101:"Creating Jim Crow" 5019:Kenneth C. Barnes, 4484:, African-American 4132:American Nazi Party 4072:. Activists in the 3755:American Revolution 3655:Exodusters movement 3622:Tulsa race massacre 3516:Massacres and riots 3119:Province of Freedom 2381:Sierra Leone Creole 2342:Specific ancestries 2227:Southwestern (SWAC) 1750:Black History Month 1581:New Great Migration 1535:Agriculture history 1365:Politics portal 1200:Department of State 875:U.S. Virgin Islands 39: 8529:Repatriated slaves 8364:US representatives 8359:US cabinet members 8251:Dominican Republic 7838:Metropolitan areas 7679:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 7504:Civic and economic 7482:Self-determination 7303:Education, science 7224:Fred Shuttlesworth 7204:A. Philip Randolph 7109:Coretta Scott King 7034:Frederick Douglass 6861:Harlem Renaissance 6766:Separate but equal 6756:Reconstruction era 6744:Plessy v. Ferguson 6635:Cornerstone Speech 6549:Civil Rights Acts 6532:Black Lives Matter 6507:American Civil War 6359:. Wildwood House. 6334:. Routledge, 1993. 6241:Pybus, C. (2007). 5423:Crumrin, Timothy, 5106:2002-06-14 at the 4999:. pp. 41–43. 4784:The Black Jacobins 4394:Grains of paradise 4371:history of Liberia 4367: 4357:History of Liberia 4228: 4160:movement, such as 4153:at party rallies. 4144:, a term given to 4088:Earnest Sevier Cox 4027:Reconstruction era 3950:American Civil War 3832:Zephaniah Kingsley 3771:Somerset v Stewart 3660:Atlanta Compromise 3532:Thibodaux massacre 3522:Opelousas massacre 3296:Indiana White Caps 3267:Lynching postcards 3212:Compromise of 1877 3190:Reconstruction era 3104:Rastafari movement 3087:European Americans 3079:political movement 2390:Sexual orientation 2264:Afro-Puerto Ricans 2217:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 1852:Self-determination 1816:Black is beautiful 1482:Reconstruction era 1207:Secretary of State 577:Off-year elections 559:National Elections 266:Non-voting members 144:Federal government 136: 37: 8471: 8470: 8299:African Americans 8171:Dallas–Fort Worth 7766:Black Southerners 7697: 7696: 7149:Thurgood Marshall 7119:Bernard Lafayette 6714:Million Man March 6471:African Americans 6366:978-0-7045-0116-4 6337:Campbell, James. 6067:978-1-85109-790-6 5971:978-0-8020-7402-7 5726:on August 8, 2021 5599:978-0-8122-9477-4 5448:, reprinted from 5348:978-0-517-22754-1 5323:978-0-271-04571-9 5296:978-0-86543-383-0 5048:978-1-57859-260-9 5006:978-0-7045-0116-4 4757:Cassandra Pybus, 4535:Freedom's Journal 4500:George Washington 4435:Americo-Liberians 4419:American Frontier 4317:Liberated African 4158:black nationalist 4100:Theodore G. Bilbo 4092:white nationalist 4040:Florida Governor 4021:Post-emancipation 3985:Francis Scott Key 3944:According to the 3779:French Revolution 3759:Thirteen Colonies 3751: 3750: 3632:Rosewood massacre 3195:Voter suppression 3158:Nadir of American 3102:, members of the 3071: 3070: 3008: 3007: 2906: 2905: 2680:Dallas-Fort Worth 2497: 2496: 2407: 2406: 2351:Americo-Liberians 2234: 2233: 2172: 2171: 2097: 2096: 1966: 1965: 1910:Womanist theology 1860: 1859: 1802:Symbols and ideas 1588: 1587: 1467:Antebellum period 1462:Revolutionary War 1417:African Americans 1402: 1401: 1241:Visa requirements 1193:Foreign relations 1092:Political culture 1032:Constitutionalism 910:Political parties 895:List of Elections 582:Primary elections 572:Midterm elections 494:Courts of appeals 122: 107: 106: 8546: 8489:African diaspora 8461: 8460: 8459: 8423:Lynching victims 7922:Louisiana Creole 7893:American English 7781:Louisiana Creole 7754:Choctaw freedmen 7592: 7591: 7129:Huddie Ledbetter 7069:Fannie Lou Hamer 7039:W. E. B. Du Bois 7029:Claudette Colvin 7024:Shirley Chisholm 6841:Family structure 6709:Military history 6591:Browder v. Gayle 6464: 6457: 6450: 6441: 6440: 6436: 6428: 6420: 6412: 6407:. Archived from 6400: 6370: 6330:Brooks, George. 6312: 6311: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6282: 6280: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6247:. Beacon Press. 6238: 6232: 6225: 6219: 6218: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6152: 6146: 6141:James Campbell, 6139: 6133: 6126: 6115: 6114: 6098: 6092: 6091:Routledge, 1993. 6087:Brooks, George. 6085: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6010: 6004: 6003: 5983: 5977: 5975: 5959: 5949: 5940: 5939: 5936:10.57709/2375334 5917: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5892: 5886: 5885: 5875: 5869: 5868: 5866: 5864: 5859:on July 27, 2020 5855:. Archived from 5849: 5843: 5842: 5831: 5825: 5824: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5779: 5773: 5772: 5769:AnthonyFlood.com 5760: 5754: 5753: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5725: 5719:. Archived from 5718: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5632: 5626: 5625: 5619: 5611: 5592:. Philadelphia. 5585: 5572: 5571: 5543: 5534: 5533: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5499:Jenkins (1975). 5496: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5485: 5474: 5468: 5461: 5455: 5441: 5435: 5421: 5415: 5408: 5402: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5334: 5328: 5327: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5267: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5204: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5163:. Archived from 5157: 5151: 5148: 5139: 5138: 5117: 5111: 5097: 5091: 5090: 5062: 5053: 5052: 5030: 5024: 5017: 5011: 5010: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4965: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4855: 4849: 4848: 4822: 4798: 4792: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4720: 4661:Diaspora tourism 4601: 4600: 4599: 4592: 4576:Elizabeth Renner 4564:African American 4496:Harry Washington 4309:African-American 4251:Jamaican Maroons 4186:African-American 4174:black separatism 4070:Second World War 4049:Chief Alfred Sam 3961:Thomas Jefferson 3789:. Starting with 3743: 3736: 3729: 3665:Niagara Movement 3469:Anthony Crawford 3459:Jesse Washington 3399:John Henry James 3389:Stephen Williams 3374:Ephraim Grizzard 3369:People's Grocery 3285:Vigilante groups 3200:Disfranchisement 3172:Violence in the 3170: 3145: 3144: 3083:African American 3063: 3056: 3049: 3023: 3022: 3021: 2970:media depictions 2919: 2918: 2814:Population count 2510: 2509: 2444:Liberian English 2423:English dialects 2420: 2419: 2376:Samaná Americans 2301:Creoles of color 2247: 2246: 2185: 2184: 2129:Black conductors 2110: 2109: 1979: 1978: 1953:Louisiana Voodoo 1875: 1874: 1620:Family structure 1603: 1602: 1550:Military history 1545:Business history 1476:military history 1431: 1430: 1404: 1403: 1394: 1387: 1380: 1363: 1362: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1170:District Council 1153:Local government 1037:Environmentalism 401:Executive Office 396:Federal agencies 206: 201: 121:Politics of the 120: 109: 108: 47: 40: 36: 8554: 8553: 8549: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8474: 8473: 8472: 8467: 8457: 8455: 8442: 8408:Historic places 8401:US state firsts 8287: 8202: 7926: 7859: 7831:2010 majorities 7826:2000 majorities 7797: 7744:Black Seminoles 7693: 7684:Southern (SIAC) 7667: 7666:and conferences 7665: 7658: 7654:Serena Williams 7649:Jackie Robinson 7583: 7507: 7505: 7498: 7418: 7385:Nation of Islam 7356: 7304: 7298: 7239:Sojourner Truth 7229:Clarence Thomas 7194:Gabriel Prosser 7094:Michael Jackson 6969:Crispus Attucks 6959:Ralph Abernathy 6947: 6903:Musical theater 6802: 6668:Great Migration 6640:COVID-19 impact 6598:Sit-in movement 6473: 6468: 6431: 6423: 6415: 6403: 6391: 6367: 6320: 6315: 6308: 6292: 6288: 6278: 6276: 6267: 6266: 6262: 6255: 6239: 6235: 6226: 6222: 6191: 6187: 6153: 6149: 6140: 6136: 6127: 6118: 6099: 6095: 6086: 6082: 6072: 6070: 6068: 6052: 6048: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5984: 5980: 5972: 5950: 5943: 5918: 5914: 5904: 5902: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5876: 5872: 5862: 5860: 5851: 5850: 5846: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5811: 5807: 5800: 5780: 5776: 5761: 5757: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5707: 5672: 5668: 5633: 5629: 5613: 5612: 5600: 5586: 5575: 5560:10.2307/2211284 5544: 5537: 5521:Washington Post 5512: 5508: 5497: 5493: 5483: 5481: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5462: 5458: 5442: 5438: 5432:Wayback Machine 5422: 5418: 5409: 5405: 5395:Wayback Machine 5386: 5382: 5372: 5370: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5335: 5331: 5324: 5308: 5304: 5297: 5283: 5279: 5268: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5240: 5236: 5205: 5198: 5188: 5186: 5176: 5172: 5159: 5158: 5154: 5149: 5142: 5118: 5114: 5108:Wayback Machine 5098: 5094: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5031: 5027: 5018: 5014: 5007: 4989: 4985: 4978: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4928: 4924: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4856: 4852: 4820:10.2307/2061853 4799: 4795: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4756: 4752: 4737: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4676:Return to roots 4631:Atlantic Creole 4607: 4597: 4595: 4587: 4585: 4541:Abraham Hazeley 4526:True Whig Party 4491:in Sierra Leone 4464:William Coleman 4444: 4423:Native American 4359: 4353: 4339:as a place for 4331:, supported by 4313:Jamaican Maroon 4282:Black Loyalists 4247:Thomas Clarkson 4235:, known as the 4216: 4210: 4182: 4166:Nation of Islam 4162:Elijah Muhammad 4023: 4015:Cleveland, Ohio 3993: 3969:Abraham Lincoln 3957:Thomas Buchanan 3912: 3906: 3889:Great Awakening 3885: 3840: 3747: 3718: 3717: 3693: 3685: 3684: 3675:Great Migration 3645: 3637: 3636: 3627:Perry race riot 3597:Elaine massacre 3517: 3509: 3508: 3324:Andrew Richards 3319: 3311: 3310: 3247: 3239: 3238: 3234:Convict leasing 3185: 3177: 3176: 3159: 3143: 3111:Black Loyalists 3067: 3019: 3017: 3010: 3009: 3004: 2960: 2916: 2908: 2907: 2902: 2847: 2809: 2785:Omaha, Nebraska 2750:Historic places 2744: 2636: 2507: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2458: 2417: 2409: 2408: 2403: 2385: 2337: 2279:Black Seminoles 2244: 2243:Sub-communities 2236: 2235: 2222:Southern (SIAC) 2182: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2123: 2107: 2099: 2098: 2093: 2010: 1976: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1948:Nation of Islam 1914: 1891: 1872: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1797: 1764: 1731: 1703: 1664: 1640:Musical theater 1600: 1590: 1589: 1571:Great Migration 1428: 1398: 1369: 1357: 1347: 1345: 1337: 1336: 1288: 1270: 1250: 1231:Nationality law 1227: 1215: 1195: 1185: 1184: 1157: 1112: 1102: 1101: 1088: 1023: 965: 955: 954: 946: 926: 912: 902: 901: 889: 879: 601: 593: 563: 554: 544: 543: 538:Other tribunals 533: 499:District courts 481: 416: 406: 405: 387: 383:Merrick Garland 335: 325: 324: 319:Mitch McConnell 316:Minority Leader 305:Majority Leader 270: 246:Hakeem Jeffries 243:Minority Leader 232:Majority Leader 208: 185: 175: 174: 146: 123: 88: 54: 35: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8552: 8542: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8469: 8468: 8466: 8465: 8453: 8447: 8444: 8443: 8441: 8440: 8435: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8404: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8383: 8382: 8381: 8376: 8374:Visual artists 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8334:Mathematicians 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8295: 8293: 8289: 8288: 8286: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8275: 8270: 8269: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8240: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8212: 8210: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8184: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8158: 8153: 8151:South Carolina 8148: 8143: 8142: 8141: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8121:North Carolina 8118: 8117: 8116: 8106: 8101: 8100: 8099: 8089: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8074: 8073: 8072: 8066:Massachusetts 8064: 8063: 8062: 8052: 8047: 8046: 8045: 8035: 8030: 8029: 8028: 8018: 8013: 8012: 8011: 8001: 7996: 7995: 7994: 7984: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7967: 7962: 7961: 7960: 7955: 7945: 7940: 7934: 7932: 7928: 7927: 7925: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7913: 7912: 7911: 7910: 7908:social context 7905: 7895: 7885: 7884: 7883: 7873: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7860: 7858: 7857: 7856: 7855: 7850: 7840: 7835: 7834: 7833: 7828: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7805: 7803: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7790: 7789: 7788: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7759:Creek Freedmen 7756: 7751: 7746: 7736: 7734:Alabama Creole 7731: 7730: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7705: 7703: 7699: 7698: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7674:Central (CIAA) 7670: 7668: 7663: 7660: 7659: 7657: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7585: 7584: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7510: 7508: 7503: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7496: 7491: 7490: 7489: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7467:Pan-Africanism 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7437: 7432: 7426: 7424: 7420: 7419: 7417: 7416: 7411: 7409:Black theology 7406: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7372: 7366: 7364: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7350:in STEM fields 7347: 7342: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7308: 7306: 7305:and technology 7300: 7299: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7244:Harriet Tubman 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7174:Michelle Obama 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7104:Barbara Jordan 7101: 7099:Harriet Jacobs 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6989:Amelia Boynton 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6953: 6952:Notable people 6949: 6948: 6946: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6888:LGBT community 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6869: 6868: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6812: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6784: 6783: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6740: 6735: 6728: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6603:Freedom Riders 6600: 6595: 6587: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6547: 6542: 6534: 6529: 6527:Black genocide 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6483: 6481: 6475: 6474: 6467: 6466: 6459: 6452: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6429: 6421: 6413: 6401: 6390: 6389:External links 6387: 6386: 6385: 6378: 6371: 6365: 6352: 6342: 6335: 6328: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6313: 6306: 6286: 6260: 6253: 6233: 6220: 6201:(1): 184–188. 6185: 6163:(2): 164–186. 6147: 6134: 6116: 6093: 6080: 6066: 6046: 6005: 5998: 5978: 5970: 5941: 5912: 5887: 5870: 5844: 5826: 5805: 5798: 5774: 5755: 5737: 5705: 5666: 5627: 5598: 5573: 5554:(2): 293–320. 5535: 5506: 5491: 5469: 5456: 5436: 5416: 5403: 5380: 5354: 5347: 5329: 5322: 5302: 5295: 5277: 5262: 5250: 5234: 5196: 5170: 5152: 5140: 5129:(4): 260–273. 5112: 5092: 5054: 5047: 5025: 5012: 5005: 4997:Wildwood House 4983: 4976: 4947: 4940: 4922: 4875: 4868: 4850: 4813:(4): 581–594. 4793: 4779:C. L. R. James 4771: 4750: 4735: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4692:Scipio Vaughan 4689: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4666:Door of Return 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4606: 4605: 4584: 4581: 4580: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4557: 4548: 4538: 4528: 4522:Edward J. Roye 4519: 4509: 4503: 4492: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4451: 4443: 4440: 4402:Christiansburg 4355:Main article: 4352: 4349: 4270:United Kingdom 4212:Main article: 4209: 4206: 4181: 4178: 4079:Pan-Africanism 4022: 4019: 3992: 3989: 3977:Daniel Webster 3908:Main article: 3905: 3902: 3887:Following the 3884: 3881: 3839: 3836: 3783:Saint-Domingue 3775:British Empire 3773:), and in the 3749: 3748: 3746: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3723: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3698:Black genocide 3694: 3692:Related topics 3691: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3617:Ocoee massacre 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3515: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3489:John Hartfield 3486: 3481: 3479:Jim McIlherron 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3419:Marie Thompson 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3384:Samuel J. Bush 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3354:Joe Vermillion 3351: 3349:George Meadows 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3313: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3270: 3269: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3251:Common actions 3248: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3237: 3236: 3231: 3230: 3229: 3224: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3186: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3171: 3163: 3162: 3160:race relations 3154: 3153: 3142: 3139: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3065: 3058: 3051: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3012: 3011: 3006: 3005: 3003: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2931:Black genocide 2927: 2924: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2840: 2838:US communities 2835: 2830: 2825: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2795:South Carolina 2792: 2790:North Carolina 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2612:South Carolina 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2592:North Carolina 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2518: 2515: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2495: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2456: 2451: 2449:Samaná English 2446: 2441: 2440: 2439: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2405: 2404: 2402: 2401: 2399:LGBT community 2395: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2356:Creek Freedmen 2353: 2347: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2338: 2336: 2335: 2330: 2329: 2328: 2326:Carmel Indians 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2237: 2232: 2231: 2230: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2207:Central (CIAA) 2201: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2193: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2146: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2126: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2074:Pan-Africanism 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2020: 2017: 2016: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1905:Black theology 1901: 1898: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1890: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1873: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1854: 1849: 1842: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1825: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769:Economic class 1766: 1765: 1763: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1713: 1710: 1709: 1708:Academic study 1705: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1685: 1680: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1666: 1665: 1663: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1601: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1529: 1528: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1479: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1436: 1435: 1429: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1413: 1412: 1400: 1399: 1397: 1396: 1389: 1382: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1367: 1355: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1322:European Union 1319: 1317:United Kingdom 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1287: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1269: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1261: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1226: 1225: 1214: 1213: 1211:Antony Blinken 1203: 1202: 1196: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1180:Superior Court 1177: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1156: 1155: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1133: 1127: 1126: 1113: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1079: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1047:Libertarianism 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1014: 1004: 1003: 1002: 1000:Traditionalist 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 966: 961: 960: 957: 956: 953: 952: 945: 944: 943: 942: 937: 925: 924: 919: 913: 908: 907: 904: 903: 900: 899: 888: 887: 878: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 855:American Samoa 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 800:South Carolina 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 765:North Carolina 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 600: 599: 592: 591: 590: 589: 579: 574: 569: 562: 561: 555: 550: 549: 546: 545: 542: 541: 532: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 496: 490: 489: 480: 479: 474: 469: 464: 458: 457: 452: 447: 442: 436: 435: 426: 425: 417: 412: 411: 408: 407: 404: 403: 398: 393: 386: 385: 379: 378: 370: 369: 362: 361: 353: 352: 345: 344: 336: 331: 330: 327: 326: 323: 322: 312: 311: 301: 300: 290: 289: 279: 278: 269: 268: 262: 261: 250: 249: 239: 238: 228: 227: 217: 216: 195: 194: 186: 181: 180: 177: 176: 173: 172: 167: 162: 156: 155: 147: 142: 141: 138: 137: 127: 126: 116: 115: 105: 104: 94: 90: 89: 87: 86: 81: 75: 70: 66: 65: 63:Atlantic world 60: 56: 55: 48: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8551: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8481: 8479: 8464: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8448: 8445: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8433:Neighborhoods 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8396:Sports firsts 8394: 8392: 8389: 8388: 8387: 8384: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8301: 8300: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8290: 8282: 8279: 8278: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8243: 8241: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8217: 8214: 8213: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8199: 8198:West Virginia 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8163: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8135:Pennsylvania 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8115: 8114:New York City 8112: 8111: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8058: 8057: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8044: 8041: 8040: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8010: 8007: 8006: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7993: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7985: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7959: 7958:San Francisco 7956: 7954: 7951: 7950: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7931:By state/city 7929: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7889: 7886: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7877: 7876:American Sign 7874: 7872: 7869: 7868: 7866: 7862: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7823: 7822: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7810: 7809:Neighborhoods 7807: 7806: 7804: 7800: 7794: 7791: 7787: 7784: 7783: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7740: 7739:Black Indians 7737: 7735: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7709: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7700: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7661: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7596: 7593: 7590: 7586: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7501: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7398: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7365: 7363: 7359: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7317:Black schools 7315: 7313: 7312:Black studies 7310: 7309: 7307: 7301: 7295: 7294:Whitney Young 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7284:Oprah Winfrey 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7254:Denmark Vesey 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7199:Joseph Rainey 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7154:Toni Morrison 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7139:Joseph Lowery 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7084:Jesse Jackson 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7074:Kamala Harris 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7059:Marcus Garvey 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7009:Blanche Bruce 7007: 7005: 7004:Edward Brooke 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6994:James Bradley 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6974:James Baldwin 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6950: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6918:Neighborhoods 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6805: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6782: 6779: 6778: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6771:Silent Parade 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6733: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6699:Jim Crow laws 6697: 6695: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6540: 6539: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6522:Black cowboys 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6465: 6460: 6458: 6453: 6451: 6446: 6445: 6442: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6392: 6383: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6358: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6329: 6326: 6322: 6321: 6309: 6307:9789004387447 6303: 6299: 6298: 6290: 6274: 6270: 6264: 6256: 6254:9780807055151 6250: 6246: 6245: 6237: 6230: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6181: 6177: 6176: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6151: 6144: 6138: 6131: 6125: 6123: 6121: 6112: 6108: 6107:History Today 6104: 6097: 6090: 6084: 6069: 6063: 6059: 6058: 6050: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6009: 6001: 5999:9789987160389 5995: 5991: 5990: 5982: 5973: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5957: 5948: 5946: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5916: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5883: 5882: 5874: 5858: 5854: 5848: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5822: 5821: 5816: 5809: 5801: 5799:9780143106944 5795: 5791: 5790:Penguin Books 5787: 5786: 5778: 5770: 5766: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5741: 5722: 5715: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5670: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5631: 5623: 5617: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5510: 5503:. p. 43. 5502: 5495: 5479: 5473: 5466: 5460: 5453: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5420: 5413: 5407: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5384: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5350: 5344: 5340: 5333: 5325: 5319: 5315: 5314: 5306: 5298: 5292: 5288: 5281: 5273: 5266: 5259: 5254: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5215:(1): 79–107. 5214: 5210: 5203: 5201: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5156: 5147: 5145: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5116: 5109: 5105: 5102: 5096: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5061: 5059: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5016: 5008: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4979: 4977:9780393244076 4973: 4969: 4964: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4943: 4941:9780801823091 4937: 4933: 4926: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4879: 4871: 4869:9780226557243 4865: 4861: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4797: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4736:1-59403-086-3 4732: 4728: 4727: 4719: 4717: 4712: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4687: 4686:Turner Chapel 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4594: 4593: 4590: 4577: 4574: 4571: 4568: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4533:, founder of 4532: 4531:John Russwurm 4529: 4527: 4523: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4507: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4480: 4477: 4474: 4471: 4468: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4455: 4454:Thomas Peters 4452: 4449: 4446: 4445: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4405: 4403: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4363: 4358: 4348: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4333:abolitionists 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4266: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4233:Black Britons 4225: 4220: 4215: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4194:Black British 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4117: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4104:Marcus Garvey 4101: 4096: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4066: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4054:Marcus Garvey 4050: 4045: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4018: 4016: 4012: 4011:Martin Delany 4008: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3988: 3986: 3982: 3981:John Marshall 3978: 3974: 3973:James Madison 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3920:Robert Finley 3917: 3911: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3860: 3858: 3853: 3849: 3846: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3795:Massachusetts 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3744: 3739: 3737: 3732: 3730: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3721: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3484:George Taylor 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3439:Walker family 3437: 3435: 3434:William Burns 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3379:Alfred Blount 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3329:Michael Green 3327: 3325: 3322: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3268: 3265: 3264: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3219: 3218: 3217:Jim Crow laws 3215: 3213: 3210: 3208: 3205: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3175: 3169: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3138: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3100:Marcus Garvey 3097: 3092: 3091:United States 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3064: 3059: 3057: 3052: 3050: 3045: 3044: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3016: 3015: 3014: 3013: 3001: 3000:Minstrel show 2998: 2996: 2995:Magical Negro 2993: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2926: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2912: 2911: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2841: 2839: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2812: 2806: 2805:West Virginia 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2755: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2741: 2740:San Francisco 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2720:New York City 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2639: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2511: 2503: 2502: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2470: 2469: 2467: 2466: 2462: 2461: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2421: 2413: 2412: 2400: 2397: 2396: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2388: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2371:Nova Scotians 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2348: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2334: 2331: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 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1017:Progressivism 1015: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 972: 971: 968: 967: 964: 959: 958: 951: 948: 947: 941: 938: 936: 933: 932: 931: 930:Third parties 928: 927: 923: 920: 918: 915: 914: 911: 906: 905: 898: 896: 891: 890: 886: 885: 881: 880: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 840:West Virginia 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 745:New Hampshire 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 705:Massachusetts 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 602: 598: 595: 594: 588: 585: 584: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 564: 560: 557: 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Wells 7264:David Walker 7259:C. T. Vivian 7214:Paul Robeson 7209:Hiram Revels 7189:Colin Powell 7169:Barack Obama 7124:James Lawson 7079:Jimi Hendrix 7049:James Farmer 7044:Medgar Evers 7014:Ralph Bunche 6964:Maya Angelou 6938:Middle class 6816:Afrofuturism 6742: 6730: 6723: 6644: 6589: 6536: 6502:Afrocentrism 6492:Abolitionism 6409:the original 6381: 6374: 6356: 6348: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6296: 6289: 6277:. Retrieved 6272: 6263: 6243: 6236: 6228: 6223: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6174: 6160: 6156: 6150: 6142: 6137: 6129: 6113:(10): 10–17. 6110: 6106: 6096: 6088: 6083: 6071:. Retrieved 6056: 6049: 6024: 6018: 6014: 6008: 5988: 5981: 5955: 5927: 5922: 5915: 5903:. Retrieved 5899: 5890: 5880: 5873: 5861:. Retrieved 5857:the original 5847: 5838: 5829: 5818: 5808: 5784: 5777: 5768: 5758: 5740: 5728:. Retrieved 5721:the original 5708: 5683: 5679: 5669: 5644: 5640: 5630: 5589: 5551: 5547: 5519: 5509: 5500: 5494: 5482:. Retrieved 5472: 5464: 5459: 5449: 5445: 5439: 5419: 5411: 5406: 5398: 5383: 5371:. 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2049:Conservatism 2033: 2024:Afrocentrism 1996:Joint Center 1887:Black church 1878:Institutions 1793:Billionaires 1783:Middle class 1736:Celebrations 1699:Fraternities 1160: 1136:Legislatures 1116: 1027:Abolitionism 970:Conservatism 892: 882: 805:South Dakota 795:Rhode Island 790:Pennsylvania 770:North Dakota 596: 558: 536: 484: 433:John Roberts 420: 373: 356: 339: 297:Patty Murray 273: 224:Mike Johnson 211: 196: 189: 150: 112: 98:Sierra Leone 69:Participants 25: 18: 8369:US senators 8339:Republicans 8324:Journalists 8181:San Antonio 8146:Puerto Rico 8087:Mississippi 7980:Tallahassee 7953:Los Angeles 7644:Jesse Owens 7629:Arthur Ashe 7487:Nationalism 7477:Raised fist 7440:Black power 7345:in medicine 7279:Roy Wilkins 7234:Emmett Till 7219:Al Sharpton 6984:Julian Bond 6979:James Bevel 6943:Upper class 6933:Stereotypes 6826:Black mecca 6738:Plantations 6517:Black Codes 6231:, Ch. 3, 5. 6073:February 5, 5184:www.loc.gov 5073:(2): 1–34. 4956:Foner, Eric 4646:Remigration 4482:Boston King 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5530:0190-8286 5484:April 25, 5229:143753119 5135:200334994 5087:159669576 4708:Citations 4486:Methodist 4263:Elizabeth 4256:In 1815, 4190:Caribbean 4170:Malcolm X 4007:in 1815. 3995:In 1811, 3644:Reactions 3552:Pana riot 3318:Lynchings 3262:Lynchings 3246:Practices 3207:Redeemers 2990:Hollywood 2980:Blackface 2915:Prejudice 2833:US cities 2710:Lexington 2685:Davenport 2665:Baltimore 2641:US cities 2617:Tennessee 2567:Louisiana 2513:US states 2321:Melungeon 2291:Blaxicans 2089:Socialism 2054:Garveyism 2029:Anarchism 1833:Good hair 1660:Soul food 1630:Folktales 1236:Passports 1131:Governors 1077:Anarchism 1072:Socialism 845:Wisconsin 810:Tennessee 715:Minnesota 690:Louisiana 552:Elections 467:Kavanaugh 450:Sotomayor 414:Judiciary 349:Joe Biden 333:Executive 283:President 30:is being 8451:Category 8242:America 8208:Diaspora 8193:Virginia 8126:Oklahoma 8109:New York 8092:Nebraska 8055:Maryland 8038:Kentucky 8004:Illinois 7943:Arkansas 7848:Illinois 7786:of color 7472:Populism 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8080:Detroit 8016:Indiana 8009:Chicago 7992:Atlanta 7987:Georgia 7970:Florida 7938:Alabama 7888:English 7462:Leftism 7332:Museums 6883:Kwanzaa 6808:Culture 6776:Slavery 6479:History 5905:May 23, 5863:May 11, 5730:May 11, 5568:2211284 5434:. 2007. 5373:May 30, 5189:May 23, 4837:1483543 4829:2061853 4427:Zionism 4351:Liberia 4329:British 4303:of the 4202:Liberia 3897:Quakers 3828:Florida 3799:Vermont 3767:Quakers 3364:Joe Coe 3131:Liberia 2888:Liberia 2770:Georgia 2765:Florida 2695:Houston 2690:Detroit 2675:Chicago 2660:Atlanta 2552:Indiana 2542:Georgia 2537:Florida 2522:Alabama 2454:Tutnese 2333:Redbone 2059:Leftism 1760:Kwanzaa 1717:Studies 1669:Schools 1598:Culture 1527:Aspects 1472:Slavery 1434:Periods 1426:History 975:history 850:Wyoming 825:Vermont 730:Montana 670:Indiana 650:Georgia 645:Florida 615:Arizona 605:Alabama 477:Jackson 472:Barrett 462:Gorsuch 391:Cabinet 221:Speaker 102:Liberia 93:Outcome 51:Liberia 8391:Mayors 8309:Actors 8281:France 8273:Israel 8261:Mexico 8246:Canada 8221:Gambia 8216:Africa 8166:Austin 8131:Oregon 8070:Boston 8033:Kansas 7999:Hawaii 7917:Gullah 7727:Yoruba 7717:Gullah 7588:Sports 7506:groups 7336:Women 6873:Hoodoo 6747:(1896) 6673:Second 6649:(1857) 6594:(1956) 6541:(1954) 6363: 6304: 6251: 6213: 6178: 6167: 6064: 6039: 5996: 5968: 5964:–114. 5796: 5698: 5659: 5606: 5596: 5566: 5528: 5452:, 1977 5345: 5320: 5293: 5227: 5133: 5085: 5045: 5003: 4974: 4938: 4915: 4907: 4866: 4843: 4835: 4827: 4743: 4733: 4603:Africa 4589:Portal 4545:Creole 4431:Israel 4379:Africa 4325:colony 4192:, and 4150:single 3983:, and 3152:on the 3077:was a 2922:Racism 2883:Israel 2873:France 2868:Canada 2863:Africa 2670:Boston 2607:Oregon 2562:Kansas 2472:Gullah 2361:Gullah 2181:Sports 1928:Hoodoo 1312:Canada 1292:Russia 1146:Courts 1012:Modern 995:Social 990:Paleo- 785:Oregon 740:Nevada 680:Kansas 655:Hawaii 610:Alaska 440:Thomas 275:Senate 170:Policy 53:, 1896 8292:Lists 8256:Haiti 8226:Ghana 8161:Texas 8097:Omaha 7375:Islam 6908:Names 6898:Music 6836:Dance 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