40:
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first day of battle the old gods seemed to be winning. Theodosius attacked almost immediately, having undertaken little to no prior reconnaissance of the field of battle. He committed his Gothic allies to action first, perhaps hoping to thin their ranks through attrition and lessen their potential threat to the Empire. The
Eastern army's headlong attack resulted in heavy casualties but little gain: 10,000 of the Gothic auxiliaries are reported to have been slain, and the Georgian general Bacurius was among the dead.
312:
830:
200:
765:, were uneasy with this action. In addition there was the issue of Valentinian's death, which had never been resolved to his satisfaction. Furthermore, Eugenius had removed most of the high civil officers left by Theodosius when he had given the Western half of the empire to Valentinian, so that Theodosius had lost control of the Western Roman Empire. When a party of Western ambassadors arrived in Constantinople to request that Eugenius be acknowledged as the Western
276:
1024:, whose account of the Battle of Cannae mentioned a similar wind blowing spears and weapons back. From Claudian's poetry, which was popular in both eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire, the idea of the bora wind deciding the battle spread. It fit well with the other idea that the battle was one between pagans and Christians: Theodosius, as the Christian emperor, was aided by God in the form of the wind.
319:
283:
838:
1016:, but he states in his sermon on Psalm 36 that the wind blew before that battle, and demoralized Theodosius' enemy before any fighting began. This idea was probably picked up by the poet Claudian, who, in his fanciful and propagandistic poetry for the Theodosian family, moved the wind to the decisive moment of the battle.
726:, informed Theodosius, the eastern emperor and Valentinian's brother-in-law, that the young emperor had committed suicide. Tensions between the two-halves of the empire were heightened further that summer. Arbogast made several attempts to contact Theodosius, but apparently none got further than the ears of the Eastern
1051:
It had been a costly victory for
Theodosius and a total loss for Eugenius. A contemporary Roman historian stated that since the Goths suffered the bulk of the casualties, Theodosius won two battles at Frigidus, one against Eugenius and the other against the Goths. A mere four months later he died,
970:
After a sleepless night, Theodosius was cheered by the news that the men
Arbogast had sent to bottle him up in the valley intended to desert to his side. Buoyed by this favorable development, Theodosius' men attacked once again. This time nature was on their side as a fierce tempest—apparently the
963:
Before the battle, Eugenius and
Arbogast placed a statue of Jupiter on the edge of the battlefield, and had applied images of Hercules on the army banners. This way they hoped to repeat the victories of Rome in earlier days, when it had always relied on the old gods for support in battle. On the
890:
Their advance through
Pannonia until the Julian Alps was unopposed, and Theodosius and his officers must have had suspicions about what lay ahead when they discovered that the eastern ends of the mountain passes were undefended. Arbogast had, based on his experiences fighting against the usurper
978:
The high winds blew clouds of dust into the faces of the
Western troops (legend also says that the fierce winds even blew the Western troops' own arrows back at them). Buffeted by the winds, Arbogast's lines broke and Theodosius gained the decisive victory that the Egyptian monk had prophesied.
1043:, Finnish historian and Docent of Latin language and Roman literature at the University of Helsinki, the notion of pagan aristocrats united in a "heroic and cultured resistance" who rose up against the ruthless advance of Christianity in a final battle near Frigidus in 394, is a romantic myth.
1063:
However, the battle also accelerated the collapse of the Roman army in the west. The losses at the Battle of the
Frigidus weakened the western legions. This downturn in the capabilities of the Roman soldiers meant an increasing reliance by the Empire on barbarian mercenaries employed as
982:
In the aftermath, Eugenius was captured and brought before the emperor. His pleas for mercy went unanswered and he was beheaded. Arbogast escaped the defeat and fled into the mountains, but after a few days' wandering, he concluded escape was impossible and committed suicide.
696:
753:, or senior civil servant, to the throne of the Western Empire. Eugenius was a well-respected scholar of rhetoric, and a native Roman, making him a far more acceptable candidate for the purple than the Frankish commander. His accession was backed by the
1001:, have disputed the reliability of this version of events. Cameron asserts that the idea that Eugenius and Arbogastes were pagans or supporters of pagans was created to justify Theodosius' campaign against them, and that other usurpers, such as
771:, Theodosius was noncommittal, even if he received them with presents and vague promises. Whether he had already decided on an offensive against Eugenius and Arbogast at this point is unclear. In the end, however, after declaring his son
911:
Thanks to
Arbogast's strategy of maintaining a single, relatively cohesive force, the Theodosian army passed unhindered through the Alps and descended towards the valley of the Frigidus River to the east of the Roman port of
895:
in Gaul, decided that the best strategy was to keep his forces united to defend Italy itself, and to that end he went so far as to leave the Alpine passes unguarded. Arbogast's forces consisted mainly of his fellow
637:, Theodosius's army defeated Eugenius's, and Eugenius was captured and executed. Arbogast killed himself after the battle. The fighting ended the third civil war of Theodosius's reign, after the two fought against
742:
was chief commander of the eastern cavalry. As it appeared increasingly likely that whatever course
Theodosius decided upon would be hostile towards Arbogast, the Frank decided to make the first move.
1530:
734:. The responses that Arbogast received from Rufinus were unhelpful. Theodosius himself was slowly coming to the belief that Valentinian had been murdered, in no small part because his wife
361:
1525:
967:
Day's end saw
Eugenius celebrating his troops' successful defense of their position while Arbogast sent out detachments to close off the mountain passes behind Theodosius's forces.
992:
871:
The Eastern army set out towards the west from Constantinople in May 394. The re-galvanized legions were bolstered by numerous barbarian auxiliaries including over 20,000
975:, a regular occurrence in the region—blew along the valley from the east. Other stories tell of Theodosius praying to God for a storm, which God subsequently granted.
81:
875:
federates and additional forces from Syria. Theodosius himself led the army; among his commanders were his own generals Stilicho and Timasius, the Visigoth chieftain
354:
997:
While the version of the battle in which a divine wind defeated the pagan enemies of Theodosius became popular in late antiquity, modern historians, most notably
621:'s forces. It was Arbogast who had engineered Eugenius's acclamation after Valentinian's mysterious death. With reinforcements from Theodosius's allies among the
347:
787:
Over the following year and a half Theodosius marshalled his forces for the invasion. The Eastern armies had atrophied since the death of the Emperor
928:
It is uncertain exactly where the battle took place. Though it has been claimed that the location of the battle should be sought in the Upper
738:
was convinced her brother's death was caused by treachery. For his part, Arbogast had few friends in the Eastern court, although his uncle
17:
1505:
675:. Church histories attributed Theodosius's victory at the Frigidus to divine intervention, and Rufinus equated its importance with the
1039:, re-dated to the 390s, reinforce the view that religion was not the key ideological element in the events at the time". According to
1005:, were falsely branded as pagans after their defeat. The idea that Theodosius' enemies were pagans originates in the church historian
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1275:"Ambrose and the Usurpation of Arbogastes and Eugenius: Reflections on Pagan-Christian Conflict Narratives"
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663:, though in fact Eugenius was not a pagan. The posthumous accusation of paganism was first levelled by
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1134:[The Try to Locate the Battle of the Frigidus in 394 in the Area Between Sanabor and Col].
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1132:"Poskus lociranja bitke pri Frigidu leta 394 na obmoÄŤju med Sanaborjem in Colom"
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The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective
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The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective
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and to bring them back up to strength through recruitment and conscription.
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to enhance the reputation of Theodosius I, who was a vigorous promoter of
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551:. Theodosius won the battle and defeated the usurpation of Eugenius and
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In addition, the earliest source to mention the decisive bora wind was
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explains that "two newly relevant texts — John Chrysoston's Homily 6,
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in January of 393, Theodosius finally resolved to invade the West.
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Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe
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The propaganda of power: the role of panegyric in late antiquity
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through which Theodosius's army had passed, was probably in the
524:, was fought on 5 and 6 September 394 between the armies of the
1009:, and only the sources dependent on Rufinus mention this idea.
993:
Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation
936:. Whereas the "Frigidus" has been usually considered to be the
897:
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630:
578:
508:
The Roman Empire in late 395, after the East's transfer of the
189:
1361:
Baynes, Norman H. (1911). H.M.Gwatkin and J.P. Whitney (ed.).
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At the same time another of Theodosius's advisers, the eunuch
1531:
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
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Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia
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1070:, who often proved to be unreliable, or even treacherous.
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leaving the government in the hands of his young children
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under Theodosius's brother-in-law and senior co-emperor
1317:
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655:, the battle was remembered as the last to involve an
1266:
1020:
seems to have been making a classicizing allusion to
1111:
818:. According to the accounts of the meeting given by
1363:
The Dynasty of Valentinian and Theodosius the Great
932:Valley, it has mostly been placed somewhere in the
593:, commanded the Theodosian army with help from the
369:
1410:
1263:(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 112–17
1247:(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 93–107
1136:Annales: Anali za istrske in mediteranske študije
1467:
1458:Roberts, Walter, "Flavius Eugenius (392–394)",
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699:Map showing the "Frigidus River" north east of
246:35,000–50,000, about the same as Eastern Romans
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27:394 AD battle between Theodosius and Eugenius
1382:Religious Dissent in Late Antiquity, 350–450
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573:– with the Frigidus River being the modern
1409:Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1994).
1365:. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
1285:(2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 191.
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775:, then eight years old, as the western
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1138:(in Slovenian, English, and Italian).
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69:near the Frigidus river (probably the
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710:, was found dead at his residence in
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706:On 15 May 392, the western emperor,
1037:Consultationes Zacchei et Apollonii
987:Religious character of the conflict
908:, plus his own Gothic auxiliaries.
577:– or possibly in the valley of the
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1506:Battles involving the Roman Empire
1378:
1338:
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1279:Journal of Early Christian Studies
1080:
803:both to restore discipline to the
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1167:. Fortress Press. pp. 171–.
920:in the first days of September.
791:and most of his soldiers at the
745:On 22 August, Arbogast elevated
673:state church of the Roman Empire
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38:
1511:Battles involving the Visigoths
1273:Salzman, Michele Renee (2010).
859:
749:, the Western imperial court's
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612:
542:
371:Fourth-century Roman civil wars
126:Theodosius gains Western Empire
1516:Civil wars of the Roman Empire
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1091:Byzantium: The Early Centuries
295:Location of the battle within
13:
1:
1413:Theodosius: The Empire at Bay
1073:
690:
326:Battle of the Frigidus (Alps)
1496:Battles involving the Franks
1399:
1046:
795:. It fell upon the generals
677:Battle of the Milvian Bridge
547:), in the eastern border of
46:Johann Weikhard von Valvasor
18:Battle of the Frigidus (394)
7:
1501:Battles involving the Goths
1491:Ancient history of Slovenia
1385:. Oxford University Press.
1379:Kahlos, Maijastina (2019).
602:. Arbogast, previously the
596:magister utriusque militiae
381:Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
10:
1552:
1374:. Oxford University Press.
1333:
1195:Williams & Friell 1994
1106:Williams & Friell 1994
990:
865:the Victory of the Augusti
559:. The battlefield, in the
522:Battle of the Frigid River
44:Battle of the Frigidus by
1417:. Yale University Press.
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761:. Some senators, notably
555:, restoring unity to the
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1481:390s in the Roman Empire
1460:De Imperatoribus Romanis
1213:. Brill. pp. 282–.
1035:(PG 63: 491-92) and the
918:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
852:and together holding an
562:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
1432:White, Cynthia (2010).
1370:Heather, Peter (2010).
1261:The Last Pagans of Rome
1245:The Last Pagans of Rome
1130:Ĺ tekar, Andrej (2013).
73:in what is now western
1347:Historia Ecclesiastica
1161:Cynthia White (2010).
868:
834:
703:
653:ecclesiastical history
518:Battle of the Frigidus
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156:Commanders and leaders
33:Battle of the Frigidus
1486:4th-century conflicts
1400:Kohn, George Childs.
1029:Michele Renee Salzman
840:
832:
730:, or chief minister,
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681:Constantine the Great
659:who was a devotee of
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251:Casualties and losses
97:45.87028°N 13.93611°E
1207:Mary Whitby (1998).
958:Door to Roman Italia
793:Battle of Adrianople
783:Campaign preparation
759:Nicomachus Flavianus
635:Bacurius the Iberian
529:Theodosius the Great
301:Show map of Slovenia
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238:20,000–30,000 Romans
150:Western Roman Empire
141:Eastern Roman Empire
1404:(Revised ed.).
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1087:John Julius Norwich
669:Nicene Christianity
510:Diocese of Pannonia
227:Herculiani seniores
93: /
1436:. Fortress Press.
1402:Dictionary of Wars
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520:, also called the
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116:Theodosian victory
102:45.87028; 13.93611
1443:978-0-8006-9747-1
1424:978-0-300-07447-5
1392:978-0-19-006725-0
1355:Secondary sources
1220:978-90-04-10571-3
1174:978-0-8006-9747-1
1041:Maijastina Kahlos
1033:adversus Catharos
956:in the so called
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839:
833:Theodosius I.
831:
827:
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571:Vipava Valley
568:
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494:
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466:Jewish revolt
464:
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461:Mons Seleucus
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76:
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41:
36:
31:
19:
1536:Theodosius I
1459:
1433:
1412:
1401:
1381:
1371:
1362:
1346:
1324:Heather 2010
1319:
1314:, p. 2.
1307:
1282:
1278:
1268:
1260:
1257:Alan Cameron
1252:
1244:
1241:Alan Cameron
1236:
1224:. Retrieved
1209:
1202:
1190:
1178:. Retrieved
1163:
1156:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1113:
1090:
1082:
1065:
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1032:
1026:
1011:
999:Alan Cameron
996:
981:
977:
969:
966:
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927:
910:
906:Gallo-Romans
889:
870:
864:
841:
809:
786:
776:
766:
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744:
719:
705:
656:
650:
603:
594:
588:
583:
560:
557:Roman Empire
532:
521:
517:
515:
493:Gildonic War
487:
471:
470:
447:
446:
379:
210:
183:
162:Theodosius I
135:Belligerents
1142:(1): 1–14.
1118:Baynes 1911
633:, and from
567:Julian Alps
549:Roman Italy
472:Late period
456:Mursa Major
442:Chrysopolis
121:Territorial
100: /
1470:Categories
1345:Rufinius.
1074:References
1027:Historian
1003:Magnentius
991:See also:
856:. Marked:
757:of Italy,
740:Richomeres
691:Background
432:Hellespont
427:Adrianople
88:13°56′10″E
85:45°52′13″N
1299:143665912
1148:1408-5348
1067:foederati
1047:Aftermath
940:River or
858:victoria
816:Lycopolis
812:Eutropius
763:Symmachus
685:Maxentius
565:near the
437:Byzantium
412:Tzirallum
145:Visigoths
1058:Arcadius
1054:Honorius
1018:Claudian
946:Vrhpolje
914:Aquileia
902:Alemanni
879:, and a
873:Visigoth
846:Eugenius
820:Claudian
801:Timasius
777:augustus
773:Honorius
768:augustus
747:Eugenius
724:Arbogast
701:Aquileia
687:in 312.
671:and the
657:augustus
619:Eugenius
600:Stilicho
585:Timasius
553:Arbogast
538:Eugenius
534:augustus
488:Frigidus
483:Poetovio
478:Thyatira
297:Slovenia
233:Strength
205:Arbogast
195:Eugenius
178:Bacurius
170:Stilicho
166:Timasius
75:Slovenia
65:Location
1334:Sources
1226:3 April
1180:3 April
1007:Rufinus
954:Sanabor
850:Victory
842:Solidus
824:Sozomen
805:legions
732:Rufinus
679:won by
625:led by
449:350–353
417:Cibalae
397:Brescia
387:Segusio
258:10,000
240:20,000
211:†
184:†
123:changes
1440:
1421:
1389:
1312:Kahlos
1297:
1217:
1171:
1146:
942:Hubelj
938:Vipava
930:Isonzo
924:Battle
904:, and
898:Franks
883:named
877:Alaric
789:Valens
718:. His
712:Vienne
631:Gainas
627:Alaric
587:, the
579:Isonzo
575:Vipava
422:Mardia
402:Verona
207:
197:
190:Gainas
180:
174:Alaric
113:Result
71:Vipava
48:(1689)
1295:S2CID
1093:, 115
736:Galla
683:over
623:Goths
392:Turin
264:Heavy
260:Goths
256:Heavy
242:Goths
1438:ISBN
1419:ISBN
1387:ISBN
1228:2013
1215:ISBN
1182:2013
1169:ISBN
1144:ISSN
1056:and
973:bora
952:and
860:augg
822:and
799:and
716:Gaul
629:and
516:The
57:Date
1476:394
1287:doi
950:Col
867:").
854:orb
844:of
651:In
648:).
1472::
1293:.
1283:18
1281:.
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1259:,
1243:,
1140:23
1098:^
1089:,
1060:.
960:.
900:,
887:.
863:("
722:,
714:,
644:r.
613:r.
581:.
543:r.
1446:.
1427:.
1395:.
1301:.
1289::
1230:.
1184:.
1150:.
641:(
610:(
540:(
363:e
356:t
349:v
77:)
20:)
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