483:. The Romans envisioned this as a provisional settlement of loyal clients of the imperial government, whose support could be relied on in internal struggles. The settlement was not seen as an actual ceding of imperial territory, given that the Roman administration was also envisioned as continuing in the granted lands, albeit overseen by the Visigoths as vassals. Though some Roman generals in the time of Honorius had worked to curb the influence and power of the barbarian rulers, the number of civil wars that followed Honorius's death made the status of the barbarians a secondary concern. Instead of suppressing the barbarian kings, emperors and usurpers in the fifth century viewed them as useful internal players.
668:
322:
487:
barbarian rulers, whose realms now formed a permanent part of the landscape. These territorial changes did not mean that lands within the former imperial borders ceased to be part of the Roman Empire on a conceptual level. Treaties made with the
Visigoths in 439 and the Vandals, who had conquered North Africa, in 442 effectively recognized the rulers of those peoples as territorial governors of parts of imperial territory, ceasing the pretension of active imperial administration. These treaties, though not seen as irrevocable, laid the foundations of true territorial kingdoms.
29:
520:
again function properly. Left to their own devices, barbarian rulers instead began to take on the roles formerly held by the emperors, transitioning into proper territorial kings. This process was only possible through the acceptance of barbarian rulers by local Roman aristocrats, who in many cases saw the possibility of restored
Western Roman central control as an increasingly futile prospect. Many barbarian rulers enjoyed considerable support from Roman aristocrats, who raised armies from their own lands both against and for them.
456:. The Roman government at no point saw the existence of semi-autonomous barbarian-controlled territories as desirable, but began to tolerate them through the 420s and 430s. Neither the Romans nor the various barbarian groups sought to establish new and lasting territorial kingdoms that replaced the imperial government. The rise of the barbarian kingdoms derived not from barbarian interest in creating them but from failures in Roman governance and a failure to integrate the barbarian rulers into the existing Roman imperial systems.
752:
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Roman world. The
Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered Hispania from the Visigoths and North Africa from the Eastern Roman Empire, made no pretenses of Roman continuity. The Lombard Kingdom, though often counted among the other barbarian kingdoms, ruled an Italy destroyed by conflict between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. Their rule in Italy came to an end when their kingdom was conquered by the Franks in 774. The small successor kingdoms of the Visigoths in Hispania—predecessors of medieval kingdoms such as
659:
less deep and complex. The smaller size of the barbarian kingdoms meant that official power was truncated and that the opportunities of personal advancement and careers that had existed in the old empire were no longer possible. This breakdown in Roman order had the side effect of leading to a marked decline in living standards, as well as a collapse in economic and social complexity. This development was not universal and many places, such as Gaul, came to experience economic upswings in the sixth century.
200:
87:
influx of barbarians, the Romans simultaneously denied them the ability to properly integrate into the imperial framework. Barbarian rulers were at first local warlords and client kings without firm connections to any territory. Their influence only increased as Roman emperors and usurpers began to use them as pawns in civil wars. The barbarian realms only transitioned into proper territorial kingdoms after the collapse of effective
Western Roman central authority.
445:
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the rise of the barbarian kingdoms in the place of the western empire was far from an entirely peaceful process, the idea of "barbarian invasions" bringing a sudden and violent end to the world of antiquity, once also the widely accepted narrative among modern historians, does not accurately describe the period. Out of the many barbarian kingdoms, the only realm more or less entirely created through military conquest was the
914:
restoration, the centuries of their rule had transformed the governance of their kingdom into something that bore very little resemblance to the Roman Empire. The new form of government was a personal one, based on powers of, and relationships between, individuals, rather than the heavily administrated, judicial and bureaucratic system of the Romans. The time of the barbarian kingdoms came to an end with the coronation of
309:
increasingly suspicious of Roman motives. In this context, the
Visigoths revolted several times under Alaric, who sought to attain a formal position in the imperial framework as a Roman general, as well as pay for his followers as Roman soldiers. Alaric was repeatedly caught in the rivalry and court intrigue between the Eastern and Western empires and his failure to obtain formal recognition eventually led to his forces
3612:
158:" being a pejorative term. Some historians also consider "barbarian kingdoms" to be a misnomer since the kingdoms were supported and to a large degree staffed by former Roman elites. Alternate terms that have been proposed and used by some historians include "post-Roman kingdoms", "Roman-barbarian kingdoms", "Latin-Germanic kingdoms", "Latin-barbarian kingdoms", "western kingdoms", and "early medieval kingdoms".
860:
413:. These groups were not from the kingdoms immediately adjacent to Roman Gaul; instead they had likely been heavily dependent on Roman gifts and were provoked to journey west as such gifts stopped and the Huns arrived in the east. The barbarians quickly overwhelmed what remained of the Roman defensive works in the region and led Roman forces in Britain to acclaim the usurper-emperor
294:. Although the defeat at Adrianople was disastrous, several modern historians have criticized the idea that it was a decisive step in the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Other than the Visigoths remaining a cohesive group, their eventual settlement was not much different from previous groups and they had been effectively pacified and contained by the early 380s.
742:
Although the barbarian kingdoms were ruled by non-Romans, no one in late antiquity would have doubted that they belonged to the greater late Roman political system. The kingdoms were in some cases rooted in barbarian traditions but were also linked to high Roman imperial magistracies and their rulers
308:
395–410) to become an active force in imperial politics, only tenuously linked to the imperial government itself. Both
Visigoths and Romans were aware that Gothic autonomy had only been accepted because there were few alternatives and repeated Gothic casualties in Roman wars likely made the Visigoths
190:
300–600) is often referred to as the "Barbarian
Invasions", migrations were spurred not only by invasions but also by invitations. Inviting peoples from beyond the imperial frontier to settle Roman territory was not a new policy, and something that had been done several times by emperors in the past,
86:
The formation of the barbarian kingdoms was a complicated, gradual, and largely unintentional process. Their origin can be traced to the Roman state failing to handle barbarian migrants on the imperial borders, which led to both invasions and invitations into imperial territory. Despite an increasing
897:
The emergence barbarian kingdoms was by and large a Roman political phenomenon which occurred in the context of the late Roman geopolitical landscape. In place of these kingdoms, new realms emerged in the seventh through ninth centuries that represented a new order, largely disconnected from the old
844:
Roman identity gradually disappeared in
Western Europe, both due to the Eastern Roman Empire emphasizing its own unique Roman legitimacy and due to the local barbarian ruling class and Roman populations merging ethnically. The fading connectivity to the Roman Empire and the political division of the
254:
364–378), was pleased at the arrival of the
Visigoths as it meant that he could recruit their warriors at low cost, bolstering his armies. Barbarian tribes seeking to settle in the empire were typically broken up into smaller groups and resettled across imperial territory. The Visigoths were however
812:
In the sixth century, Eastern Roman historians began to describe the west as "lost" to barbarian invasions, rather than the fact that many barbarian kings had been settled by the Romans themselves. This development has been termed the "Justinianic ideological offensive" by modern historians. Though
808:
Theodoric and Clovis came close to war several times and it is conceivable that the victor of such a conflict would have re-established the
Western Roman Empire under his own rule. Though no war happened, such developments worried the Eastern Roman emperors. Worried that their granted honours could
658:
The major difference between the Roman imperial administration and the new royal administrations was their scale. Without a central imperial court and officers that linked the governments of the different provinces together, the administrations in the kingdoms were flattened, becoming significantly
625:
Towns and cities had been the main building blocks of the old empire and initially remained as such in the barbarian kingdoms as well. The disappearance of the old Roman imperial framework was a gradual and slow process, spanning centuries and at times accelerated due to political upheaval. The old
547:
The exact process in which the barbarian kings took on certain functions and prerogatives previously ascribed to the Roman emperors is not entirely clear. It is believed to have been a highly drawn-out process. History generally recognizes Alaric I as the first 'king of the Visigoths', though this
519:
Almost nowhere in Western Europe were barbarian rulers firmly linked to territorial kingdoms until the very late fifth century or even later. The final stage in the formation of the barbarian kingdoms occurred as the barbarian rulers slowly lost the habit of waiting for the Western Roman Empire to
263:
worsened the crisis by selling off much of the food before it reached the Visigoths. Amid rampant starvation, some Visigoth families were forced to sell their children into Roman slavery for food. After Lupicinus had a group of high-ranking Visigoths killed, the situation erupted into a full-scale
739:, borne by virtually all Roman emperors in late antiquity. The early barbarian rulers were careful to maintain a subordinate position to the emperors in Constantinople, and were in turn sometimes recognised with various honours by the emperors, in effect serving as highly autonomous client kings.
486:
The third stage of the formation of the barbarian kingdoms was the recognition by the imperial government of the increasingly unstable Western Roman Empire that it was no longer able to effectively administer its own territories. This led the empire to cede effective control of more lands to the
913:
As the sole survivor of the old kingdoms, the Frankish Kingdom provided the model of early medieval kingship that would later inspire Western European monarchs throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. Though the Frankish rulers remembered Roman ideals and often aspired to vague ideas of imperial
459:
Early barbarian rulers were tolerated only on the terms of the Roman Empire. Early 'kingdoms', such as those of the Suebi and Vandals in Hispania, were consequently relegated to the edges of less important provinces. In 418, the Visigothic groups formerly under Alaric were settled by Emperor
650:
A large number of Roman political and bureaucratic offices survived the end of the Western Roman Empire, attested in the various law codes issued by the barbarian kings. There are numerous documents that demonstrate that Romans continued to be active in such offices within the kingdoms. The
427:
Constantine III managed to keep the barbarians on the Rhine somewhat in check. The end of his reign due to further internal Roman conflict left the armies in Gaul in tatters and led to the tribes being able to penetrate deep into Gaul and Hispania. Without sufficient military force and with
560:, and he did not rule a kingdom, instead spending his career unsuccessfully trying to integrate himself and his people into the Roman imperial system. The earliest Visigothic ruler known to have called himself a king and to issue documents from something resembling an imperial chancery was
841:(at this point firmly established as the Roman religion) and the Latin language themselves, thus inheriting and maintaining Rome's cultural heritage. At the same time, they also remained connected to their non-Roman identity and made efforts to establish their own distinct identities.
377:
and there appears to have been very little real imperial activity in Britannia or northern Gaul. In many ways, the Roman Empire ceased to make itself felt in the region; local offices were withdrawn to southern Gaul, aristocrats fled south, and the local capital was moved in 395 from
161:"Barbarian kingdom" was not a contemporary term and was not used by the populace of the kingdoms to designate their own states. Early medieval writers in the kingdoms sometimes used "barbarian" in reference to denizens of other kingdoms, though never in reference to their own.
590:
527–565). Justinian sought to restore direct imperial control to the former western empire, though his reconquest was incomplete and established the idea that any lands outside of the eastern empire's direct control were no longer part of the Roman Empire, also causing
817:
in Africa. Ascribing the end of the Western Roman Empire to "barbarian invasions" also ignores the diversity of the new kingdoms in favor of a homogenous non-Roman barbarism and ignores any analysis in which the empire could be seen as complicit in its own collapse.
796:, who also returned the western imperial regalia, in Constantinople since 476, to Italy. These regalia were worn by Theoderic on occasions, and some of his Roman subjects referred to him as an emperor, but he himself appears to have used only the title
2081:
Four Tables of Comparative Chronology, Illustrating the Division of Universal History Into Ancient History, Middle Ages, and Modern History: And Containing a System of Combinations, Distinguished by a Particular Type, to Assist the Memory in Retaining
490:
Barbarian rulers took various steps to present themselves as legitimate rulers within the Roman imperial framework, nominally subservient to the Western Roman emperor. This practice continued even after the deposition of the final western emperor,
428:
administration impossible, the imperial government effectively abandoned Britannia and northern Gaul around 410. In Britannia, this led to fragmentation into numerous local kingdoms. In northern Gaul, dominion was taken over by peoples such as the
809:
be seen as imperial "stamps of approval", the eastern court never granted them to the same extent again. Instead, the eastern empire began to emphasise its own exclusive Roman legitimacy, which it would continue to do for the rest of its history.
705:
as a "barbarian term", it had at points in the past sometimes been used to describe Roman emperors and served to indicate that the barbarian rulers were sovereign rulers, though not with authority eclipsing that of the emperor in Constantinople.
617:
in the past, to several local kings and warlords. Despite this, the apparatus of the former imperial government continued to fundamentally function in the west because the barbarian rulers adopted many aspects of the late Roman administration.
571:
484–507), though contemporary writings allude to widespread acceptance and recognition of a Visigothic kingdom in Gaul by the 450s. The Visigoths did not establish a secure power-base as a consciously post-imperial kingdom until the 560s under
804:
in 507, Clovis was recognised by Anastasius as honorary consul, a patrician and a client king. Like Theoderic, some of the subjects of Clovis also referred to him as an emperor, rather than king, though he never adopted that title himself.
191:
mostly for economic, agricultural or military purposes. Because of the size and power of the Roman Empire, its capacity for immigration was nearly infinite. Several events through the fourth and fifth centuries complicated the situation.
690:
In the aftermath of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the barbarian rulers in Western Europe made an effort to strengthen legitimacy by adopting certain elements of the former empire. The title most widely used by the kings was
787:
of the Franks. Both rulers received honours and recognition by the imperial court in Constantinople, which granted them a certain degree of legitimacy and was used to justify territorial expansion. Theodoric was recognised as a
275:
The defeat at Adrianople was a shock for the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with, and settle, the Visigoths within the imperial borders. The treaties at the conclusion of the Gothic war made the Visigoths semi-independent
836:
Despite being divided into several smaller realms, the populace of the barbarian kingdoms maintained strong cultural and religious connections with each other, and continued to speak Latin. The barbarian kings adopted both
638:
remained partially functional in some places under the barbarian rulers. Some rulers even took steps to restore parts of the administration. In 510, the Ostrogothic king of Italy, Theodoric the Great, restored the
930:, a predecessor of France and Germany, was in reality more similar to a collection of kingdoms united only by Charlemagne's authority than a realm with a meaningful connection to the old Western Roman Empire.
386:. Archaeological evidence from Britannia and northern Gaul showcase a rapid collapse of Roman industries, villa life, and Roman civilization as a whole. The effective border of imperial control moved from the
595:
to decline dramatically in Western Europe. The coinage of the Visigothic Kingdom continued to depict the eastern emperors until the 580s, when the Visigothic kings began to mint coins in their own name.
259:
as their place of settlement. Although the Roman state was to provide the Visigoths with food, imperial logistics could not handle the large number of refugees and Roman officials under the command of
495:, in 476. Barbarian rulers after 476 typically presented themselves as subservient to the remaining Eastern Roman emperor, and were in turn at times granted various honors by the imperial government.
622:
remained the predominant legal system through the fifth and sixth centuries. Several barbarian kings showed interest in legal matters and issued their own law codes, developed based on Roman law.
282:
under their own leaders, able to be called upon and drafted into the Roman army. Unlike previous settlements, the Visigoths were not dispersed and instead given cohesive lands in the provinces of
107:. Many aspects of the late Roman administration survived under barbarian rule, though the old system gradually dissolved and disappeared, a process accelerated by periods of political turmoil.
697:, which formed a basis of authority which they could use in diplomacy with other kingdoms and the surviving imperial court in Constantinople. Although some Eastern Roman authors, such as
297:
Roman civil wars in the late 4th century, as well as periods of cold war between the imperial courts of the Western and Eastern Roman empires, allowed the Visigoths under their leader
3641:
713:("king of the Franks"). The rulers of Italy, where the pretense of Roman continuity was especially strong, are notable in that they only rarely used ethnic qualifiers.
523:
The populace of the barbarian-controlled territories in Western Europe continued to view themselves as part of the Roman Empire well into the sixth century. When
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remained out of the once vast and diverse network of kingdoms. Alfred the Great unified the Anglo-Saxons in 886, forming what would eventually be known as the
3421:
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373:
392–394). Both conflicts meant large slaughters of Western Roman regiments. After Magnus Maximus, no significant western emperor ever traveled north of
726:("our lord"), previously used only by Roman emperors, and nearly all of the Visigothic kings and the barbarian kings of Italy (up until the end of the
178:
was a gradual, complex, and largely unintentional process. Their origin can ultimately be traced to the migrations of large numbers of barbarian (i.e.
579:
The practice of the barbarian kingdoms being subservient to the Eastern Roman emperor came to an end as a result of the wars of reconquest of Emperor
655:, they can instead be seen as "on the contrary brought law and order to regions that had suffered for decades from a perilous vaccum of authority."
538:
as a liberation of Hispania and a re-integration of the Visigothic territories into the Roman Empire. This is despite the Visigoths also having been
894:
in Italy. Most of the smaller kingdoms in Gaul were conquered and absorbed into the Frankish Kingdom or disappear from historical sources entirely.
722:
681:
110:
The barbarian kingdoms of Western Europe were for the most part fragile and ephemeral. By the time of Charlemagne's coronation in 800, only his
3070:
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Dodd, Leslie (2016). "Kinship, conflict and unity among Roman elites in post-Roman Gaul: The contrasting experiences of Caesarius and Avitus".
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The barbarian kingdoms proved to be extremely fragile states. Out of the three most powerful and long-lasting kingdoms—those of the Visigoths,
3147:
2888:
709:
Many, but not all, of the barbarian kings used ethnic qualifiers in their title. The Frankish kings, for instance, rendered their title as
90:
Barbarian kings established legitimacy through connecting themselves to the Roman Empire. Virtually all barbarian rulers assumed the style
2510:
103:, borne by nearly all Roman emperors in late antiquity. Most rulers also assumed a subordinate position in diplomacy with the remaining
2693:(2015). "Barbarian Immigration and Integration in the Late Roman Empire: The Case of Barbarian Citizenship". In Sänger, Patrick (ed.).
720:, the barbarian rulers also assumed various Roman imperial titles and honours. Virtually all of the barbarian kings assumed the style
910:—were fundamentally sub-Frankish, culturally and administratively closer to the Frankish Kingdom than the fallen Visigothic Kingdom.
340:
Roman civil wars in the late fourth century were disastrous for the defense of the Western Roman Empire. In 388, the eastern emperor
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146:"The barbarian kingdoms" is the collective term commonly used by modern historians to designate the kingdoms established in
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continued to be used throughout Western Europe for centuries. For rulers of Italy, the style is recorded as late as under
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493–526), the Ostrogothic king of Italy, also became ruler of the Visigoths of Hispania in 511, this was celebrated in
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west led to a gradual fragmentation of culture and language, eventually giving rise to the modern Romance peoples and
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235:. The Visigoths, numbering perhaps 50,000 (out of which 10,000 were warriors), were refugees, fleeing from the
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The rise of the barbarian kingdoms saw power in Western Europe being dispersed from a single capital, such as
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The Visigothic Kingdom collapsed already in the sixth century and had to be restored almost from scratch by
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In the early sixth century, the most powerful kings in Western Europe were Theodoric the Great of Italy and
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establishment of the barbarian kingdoms did thus not bring an end to Roman society. Per the Irish historian
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1148:"The Crimean Goths in the Russian Imperial and Soviet Periods: In Between of History, Myth, and Politics"
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in the early 8th century. In his wars of reconquest, the Eastern emperor Justinian I destroyed both the
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2661:"Clovis, Anastasius, and Political Status in 508 C.E.: The Frankish Aftermath of the Battle of Vouillé"
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on territory he conquered from the Visigoths and appointed as praetorian prefect the Roman aristocrat
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in the fifth century. The barbarian kingdoms were the principal governments in Western Europe in the
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dominus noster gloriosissimus adque inclytus rex Theodericus victor ac triumfator semper Augustus
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The second stage in the formation of the barbarian kingdoms was the imperial acceptance of the
515:, minted in 580–583. Liuvigild was the earliest Visigothic king to mint coins in his own name.
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2738:"Roman Catholicism and the Founding of Europe: How Catholics Shaped the European Communities"
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in 800, in opposition to the authority of the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. Charlemagne's
268:. In 378, the Visigoths inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the
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2799:. In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.).
2465:. In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.).
2363:. In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.).
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Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
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title is applied to him only retroactively. Contemporary sources refer to Alaric only as
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383–388) the last Roman emperor to be significantly active in Britannia and northern Gaul
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Political map of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East in 476, showing the remaining
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in the 560s and 570s. The kingdom was finally destroyed when it was conquered by the
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Between 405 and 407, a large number of barbarians invaded Gaul in what is called the
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A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (395 A.D. to 800 A.D.)
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On Barbarian Identity: Critical Approaches to Ethnicity in the Early Middle Ages
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Medieval European Coinage: Volume 1, The Early Middle Ages (5th-10th Centuries)
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Map of the Roman Empire (red) and the new barbarian kingdoms in the west in 460
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The rise of the barbarian kingdoms in the territory previously governed by the
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71:. The time of the barbarian kingdoms is considered to have come to an end with
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History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D.
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Greek and Roman Historiography in Late Antiquity: Fourth to Sixth Century A.D.
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2443:. Vol. XIII. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–515.
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Kingdoms established by barbarian tribes in the former Western Roman Empire
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The Ransom of the Soul: Afterlife and Wealth in Early Western Christianity
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Croke, Brian (2003). "Latin Historiography and the Barbarian Kingdoms".
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383–388). In 394, Theodosius's troops again defeated a western rival,
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Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities
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Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities
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Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities
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204:
1729:
1472:
3102:
2927:
868:
736:
614:
540:
535:
406:
228:
100:
2937:
2388:
The Visigoths: From the Migration Period to the Seventh Century
1983:
1934:
764:
429:
287:
256:
244:
224:
212:
182:) peoples into the territory of the Roman Empire. Although the
154:. The term has been criticized by some scholars on account of "
127:
2797:"Introduction: Early medieval Romanness - a multiple identity"
2267:"Was Ethnicity Politicized in the Earliest Medieval Kingdoms?"
2142:
Kings into Gods: How Prostration Shaped Eurasian Civilizations
1912:
1910:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1608:
498:
2007:
1595:
1593:
1360:
1336:
859:
410:
402:
391:
387:
383:
379:
2441:
The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425
2315:(2005). "The barbarian invasions". In Fouracre, Paul (ed.).
1971:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
316:
40:
and the various new kingdoms in the territory of the former
2942:
2695:
Minderheiten und Migration in der griechisch-römischen Welt
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1907:
1758:
1756:
1704:
1702:
1689:
1687:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1605:
1556:
1554:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1300:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
875:—only the Frankish Kingdom survived the Early Middle Ages.
610:
476:
374:
240:
75:'s coronation as emperor in 800, though a handful of small
2317:
The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume I c. 500–c. 700
1836:
1834:
1795:
1590:
1348:
1312:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
2251:
The Barbarian Past in Early Medieval Historical Narrative
1851:
1849:
1807:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1566:
1324:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1197:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
550:
3642:
States and territories disestablished in the 8th century
2361:"Transformations of Romanness: The northern Gallic case"
2273:. Studies in the Early Middle Ages. Brepols Publishers.
1946:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1753:
1741:
1719:
1717:
1699:
1684:
1643:
1626:
1578:
1551:
1539:
1484:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1250:
2019:
1922:
1866:
1864:
1831:
1053:
436:, who had formerly lived beyond the imperial frontier.
2511:"The Constitutional Position of Odoacer and Theoderic"
2341:. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
2205:
Official Power and Local Elites in the Roman Provinces
1846:
1819:
1773:
1771:
1667:
1515:
1460:
1415:
1233:
1178:
1077:
1075:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
746:
2751:(Master's thesis). Victoria University of Wellington.
1995:
1888:
1783:
1714:
1655:
1527:
1439:
1403:
1391:
1372:
1279:
1121:"Alfred | Biography, Reign, & Facts | Britannica"
1095:"Alfred | Biography, Reign, & Facts | Britannica"
576:, after slow and often brutal conquests in Hispania.
2555:
The Decline of Rome and the Rise of Mediaeval Europe
1861:
1223:
1221:
1219:
51:
were states founded by various non-Roman, primarily
2573:(2000). "Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain".
1768:
1427:
1072:
1034:
19:For the "barbarian kingdoms" in ancient China, see
2031:
255:allowed to remain united and to themselves choose
134:, maintained a distinct culture until roughly the
2715:Empire and Order: The Concept of Empire, 800–1800
2665:The Battle of Vouillé, 507 CE: Where France Began
2663:. In Mathisen, Ralph W.; Shanzer, Danuta (eds.).
2287:
1876:
1735:
1216:
743:held formal and recognized vice-imperial powers.
3628:
2761:"Romanness: a multiple identity and its changes"
2339:Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568
854:
599:
439:
138:, but little is definitively known about them.
3637:States and territories established in the 400s
675:, king of Italy 756–774, with the inscription
351:379–395) defeated the western usurper-emperor
3019:
2882:
2740:. The American Political Science Association.
1152:Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik
604:
499:Emergence as territorial kingdoms (476–600)
272:, in which Emperor Valens was also killed.
3026:
3012:
2889:
2875:
2732:
2631:
2609:
2569:
2431:(2008) . "Goths and Huns, c. 320–425". In
2025:
1977:
1965:
1916:
1762:
1747:
1708:
1693:
1649:
1637:
1584:
1572:
1560:
1545:
1497:
1478:
1366:
1342:
1330:
1273:
1066:
194:
79:kingdoms persisted until being unified by
2848:The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples
2385:(1999). "The Creation of the Visigoths".
2257:(Doctoral thesis). University of Toronto.
2222:
1989:
1145:
317:Breakdown in Gaul and Britannia (388–411)
3033:
2689:
2655:
2557:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
2077:
2053:
2013:
1620:
1191:
858:
750:
666:
502:
443:
320:
198:
27:
2841:
2817:
2711:
2427:
2405:
2381:
2355:
2333:
2311:
2261:
2135:
2001:
1901:
1855:
1825:
1813:
1801:
1789:
1723:
1678:
1661:
1599:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1466:
1454:
1421:
1409:
1397:
1385:
1354:
1318:
1306:
1244:
3629:
2744:
2180:
2037:
1928:
1081:
544:part of the empire before this point.
3007:
2870:
2745:Parker, Eugene Johan Janssen (2018).
2638:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
2505:
2483:
2247:
2159:
2089:
1870:
1433:
1227:
1210:
1047:
2821:(1996). "Goths, Vandals, Lombards".
2791:
2755:
2552:
2201:
2187:. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press.
2113:
1940:
1840:
1777:
1294:
1146:Khrapunov, Nikita (12 August 2020).
239:, who in turn were fleeing from the
3611:
3056:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
2641:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2457:
1882:
996:of Italy, whose coins style him as
747:Possibility of imperial restoration
662:
13:
3148:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
2851:. University of California Press.
2491:. London and New York: Routledge.
14:
3683:
3578:Historiography in the Middle Ages
1011:Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius
832:Roman people § Later history
3610:
3601:
3600:
3590:
2184:Introduction to Medieval History
1017:486–493) refers to Theoderic as
1009:For instance, an inscription by
3076:Christianity in the Middle Ages
3071:Decline of Hellenistic religion
2667:. De Gruyter. pp. 79–110.
2489:Europe's Barbarians, AD 200–600
2046:
1003:
987:
972:
626:Roman administrative system of
585:
566:
529:
466:
419:
368:
357:
346:
331:
303:
249:
215:after capturing the city in 395
3354:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
2319:. Cambridge University Press.
2297:. Cambridge University Press.
2063:. Princeton University Press.
1139:
1113:
1087:
863:Political map of Europe in 814
755:At his realm's height in 523,
264:rebellion, later known as the
63:following the collapse of the
1:
3528:Disability in the Middle Ages
3201:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
3133:Rise of the Venetian Republic
1736:Grierson & Blackburn 1986
1028:
998:dominus noster Desiderius rex
855:End of the barbarian kingdoms
641:Praetorian prefecture of Gaul
600:Roman heritage and continuity
440:Imperial acceptance (411–476)
187:
169:
2518:The Journal of Roman Studies
2411:The Fall of the Roman Empire
2099:. Harvard University Press.
164:
141:
7:
1943:, pp. 4, 15–18, 38–39.
1015:praetorian prefect of Italy
933:
10:
3688:
3329:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
2291:; Blackburn, Mark (1986).
955:Dark Ages (historiography)
825:
821:
223:were allowed to cross the
150:after the collapse of the
18:
3586:
3515:
3374:
3269:
3256:Mongol invasion of Europe
3161:
3041:
2908:
2736:; Guth, James L. (2003).
2233:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
1164:10.1163/18756719-12340174
605:Administrative continuity
231:by the government of the
203:20th-century painting of
2673:10.1515/9781614510994.79
2208:. Taylor & Francis.
2078:Bickmore, W. E. (1857).
2055:Beckwith, Christopher I.
1481:, pp. 328, 332–334.
1013:(western consul in 486,
965:
227:river and settle in the
3211:Investiture Controversy
3181:Second Bulgarian Empire
2900:established around the
2712:Muldoon, James (1999).
828:Romano-Germanic culture
243:. The Eastern emperor,
195:The Visigoths (376–410)
3568:Post-classical history
3324:Fall of Constantinople
3231:Capet–Plantagenet feud
3098:First Bulgarian Empire
2553:Katz, Solomon (1955).
2227:(2019). "Conclusion".
2181:Delogu, Paolo (2002).
2121:. Adamant Media Corp.
2026:Nelsen & Guth 2003
922:, as Roman emperor by
864:
780:
687:
636:praetorian prefectures
516:
449:
337:
216:
44:
3652:7th century in Europe
3647:6th century in Europe
2765:Early Medieval Europe
2391:. The Boydell Press.
2248:Ghosh, Shami (2009).
1990:Esders & Hen 2019
862:
754:
670:
506:
447:
399:crossing of the Rhine
324:
202:
38:Eastern Mediterranean
31:
3548:Medieval reenactment
3344:Renaissance Humanism
3251:Medieval Warm Period
3221:Republic of Florence
3035:European Middle Ages
2958:Kingdom of the Aurès
2918:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
1512:, pp. 247, 513.
1309:, pp. 145, 507.
270:Battle of Adrianople
266:Gothic War (376–382)
233:Eastern Roman Empire
176:Western Roman Empire
152:Western Roman Empire
126:who migrated to the
105:Eastern Roman Empire
65:Western Roman Empire
42:Western Roman Empire
34:Eastern Roman Empire
3261:Kingdom of Portugal
3128:Old Church Slavonic
3113:Anglo-Saxon England
2968:Ostrogothic kingdom
2827:UNESCO Publishing.
2633:Kulikowski, Michael
2611:Kulikowski, Michael
2571:Kulikowski, Michael
1843:, pp. 422–424.
1804:, pp. 113–114.
1623:, pp. 105–107.
1602:, pp. 118–119.
1369:, pp. 152–153.
1357:, pp. 185–186.
1345:, pp. 133–134.
1321:, pp. 158–162.
992:756–774), the last
892:Ostrogothic Kingdom
771:and had forced the
761:Ostrogoths of Italy
757:Theodoric the Great
525:Theodoric the Great
479:, establishing the
3657:Barbarian kingdoms
3442:In popular culture
3407:Crusading movement
3279:Hundred Years' War
3138:Civitas Schinesghe
3123:Carolingian Empire
3108:Kingdom of Croatia
3061:Barbarian kingdoms
2993:Visigothic kingdom
2953:Kingdom of Odoacer
2923:Burgundian kingdom
2913:Alamannian kingdom
2898:Barbarian kingdoms
2777:10.1111/emed.12078
2691:Mathisen, Ralph W.
2657:Mathisen, Ralph W.
2624:978-0-521-8-4633-2
2615:Rome's Gothic Wars
1980:, pp. 32, 34.
1816:, pp. 91–105.
1125:www.britannica.com
1099:www.britannica.com
928:Carolingian Empire
920:king of the Franks
890:in Africa and the
865:
781:
688:
517:
493:Romulus Augustulus
481:Visigothic Kingdom
450:
338:
217:
211:395–410, entering
120:Kingdom of England
116:Anglo-Saxon realms
49:barbarian kingdoms
45:
3624:
3623:
3533:Basic topics list
3334:Swiss mercenaries
3284:Wars of the Roses
3191:Kingdom of Poland
3176:Holy Roman Empire
3043:Early Middle Ages
3001:
3000:
2978:Sub-Roman Britain
2948:Kingdom of Altava
2858:978-0-520-24490-0
2834:978-92-3-102812-0
2810:978-3-11-059838-4
2704:978-3-506-76635-9
2682:978-1-61451-099-4
2498:978-0-58277-296-0
2476:978-3-11-059838-4
2450:978-0-5213-0200-5
2420:978-0-19-515954-7
2374:978-3-11-059838-4
2348:978-0-52143-543-7
2326:978-0-521-36291-7
2304:978-0-521-03177-6
2280:978-2-503-53872-3
2240:978-1-350-04840-9
2215:978-1-317-08614-7
2152:978-90-04-28842-3
2137:Cotesta, Vittorio
2128:978-1-4021-8368-3
2106:978-0-674-28652-8
2085:. Bell and Daldy.
2070:978-0-691-13589-2
1931:, pp. 7, 10.
1919:, pp. 31–32.
1738:, pp. 49–52.
1297:, pp. 88–89.
945:History of Europe
940:Early Middle Ages
884:Umayyad Caliphate
847:Romance languages
802:Battle of Vouillé
678:
130:, later known as
128:Crimean Peninsula
69:Early Middle Ages
3679:
3667:Migration Period
3614:
3613:
3604:
3603:
3594:
3553:Medieval studies
3397:Church and State
3271:Late Middle Ages
3163:High Middle Ages
3081:Christianization
3051:Migration Period
3028:
3021:
3014:
3005:
3004:
2928:Frankish kingdom
2902:Migration Period
2891:
2884:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2838:
2814:
2788:
2752:
2741:
2729:
2708:
2686:
2652:
2628:
2606:
2566:
2549:
2524:(1–2): 126–130.
2515:
2502:
2480:
2454:
2424:
2402:
2378:
2352:
2330:
2308:
2289:Grierson, Philip
2284:
2258:
2256:
2244:
2223:Esders, Stefan;
2219:
2198:
2177:
2156:
2132:
2110:
2086:
2074:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1905:
1899:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1859:
1853:
1844:
1838:
1829:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1766:
1760:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1712:
1706:
1697:
1691:
1682:
1676:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1624:
1618:
1603:
1597:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1277:
1271:
1248:
1242:
1231:
1225:
1214:
1208:
1195:
1189:
1176:
1175:
1158:(1–2): 193–231.
1143:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1070:
1064:
1051:
1045:
1022:
1007:
1001:
991:
989:
976:
950:Migration Period
676:
663:Roman legitimacy
589:
587:
570:
568:
533:
531:
470:
468:
423:
421:
401:, including the
390:frontier to the
372:
370:
361:
359:
350:
348:
335:
333:
307:
305:
253:
251:
207:, leader of the
189:
184:Migration Period
114:and a few small
112:Frankish Kingdom
81:Alfred the Great
3687:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3662:Former kingdoms
3627:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3582:
3563:Neo-medievalism
3511:
3447:Itinerant court
3370:
3265:
3186:Georgian Empire
3171:Norman Conquest
3157:
3103:Frankish Empire
3037:
3032:
3002:
2997:
2983:Suebian kingdom
2963:Lombard kingdom
2933:Frisian kingdom
2904:
2895:
2865:
2859:
2843:Wolfram, Herwig
2835:
2819:Wolfram, Herwig
2811:
2726:
2705:
2683:
2649:
2625:
2513:
2507:Jones, A. H. M.
2499:
2477:
2451:
2433:Cameron, Averil
2421:
2399:
2375:
2349:
2327:
2305:
2281:
2263:Gillett, Andrew
2254:
2241:
2216:
2195:
2174:
2166:Leiden: Brill.
2153:
2129:
2107:
2071:
2049:
2044:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1978:Kulikowski 2012
1976:
1972:
1966:Kulikowski 2012
1964:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1917:Kulikowski 2012
1915:
1908:
1900:
1889:
1881:
1877:
1869:
1862:
1854:
1847:
1839:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1769:
1763:Kulikowski 2012
1761:
1754:
1748:Kulikowski 2012
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1715:
1709:Kulikowski 2012
1707:
1700:
1694:Kulikowski 2012
1692:
1685:
1677:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1650:Kulikowski 2012
1648:
1644:
1638:Kulikowski 2012
1636:
1627:
1619:
1606:
1598:
1591:
1585:Kulikowski 2012
1583:
1579:
1573:Kulikowski 2006
1571:
1567:
1561:Kulikowski 2012
1559:
1552:
1546:Kulikowski 2012
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1498:Kulikowski 2012
1496:
1485:
1479:Kulikowski 2000
1477:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1384:
1373:
1367:Kulikowski 2006
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1343:Kulikowski 2006
1341:
1337:
1331:Kulikowski 2006
1329:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1301:
1293:
1280:
1274:Kulikowski 2012
1272:
1251:
1243:
1234:
1226:
1217:
1209:
1198:
1190:
1179:
1144:
1140:
1130:
1128:
1127:. 4 August 2024
1119:
1118:
1114:
1104:
1102:
1101:. 4 August 2024
1093:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1073:
1067:Kulikowski 2012
1065:
1054:
1046:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1025:
1008:
1004:
986:
977:
973:
968:
936:
857:
834:
824:
779:to pay tribute.
767:for Hispania's
749:
728:Lombard kingdom
716:In addition to
665:
607:
602:
584:
565:
528:
501:
465:
442:
418:
415:Constantine III
367:
356:
345:
330:
319:
302:
248:
197:
172:
167:
144:
24:
21:Five Barbarians
17:
12:
11:
5:
3685:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3608:
3598:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3558:Misconceptions
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3378:
3376:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3366:Little Ice Age
3363:
3362:
3361:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3319:Western Schism
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3275:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3068:
3066:Late antiquity
3063:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3031:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3008:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2988:Vandal kingdom
2985:
2980:
2975:
2973:Rugian kingdom
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2871:
2864:
2863:
2857:
2839:
2833:
2815:
2809:
2803:. De Gruyter.
2789:
2771:(4): 406–418.
2753:
2742:
2730:
2725:978-0312222260
2724:
2709:
2703:
2687:
2681:
2653:
2648:978-0195336931
2647:
2629:
2623:
2607:
2587:10.2307/526925
2567:
2550:
2530:10.2307/297883
2503:
2497:
2481:
2475:
2469:. De Gruyter.
2455:
2449:
2437:Garnsey, Peter
2429:Heather, Peter
2425:
2419:
2407:Heather, Peter
2403:
2397:
2383:Heather, Peter
2379:
2373:
2367:. De Gruyter.
2353:
2347:
2331:
2325:
2309:
2303:
2285:
2279:
2259:
2245:
2239:
2220:
2214:
2199:
2194:978-0715630792
2193:
2178:
2172:
2157:
2151:
2133:
2127:
2111:
2105:
2087:
2075:
2069:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2030:
2018:
2006:
1994:
1982:
1970:
1945:
1933:
1921:
1906:
1887:
1875:
1873:, p. 128.
1860:
1858:, p. 255.
1845:
1830:
1828:, p. 116.
1818:
1806:
1794:
1782:
1780:, p. 170.
1767:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1713:
1698:
1683:
1681:, p. 263.
1666:
1654:
1642:
1625:
1604:
1589:
1577:
1575:, p. 158.
1565:
1550:
1538:
1526:
1524:, p. 195.
1514:
1502:
1483:
1471:
1469:, p. 221.
1459:
1438:
1426:
1424:, p. 217.
1414:
1402:
1390:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1333:, p. 131.
1323:
1311:
1299:
1278:
1249:
1247:, p. 142.
1232:
1215:
1196:
1194:, p. 356.
1177:
1138:
1112:
1086:
1071:
1052:
1050:, p. 349.
1032:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1002:
979:Dominus noster
970:
969:
967:
964:
963:
962:
960:Late antiquity
957:
952:
947:
942:
935:
932:
888:Vandal Kingdom
856:
853:
823:
820:
815:Vandal Kingdom
748:
745:
723:dominus noster
684:Desiderius rex
682:dominus noster
677:DN DESIDER REX
664:
661:
606:
603:
601:
598:
593:Roman identity
511:, king of the
500:
497:
441:
438:
353:Magnus Maximus
327:Magnus Maximus
318:
315:
290:, and perhaps
196:
193:
171:
168:
166:
163:
148:Western Europe
143:
140:
92:dominus noster
57:Western Europe
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3684:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3617:
3609:
3607:
3599:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3588:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3226:Scholasticism
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3088:Rise of Islam
3086:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3024:
3022:
3017:
3015:
3010:
3009:
3006:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2943:Hunnic empire
2941:
2939:
2938:Gepid kingdom
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2892:
2887:
2885:
2880:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2869:
2860:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2734:Nelsen, Brent
2731:
2727:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2710:
2706:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2485:James, Edward
2482:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2398:0-85115-762-9
2394:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2175:
2173:90-04-11275-8
2169:
2165:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2039:
2034:
2027:
2022:
2015:
2014:Bickmore 1857
2010:
2004:, p. 47.
2003:
1998:
1992:, Conclusion.
1991:
1986:
1979:
1974:
1968:, p. 50.
1967:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1942:
1937:
1930:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1904:, p. 52.
1903:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1885:, p. 66.
1884:
1879:
1872:
1867:
1865:
1857:
1852:
1850:
1842:
1837:
1835:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1810:
1803:
1798:
1792:, p. 51.
1791:
1786:
1779:
1774:
1772:
1765:, p. 32.
1764:
1759:
1757:
1750:, p. 49.
1749:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1726:, p. 53.
1725:
1720:
1718:
1711:, p. 36.
1710:
1705:
1703:
1696:, p. 48.
1695:
1690:
1688:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1664:, p. 52.
1663:
1658:
1652:, p. 47.
1651:
1646:
1640:, p. 40.
1639:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1622:
1621:Mathisen 2012
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1601:
1596:
1594:
1587:, p. 45.
1586:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1563:, p. 43.
1562:
1557:
1555:
1548:, p. 33.
1547:
1542:
1536:, p. 50.
1535:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1500:, p. 42.
1499:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1480:
1475:
1468:
1463:
1457:, p. 49.
1456:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1436:, p. 57.
1435:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1412:, p. 49.
1411:
1406:
1400:, p. 50.
1399:
1394:
1388:, p. 48.
1387:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1368:
1363:
1356:
1351:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1327:
1320:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1296:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1276:, p. 41.
1275:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1193:
1192:Beckwith 2009
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1084:, p. 84.
1083:
1078:
1076:
1069:, p. 31.
1068:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1033:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1006:
999:
995:
984:
980:
975:
971:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
937:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
911:
909:
905:
901:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
876:
874:
870:
861:
852:
851:
848:
842:
840:
833:
829:
819:
816:
810:
806:
803:
799:
795:
791:
786:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
744:
740:
738:
735:
734:
729:
725:
724:
719:
714:
712:
711:rex Francorum
707:
704:
700:
696:
695:
685:
683:
674:
669:
660:
656:
654:
648:
646:
642:
637:
633:
629:
623:
621:
616:
612:
597:
594:
582:
577:
575:
563:
559:
558:
553:
552:
545:
543:
542:
537:
526:
521:
514:
510:
505:
496:
494:
488:
484:
482:
478:
474:
463:
457:
455:
446:
437:
435:
431:
425:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
365:
354:
343:
328:
323:
314:
312:
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
280:
273:
271:
267:
262:
258:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
214:
210:
206:
201:
192:
185:
181:
177:
162:
159:
157:
153:
149:
139:
137:
133:
132:Crimean Goths
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
99:
98:
93:
88:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
55:, peoples in
54:
50:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
3387:Architecture
3359:Great Famine
3349:Universities
3289:Hussite Wars
3206:Great Schism
3093:Papal States
3060:
2897:
2847:
2823:
2800:
2793:Pohl, Walter
2768:
2764:
2757:Pohl, Walter
2747:
2718:. Springer.
2714:
2694:
2664:
2637:
2614:
2578:
2574:
2554:
2521:
2517:
2488:
2466:
2459:Hen, Yitzhak
2440:
2410:
2387:
2364:
2357:Halsall, Guy
2338:
2335:Halsall, Guy
2316:
2313:Halsall, Guy
2293:
2270:
2250:
2229:
2225:Hen, Yitzhak
2204:
2183:
2162:
2141:
2118:
2095:
2091:Brown, Peter
2080:
2059:
2047:Bibliography
2033:
2028:, p. 5.
2021:
2016:, Table III.
2009:
2002:Muldoon 1999
1997:
1985:
1973:
1936:
1924:
1902:Halsall 2018
1878:
1856:Wolfram 1996
1826:Gillett 2002
1821:
1814:Gillett 2002
1809:
1802:Gillett 2002
1797:
1790:Halsall 2018
1785:
1743:
1731:
1724:Halsall 2018
1679:Wolfram 2005
1662:Halsall 2005
1657:
1645:
1600:Gillett 2002
1580:
1568:
1541:
1534:Halsall 2005
1529:
1522:Heather 2005
1517:
1510:Heather 2008
1505:
1474:
1467:Heather 2005
1462:
1455:Halsall 2005
1429:
1422:Halsall 2007
1417:
1410:Heather 1999
1405:
1398:Heather 1999
1393:
1386:Halsall 2005
1362:
1355:Heather 2005
1350:
1338:
1326:
1319:Heather 2005
1314:
1307:Heather 2005
1302:
1245:Cotesta 2015
1230:, p. 1.
1213:, Chapter 4.
1155:
1151:
1141:
1129:. Retrieved
1124:
1115:
1103:. Retrieved
1098:
1089:
1018:
1005:
997:
994:Lombard king
978:
974:
924:Pope Leo III
912:
896:
877:
866:
850:
843:
839:Christianity
835:
811:
807:
797:
794:Anastasius I
782:
741:
731:
721:
717:
715:
710:
708:
702:
701:, described
692:
689:
680:
657:
649:
624:
608:
578:
555:
554:or at times
549:
546:
539:
522:
518:
489:
485:
475:in southern
471:393–423) in
458:
453:
451:
426:
396:
342:Theodosius I
339:
311:sacking Rome
296:
277:
274:
219:In 376, the
218:
173:
160:
145:
136:18th century
109:
95:
91:
89:
85:
61:North Africa
48:
46:
25:
3616:WikiProject
3543:Medievalism
3382:Agriculture
3246:Manorialism
3241:Communalism
3236:Monasticism
3153:Reconquista
3143:Kievan Rus'
2581:: 325–334.
2115:Bury, J. B.
2038:Delogu 2002
1929:Parker 2018
1082:Delogu 2002
916:Charlemagne
792:by Emperor
773:Burgundians
730:) used the
653:Peter Brown
581:Justinian I
434:Burgundians
77:Anglo-Saxon
73:Charlemagne
3672:Barbarians
3631:Categories
3538:Land terms
3492:Technology
3472:Philosophy
3452:Literature
3417:Demography
3118:Viking Age
2563:B002S62FYI
1871:Jones 1962
1434:James 2014
1228:Ghosh 2009
1211:Brown 2015
1048:Croke 2003
1029:References
983:Desiderius
826:See also:
759:ruled the
673:Desiderius
454:status quo
424:407–411).
237:Ostrogoths
170:Background
124:Ostrogoths
3523:Dark Ages
3432:Household
3427:Hastilude
3196:Feudalism
2785:154201199
2697:. BRILL.
2603:162663612
2575:Britannia
2546:163824464
2145:. BRILL.
1941:Pohl 2018
1841:Bury 2005
1778:Dodd 2016
1295:Katz 1955
1172:1875-6719
1131:14 August
1105:14 August
880:Liuvigild
790:patrician
769:Visigoths
733:praenomen
699:Procopius
628:provinces
620:Roman law
574:Liuvigild
562:Alaric II
513:Visigoths
509:Liuvigild
473:Aquitania
292:Macedonia
279:foederati
261:Lupicinus
221:Visigoths
209:Visigoths
180:non-Roman
165:Formation
156:barbarian
142:Etymology
97:praenomen
3606:Category
3573:Timeline
3462:Minstrel
3457:Medicine
3339:Chivalry
3294:Burgundy
3216:Crusades
2845:(2005).
2795:(2018).
2759:(2014).
2659:(2012).
2613:(2006).
2509:(1962).
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2461:(2018).
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934:See also
873:Lombards
785:Clovis I
671:Coin of
645:Liberius
632:dioceses
507:Coin of
462:Honorius
364:Eugenius
325:Coin of
313:in 410.
299:Alaric I
205:Alaric I
83:in 886.
53:Germanic
3516:Related
3502:Warfare
3497:Theatre
3487:Slavery
3482:Science
3437:Hunting
3402:Cuisine
3375:Culture
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3309:England
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3477:Poetry
3304:France
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765:regent
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634:, and
430:Franks
409:, and
288:Moesia
257:Thrace
245:Valens
225:Danube
213:Athens
3507:Women
3467:Music
3422:Domes
3412:Dance
3299:Milan
2781:S2CID
2599:S2CID
2591:JSTOR
2542:S2CID
2534:JSTOR
2514:(PDF)
2255:(PDF)
2082:Dates
966:Notes
411:Suebi
403:Alans
392:Loire
388:Rhine
384:Arles
380:Trier
2853:ISBN
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1168:ISSN
1133:2024
1107:2024
900:LeĂłn
871:and
830:and
775:and
611:Rome
477:Gaul
432:and
375:Lyon
241:Huns
59:and
47:The
3392:Art
2773:doi
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