259:
the fourth pair further illustrates the same point, although the acceptability judgement is not as robust. Based on such data, one sees that reflexive and personal pronouns differ in their distribution and that linear order (of a pronoun in relation to its antecedent or postcedent) is a factor influencing where at least some pronouns can appear. A theory of binding should be capable of predicting and explaining the differences in distribution seen in sentences like these. It should be able to answer questions like: What explains where a reflexive pronoun must appear as opposed to a personal pronoun? When does linear order play a role in determining where pronouns can appear? What other factor (or factors) beyond linear order help predict where pronouns can appear?
43:"herself" is bound by its antecedent "Mary". Binding can be licensed or blocked in certain contexts or syntactic configurations, e.g. the pronoun "her" cannot be bound by "Mary" in the English sentence "Mary saw her". While all languages have binding, restrictions on it vary even among closely related languages. Binding has been a major area of research in
1637:
The alternative to a c-command approach posits a ranking of syntactic functions (SUBJECT > FIRST OBJECT > SECOND OBJECT > PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT). Subject-object asymmetries are addressed in terms of this ranking. Since subjects are ranked higher than objects, an object can have the subject as
1205:
While there may be a mild preference for the order in the a-sentences here, the indicated reading in the b-sentences is also available. Hence linear order is hardly playing a role in such cases. The relevant difference between these sentences and the c- and d-sentences in the previous section is that
267:
The following three subsections consider the binding domains that are relevant for the distribution of pronouns and nouns in
English. The discussion follows the outline provided by the traditional binding theory (see below), which divides nominals into three basic categories: reflexive and reciprocal
2199:
A number of approaches to binding build on a hierarchy of syntactic functions, although the terminology they employ usually varies. In particular, the HPSG and LFG frameworks posit a basic hierarhcy of syntactic functions. See
Pollard and Sag (1994:121), who build on the notion of o-command, and see
1862:
that is still prominent today. The theory of binding that became widespread at that time serves now merely as reference point (since it is no longer believed to be correct). This theory distinguishes between 3 different binding conditions: A, B, and C. The theory classifies nominals according to two
2189:
The insight that the reflexive pronoun can be embedded inside a subject NP and at the same time be coreferential with the object NP is one of the main insights presented in
Pollard and Sag's (1992) account of what has become known as "exempt anaphors", i.e. reflexive pronouns that are not bound by
1403:
to be the all important factor, but the importance of c-command for syntactic theorizing has been extensively criticized in recent years. The primary alternative to c-command is functional rank. These two competing concepts (c-command vs. rank) have been debated extensively and they continue to be
782:
A simple hypothesis concerning the distribution of many anaphoric elements, of personal pronouns in particular, is that linear order plays a role. In most cases, a pronoun follows its antecedent, and in many cases, the coreferential reading is impossible if the pronoun precedes its antecedent. The
391:
These examples illustrate that there is a domain within which a reflexive or reciprocal pronoun should find its antecedent. The a-sentences are fine because the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun has its antecedent within the clause. The b-sentences, in contrast, do not allow the indicated reading, a
258:
pronouns. In the first pair of sentences, the reflexive pronoun must appear for the indicated reading to be possible. In the second pair, the personal pronoun must appear for the indicated reading to be possible. The third pair shows that at times a personal pronoun must follow its antecedent, and
2049:
While the theory of binding that these three conditions represent is no longer held to be valid, as mentioned above, the associations with the three conditions are so firmly anchored in the study of binding that one often refers to, for example, "Condition A effects" or "Condition B effects" when
753:
The readings indicated in the a-sentences are natural, whereas the b-sentences are very unusual. Indeed, sentences like these b-sentences were judged to be impossible in the traditional binding theory according to
Condition C (see below). Given a contrastive context, however, the b-sentences can
592:
In these cases, the pronoun has to look outside of the embedded clause containing it to the matrix clause to find its antecedent. Hence based on such data, the relevant binding domain appears to be the clause. Further data illustrate, however, that the clause is actually not the relevant domain:
496:
Personal pronouns have a distribution that is different from reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, a point that is evident with the first two b-sentences in the previous section. The local binding domain that is decisive for the distribution of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns is also decisive for
657:
The distribution of common and proper nouns is unlike that of reflexive, reciprocal, and personal pronouns. The relevant observation in this regard is that a noun is often reluctantly coreferential with another nominal that is within its binding domain or in a superordinate binding domain, e.g.
1389:
The fact that the c-sentences marginally allow the indicated reading whereas the b-sentences do not at all allow this reading further demonstrates that linear order is important. But in this regard, the d-sentences are telling, since if linear order were the entire story, one would expect the
1424:
asymmetries, which are numerous in many languages, are explained by the fact that the subject appears outside of the finite verb phrase (VP) constituent, whereas the object appears inside it. Subjects therefore c-command objects, but not vice versa. C-command is defined as follows:
487:
When the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun attempts to find an antecedent outside of the immediate clause containing it, it fails. In other words, it can hardly seek its antecedent in the superordinate clause. The binding domain that is relevant is the immediate clause containing it.
1100:
While the acceptability judgements here are nuanced, one can make a strong case that pure linear order is at least in part predictive of when the indicated reading is available. The a- and c-sentences allow the coreferential reading more easily than their b- and d-counterparts.
1521:. The assumption has been that within its binding domain, a reflexive pronoun must be c-commanded by its antecedent. While this approach based on c-command makes a correct prediction much of the time, there are other cases where it fails to make the correct prediction, e.g.
1738:
The approach based on rank does not require a particular configurational relationship to hold between a reflexive pronoun and its antecedent. In other words, it makes no prediction in this case, and hence does not make an incorrect prediction. The reflexive pronoun
2162:-examples given here appear originally in Reinhart's (1983) book on the distribution of anaphors. Note, however, that many of Reinhart's original acceptability judgments were inaccurate, hence the acceptability judgments given here do not match Reinhart's examples.
392:
fact illustrating that personal pronouns have a distribution that is different from that of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. A related observation is that a reflexive and reciprocal pronoun often cannot seek its antecedent in a superordinate clause, e.g.
924:
While the coreferential readings indicated in these b-sentences are possible, they are unlikely. The order presented in the a-sentences is strongly preferred. The following, more extensive data sets further illustrate that linear order is important:
648:
Since the pronouns appear within the same minimal clause containing their antecedents in these cases, one cannot argue that the relevant binding domain is the clause. The most one can say based on such data is that the domain is "clause-like".
1709:. In other words, this approach in terms of rank is assuming that within its binding domain, a reflexive pronoun may not outrank its antecedent (or postcedent). Consider the third example sentence from the previous section in this regard:
1109:
While linear order is an important factor influencing the distribution of pronouns, it is not the only factor. The following sentences are similar to the c- and d-sentences in the previous section insofar as an embedded clause is present.
1404:
debated. C-command is a configurational notion; it is defined over concrete syntactic configurations. Syntactic rank, in contrast, is a functional notion that resides in the lexicon; it is defined over the ranking of the arguments of
2209:
Langacker's study (1969), which is one of the earliest explorations of binding phenomena, combined two factors to predict binding possibilities. Hence the concept that a combination of factors influences binding data has a long
1863:
features, and , which are binary. The binding characteristics of a nominal are determined by the values of these features, either plus or minus. Thus, a nominal that is is an R-expression (referring expression), such as a
773:
The following subsections illustrate the extent to which pure linear order impacts the distribution of pronouns. While linear order is clearly important, it is not the only factor influencing where pronouns can appear.
1408:. Subjects are ranked higher than objects, first objects are ranked higher than second objects, and prepositional objects are ranked lowest. The following two subsections briefly consider these competing notions.
1398:
Given that linear order is not the only factor influencing the distribution of pronouns, the question is what other factor or factors might also be playing a role. The traditional binding theory (see below) took
1390:
d-sentences to be less acceptable than they are. The conclusion that one can draw from such data is that there are one or more other factors beyond linear order that are impacting the distribution of pronouns.
2144:
The three-way division between reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, personal pronouns, and nouns is discussed, for instance, in Carnie (2013:147ff.). Note, however, that the terminology varies depending on the
1750:
A theory of binding that acknowledges both linear order and rank can at least begin to predict many of the marginal readings. When both linear order and rank combine, acceptability judgments are robust, e.g.
1561:
As reflexive and personal pronouns occur in complementary distribution, the notion of c-command can also be used to explain where personal pronouns can appear. The assumption is that personal pronouns
1846:
This ability to address marginal readings is something that an approach combining linear order and rank can accomplish, whereas an approach that acknowledges only c-command cannot do the same.
1550:
The reading indicated is acceptable in this case, but if c-command were the key notion helping to explain where the reflexive can and must appear, then the reading should be impossible since
1638:
its antecedent, but not vice versa. With basic cases, this approach makes the same prediction as the c-command approach. The first two sentences from the previous section are repeated here:
1891:
here is being used in a specialized sense; it essentially means "reflexive". This meaning is specific to the
Government and Binding framework and has not spread beyond this framework.
2135:
Examples like the ones given here that illustrate aspects of binding can be found in most accounts of binding phenomena. See for instance
Radford (2004:85f) and Carnie (2013:153f.).
292:
pronouns (which are often subsumed under the general category of "anaphor"), one sees that there are certain domains that are relevant, a "domain" being a syntactic unit that is
2253:
Langacker, R. 1969. On pronominalization and the chain of command. Modern
Studies in English, eds. D. Reibel & S. Schane, 160-186. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
63:
The following sentences illustrate some basic facts of binding. The words that bear the index i should be construed as referring to the same person or thing.
1450:(VP), whereas everything inside the VP is incapable of c-commanding anything outside of the VP. Some basic binding facts are explained in this manner, e.g.
765:. One can therefore conclude that nouns are not sensitive to binding domains in the same way that reflexive, reciprocal, and personal pronouns are.
497:
personal pronouns, but in a different way. Personal pronouns seek their antecedent outside of the local binding domain containing them, e.g.
3022:
2321:
2795:
2075: – binary relation between nodes in a parse tree, in which a node c-commands its sister node and all of its sister’s descendants
3032:
2663:
2330:
1743:
is embedded within the subject noun phrase, which means that it is not the subject and hence does not outrank the object
48:
296:-like. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns often seek their antecedent close by, in a binding domain that is local, e.g.
2122:
Hornstein (2018) gives a good overview of government & binding theory (GB) and how its mechanics gave rise to the
2102: – in linguistics, the movement of an argument from an embedded or subordinate clause to a matrix or main clause
2256:
Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1992. Reflexives in
English and the scope of binding theory. Linguistic Inquiry 23, 261-303.
3027:
2219:
For presentations of the traditional binding theory, see for instance
Radford (2004:85ff) and Carnie (2013:147ff.).
2750:
1949:
A pronoun can have an antecedent as long as the antecedent is not local or does not c-command the pronoun. Thus
2871:
2745:
2404:
2314:
1436:
Node A c-commands node B if every node dominating A also dominates B, and neither A nor B dominates the other.
2523:
2344:
2087:
1855:
52:
2292:
Hornstein, N. Nunes, J. Grohmann, K. 2005. Understanding
Minimalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2286:
Crystal, D. 1997. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 4th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
2409:
2228:
Most syntax textbooks on generative grammar use the term in this way. See for instance Carnie (2013:148).
1416:
C-command is a configurational notion that acknowledges the syntactic configuration as primitive. Basic
3012:
2891:
2553:
2374:
783:
following sentences suggest that pure linear can indeed be important for the distribution of pronouns:
2171:
Bruening (2014) produces an extensive criticism of the validity of c-command for syntactic theorizing.
2896:
2846:
2608:
2497:
2307:
2262:
1854:
The exploration of binding phenomena got started in the 1970s and interest peaked in the 1980s with
2956:
2815:
2394:
1443:
2951:
2492:
2250:
Hornstein, N. 2018. The Minimalist Program After 25 Years. Annual Review of Linguistics 4, 49-65.
2259:
Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1994. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. University of Chicago Press.
2981:
2648:
2618:
2593:
2533:
2432:
2364:
2060:
1894:
Based on the classifications according to these two features, three conditions are formulated:
1211:
28:
2876:
2770:
2735:
2623:
2598:
2359:
2247:
Carnie, C. 2013. Syntax: A generative introduction, 3rd edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
2024:
An R-expression cannot be the antecedent of an anaphor or pronoun that c-commands it. Thus *
2861:
2668:
2447:
2066:
1935:
is unacceptable, because the reflexive and its antecedent are too far away from each other.
36:
8:
2946:
2911:
2856:
2800:
2703:
2688:
2658:
2638:
2613:
2482:
2467:
1693:
Since the subject outranks the object, sentence a is predictably acceptable, the subject
1405:
3017:
2991:
2916:
2886:
2851:
2831:
2760:
2740:
2678:
2673:
2583:
2573:
2558:
2502:
2289:
Heim, I., and A. Kratzer. 1988. Semantics in Generative Grammar. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
2123:
289:
2299:
2971:
2926:
2906:
2866:
2805:
2775:
2755:
2548:
2477:
1859:
1417:
1207:
285:
251:
2976:
2901:
2790:
2568:
2283:
Chomsky, N.1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
2099:
1629:, resulting in the grammaticality of both sentences despite reversed linear order.
1421:
255:
2265:(2004) English syntax: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2126:. This includes the how titular "binding" plays a major role in the GB framework.
2780:
2683:
2578:
2543:
1839:– Linear order alone makes the indicated reading unlikely; rank is not involved.
1819:– Linear order alone makes the indicated reading possible; rank is not involved.
2966:
2961:
2881:
2765:
2643:
2538:
2379:
2295:
Reinhart, T. and E. Reuland. 1993. Reflexivity. Linguistic Inquiry 24, 657-720.
1773:– Linear order and rank combine to make the indicated reading easily possible.
3006:
2653:
2628:
2462:
2268:
Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London: Croom Helm.
1446:, this definition sees a typical subject c-commanding everything inside the
2921:
2841:
2708:
2588:
2472:
2452:
1442:
Given the binary division of the clause (S → NP + VP) associated with most
279:
2836:
2810:
2693:
2457:
2384:
2081:
1868:
1864:
1849:
1793:– Linear order and rank combine to make the indicated reading impossible.
1447:
273:
269:
20:
1701:. Sentence b, in contrast, is bad because the subject reflexive pronoun
2986:
2633:
2399:
2354:
2349:
2280:
Büring, D. 2005. Binding Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2785:
2603:
2528:
2507:
2437:
2389:
2369:
2072:
1400:
2063: – Use of an expression whose interpretation depends on context
1905:
An anaphor (reflexive) must have a local (nearby) antecedent. Thus,
2698:
2487:
2093:
2244:
Bruening, B. 2014. Precede-and-command revisited. Language 90(1).
2241:
Bresnan, Joan. 2001. Lexical–Functional Syntax. Oxford: Blackwell.
2069: – Expression that gives its meaning to a pro-form in grammar
2200:
Bresnan (2001:212), who employs the "rank" terminology used here.
51:
since the 1970s and, as the name implies, is a core component of
40:
32:
2084: – Two or more expressions in a text with the same referent
1214:
clauses above. The following examples involve adjunct phrases:
293:
250:
These sentences illustrate some aspects of the distribution of
44:
39:. For instance in the English sentence "Mary saw herself", the
2563:
2180:
The definition of c-command is taken from Carnie (2013:127).
746:– Indicated reading possible, but special context necessary
700:– Indicated reading possible, but special context necessary
1879:, and a nominal that is is a reflexive pronoun, such as
2329:
2096: – Word or form that substitutes for another word
1850:
The traditional binding theory: Conditions A, B, and C
1686:– Indicated reading impossible; sentence ungrammatical
1513:, whereas sentence b does not work because the object
1498:– Indicated reading impossible; sentence ungrammatical
1104:
131:– Indicated reading impossible, sentence ungrammatical
2104:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
2077:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
58:
3004:
2796:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
280:Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ("anaphors")
2315:
1393:
2039:c-commands its antecedent, the R-expression
1987:is local but does not c-command the pronoun
1411:
756:Susan does not admire Jane, but rather Susan
1871:. A nominal that is is a pronoun, such as
777:
2322:
2308:
1858:, a grammar framework in the tradition of
35:are grammatically associated with their
268:pronouns, personal pronouns, and nouns (
1983:also obeys Condition B; the antecedent
1621:In both examples, the personal pronoun
1505:Sentence a is fine because the subject
460:– Indicated reading (almost) obligatory
414:– Indicated reading (almost) obligatory
3005:
284:When one examines the distribution of
2751:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
2303:
1916:obeys Condition A: the antecedent of
2006:is local and c-commands the pronoun
1247:found a scratch in Ben's picture of
1227:found a scratch in Ben's picture of
1178:– Indicated reading easily possible
491:
3023:Formal semantics (natural language)
2664:Quantificational variability effect
2331:Formal semantics (natural language)
1588:– Indicated reading easily possible
1322:– Indicated reading easily possible
1236:– Indicated reading easily possible
1132:– Indicated reading easily possible
1105:Linear order is not the only factor
1033:– Indicated reading easily possible
947:– Indicated reading easily possible
897:– Indicated reading easily possible
851:– Indicated reading easily possible
805:– Indicated reading easily possible
726:– Indicated reading easily possible
565:– Indicated reading easily possible
519:– Indicated reading easily possible
223:– Indicated reading easily possible
177:– Indicated reading easily possible
151:– Indicated reading easily possible
16:Distribution of anaphoric elements
13:
2273:
1632:
1625:does not c-command its antecedent
262:
14:
3044:
1566:c-command their antecedent, e.g.
480:– Indicated reading very unlikely
434:– Indicated reading very unlikely
59:Some basic examples and questions
2002:is unacceptable; the antecedent
2222:
2213:
1517:does not c-command the subject
1362:Indicated reading very unlikely
768:
425:thinks that Jill should praise
2746:Combinatory categorial grammar
2203:
2193:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2148:
2138:
2129:
2116:
2050:describing binding phenomena.
1660:– Indicated reading obligatory
1472:– Indicated reading obligatory
1342:– Indicated reading impossible
1256:– Indicated reading impossible
1206:the embedded clauses here are
1053:– Indicated reading impossible
967:– Indicated reading impossible
680:– Indicated reading obligatory
585:– Indicated reading impossible
556:hopes that Wilma will mention
539:– Indicated reading impossible
384:– Indicated reading impossible
364:– Indicated reading obligatory
338:– Indicated reading impossible
318:– Indicated reading obligatory
197:– Indicated reading impossible
105:– Indicated reading impossible
85:– Indicated reading obligatory
1:
2524:Antecedent-contained deletion
2234:
2088:Government and binding theory
2035:is unacceptable; the pronoun
1856:Government and Binding Theory
471:asked whether the girls like
53:government and binding theory
1731:– Indicated reading possible
1614:– Indicated reading possible
1543:– Indicated reading possible
1382:– Indicated reading possible
1360:spent her sweetest hours. –
1333:spent her sweetest hours in
1313:spent her sweetest hours in
1296:– Indicated reading possible
1276:– Indicated reading unlikely
1198:– Indicated reading possible
1152:– Indicated reading possible
1093:– Indicated reading unlikely
1073:– Indicated reading possible
1007:– Indicated reading unlikely
987:– Indicated reading possible
917:– Indicated reading unlikely
871:– Indicated reading unlikely
825:– Indicated reading unlikely
641:– Indicated reading possible
615:– Indicated reading possible
510:asked whether Jim mentioned
243:– Indicated reading unlikely
7:
2053:
1924:, is nearby. In contrast, *
1380:spent her sweetest hours.
27:is the phenomenon in which
10:
3049:
3033:Syntax–semantics interface
2405:Syntax–semantics interface
1972:is sufficiently far away.
1930:asked Mary to wash himself
1394:Configuration vs. function
1210:clauses, whereas they are
632:has heard the rumor about
2939:
2897:Question under discussion
2847:Conversational scoreboard
2824:
2728:
2721:
2624:Intersective modification
2609:Homogeneity (linguistics)
2516:
2425:
2418:
2337:
1444:phrase structure grammars
1412:Configuration (c-command)
2957:Distributional semantics
2110:
2090: – Theory of syntax
1705:outranks its postcedent
778:Linear order is a factor
652:
3028:Syntactic relationships
2952:Computational semantics
2689:Subsective modification
2493:Propositional attitudes
2030:asked Mary to wash John
1280:d. In Ben's picture of
1260:c. In Ben's picture of
1084:would study, you asked
1064:would study, you asked
523:b. *Fred asked whether
2982:Philosophy of language
2619:Inalienable possession
2599:Free choice inferences
2594:Faultless disagreement
2365:Generalized quantifier
2061:Anaphora (linguistics)
1991:. On the other hand, *
1955:asked Mary to wash him
1887:. Note that the term
1697:outranking the object
1554:is not c-commanded by
1509:c-commands the object
444:a. They asked whether
2877:Plural quantification
2771:Inquisitive semantics
2736:Alternative semantics
1964:is the antecedent of
958:mentioned twice that
938:mentioned twice that
606:likes the picture of
398:a. Susan thinks that
142:asked Arthur to help
122:asked Arthur to help
2862:Function application
2669:Responsive predicate
2659:Privative adjectives
569:b. *Gina hopes that
2947:Cognitive semantics
2912:Strawson entailment
2857:Existential closure
2801:Situation semantics
2704:Temperature paradox
2674:Rising declaratives
2639:Modal subordination
2614:Hurford disjunction
2574:Discourse relations
1960:obeys Condition B;
2992:Semantics of logic
2917:Strict conditional
2887:Quantifier raising
2852:Downward entailing
2832:Autonomy of syntax
2761:Generative grammar
2741:Categorial grammar
2679:Scalar implicature
2584:Epistemic modality
2559:De dicto and de re
2124:minimalist program
1791:will be promoted.
1771:will be promoted.
1150:play video games.
1130:play video games.
286:reflexive pronouns
96:is impressed with
76:is impressed with
3013:Generative syntax
3000:
2999:
2972:Logic translation
2935:
2934:
2927:Universal grinder
2907:Squiggle operator
2867:Meaning postulate
2806:Supervaluationism
2776:Intensional logic
2756:Dynamic semantics
2717:
2716:
2549:Crossover effects
2498:Tense–aspect–mood
2478:Lexical semantics
2190:their antecedent.
1860:generative syntax
1840:
1820:
1794:
1774:
1732:
1687:
1661:
1615:
1589:
1544:
1499:
1473:
1383:
1363:
1343:
1323:
1297:
1294:found a scratch.
1277:
1274:found a scratch.
1257:
1237:
1199:
1179:
1153:
1133:
1094:
1074:
1054:
1034:
1008:
1005:mentioned twice.
988:
985:mentioned twice.
968:
948:
918:
898:
872:
852:
826:
806:
747:
727:
701:
681:
642:
616:
586:
566:
540:
520:
492:Personal pronouns
481:
461:
435:
415:
385:
365:
339:
319:
244:
234:friends venerate
224:
214:friends venerate
198:
178:
152:
132:
106:
86:
31:elements such as
3040:
2977:Linguistics wars
2902:Semantic parsing
2791:Montague grammar
2726:
2725:
2569:Deontic modality
2423:
2422:
2410:Truth conditions
2345:Compositionality
2338:Central concepts
2324:
2317:
2310:
2301:
2300:
2229:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2163:
2152:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2105:
2078:
1838:
1818:
1792:
1772:
1730:
1685:
1659:
1613:
1587:
1542:
1497:
1471:
1381:
1361:
1341:
1321:
1295:
1275:
1255:
1235:
1197:
1177:
1151:
1131:
1092:
1072:
1052:
1032:
1006:
986:
966:
946:
916:
896:
870:
850:
824:
804:
745:
725:
699:
679:
640:
614:
584:
564:
538:
518:
479:
459:
433:
413:
383:
363:
337:
317:
242:
222:
196:
176:
150:
130:
104:
84:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2931:
2820:
2781:Lambda calculus
2713:
2684:Sloppy identity
2644:Opaque contexts
2579:Donkey anaphora
2544:Counterfactuals
2512:
2414:
2333:
2328:
2298:
2276:
2274:Further reading
2271:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2076:
2056:
2033:
2029:
2000:
1996:
1981:
1977:
1958:
1954:
1933:
1929:
1914:
1910:
1852:
1835:
1828:
1815:
1808:
1789:
1782:
1769:
1762:
1727:
1720:
1715:The picture of
1682:
1675:
1656:
1649:
1635:
1633:Function (rank)
1610:
1603:
1584:
1577:
1539:
1532:
1527:The picture of
1494:
1487:
1468:
1461:
1414:
1396:
1378:
1371:
1358:
1351:
1338:
1331:
1318:
1311:
1292:
1285:
1272:
1265:
1252:
1245:
1232:
1225:
1194:
1187:
1174:
1167:
1148:
1141:
1128:
1121:
1107:
1089:
1082:
1069:
1062:
1049:
1042:
1029:
1022:
1003:
996:
983:
976:
963:
956:
943:
936:
913:
906:
901:b. We spoke to
893:
886:
881:a. We spoke to
867:
860:
847:
840:
821:
814:
801:
794:
780:
771:
763:
759:
742:
735:
722:
715:
696:
689:
676:
669:
655:
637:
630:
611:
604:
581:
574:
561:
554:
535:
528:
515:
508:
494:
476:
469:
456:
449:
430:
423:
410:
403:
380:
373:
360:
353:
334:
327:
314:
307:
282:
265:
263:Binding domains
239:
232:
219:
212:
193:
186:
173:
166:
147:
140:
127:
120:
101:
94:
81:
74:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3046:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2967:Inferentialism
2964:
2962:Formal grammar
2959:
2954:
2949:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2882:Possible world
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2766:Glue semantics
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2732:
2730:
2729:Formal systems
2723:
2719:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2654:Polarity items
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2539:Conservativity
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2503:Quantification
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2429:
2427:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2380:Presupposition
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2327:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2221:
2212:
2202:
2192:
2182:
2173:
2164:
2147:
2137:
2128:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2070:
2064:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2011:
1998:
1994:
1979:
1978:washed himself
1975:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1912:
1911:washed himself
1908:
1903:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1833:
1826:
1821:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1767:
1760:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1725:
1718:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1680:
1673:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1654:
1647:
1634:
1631:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1608:
1601:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1590:
1582:
1575:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1537:
1530:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1492:
1485:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1466:
1459:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1413:
1410:
1395:
1392:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1369:
1364:
1356:
1349:
1344:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1316:
1309:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1290:
1283:
1278:
1270:
1263:
1258:
1250:
1243:
1238:
1230:
1223:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1196:will succeed.
1192:
1185:
1180:
1176:will succeed.
1172:
1165:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1146:
1139:
1134:
1126:
1119:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1067:
1060:
1055:
1047:
1040:
1037:b. *You asked
1035:
1027:
1020:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1001:
994:
989:
981:
974:
969:
961:
954:
949:
941:
934:
922:
921:
920:
919:
911:
904:
899:
891:
884:
876:
875:
874:
873:
865:
862:family avoids
858:
853:
845:
842:family avoids
838:
830:
829:
828:
827:
819:
812:
807:
799:
792:
779:
776:
770:
767:
761:
757:
751:
750:
749:
748:
740:
733:
728:
720:
713:
705:
704:
703:
702:
694:
687:
682:
674:
667:
654:
651:
646:
645:
644:
643:
635:
628:
620:
619:
618:
617:
609:
602:
590:
589:
588:
587:
579:
572:
567:
559:
552:
544:
543:
542:
541:
533:
526:
521:
513:
506:
493:
490:
485:
484:
483:
482:
474:
467:
462:
454:
447:
439:
438:
437:
436:
428:
421:
416:
408:
405:should praise
401:
389:
388:
387:
386:
378:
371:
366:
358:
351:
343:
342:
341:
340:
332:
325:
320:
312:
305:
281:
278:
264:
261:
248:
247:
246:
245:
237:
230:
225:
217:
210:
202:
201:
200:
199:
191:
184:
179:
171:
164:
156:
155:
154:
153:
145:
138:
133:
125:
118:
110:
109:
108:
107:
99:
92:
87:
79:
72:
60:
57:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3045:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2649:Performatives
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2629:Logophoricity
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:Evidentiality
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2320:
2318:
2313:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2302:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2225:
2216:
2206:
2196:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2141:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2051:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1934:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1836:
1829:
1822:
1816:
1809:
1802:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1790:
1783:
1776:
1770:
1763:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1683:
1676:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1611:
1604:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1585:
1578:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1495:
1488:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1469:
1462:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1409:
1407:
1402:
1391:
1379:
1372:
1365:
1359:
1352:
1345:
1339:
1332:
1325:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1293:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1266:
1259:
1253:
1246:
1239:
1233:
1226:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1195:
1188:
1181:
1175:
1168:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1149:
1143:are at home,
1142:
1135:
1129:
1123:are at home,
1122:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1102:
1090:
1083:
1076:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1051:would study.
1050:
1043:
1036:
1031:would study.
1030:
1023:
1017:a. You asked
1016:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1004:
997:
990:
984:
977:
970:
964:
957:
950:
944:
937:
930:
929:
928:
927:
926:
914:
908:mother about
907:
900:
894:
888:mother about
887:
880:
879:
878:
877:
868:
861:
854:
848:
841:
834:
833:
832:
831:
822:
816:grade upsets
815:
808:
802:
796:grade upsets
795:
788:
787:
786:
785:
784:
775:
766:
764:
760:admires Susan
744:is the best.
743:
736:
729:
724:is the best.
723:
716:
709:
708:
707:
706:
697:
690:
683:
677:
670:
663:
662:
661:
660:
659:
650:
638:
631:
624:
623:
622:
621:
612:
605:
598:
597:
596:
595:
594:
582:
576:will mention
575:
568:
562:
555:
548:
547:
546:
545:
536:
529:
522:
516:
509:
502:
501:
500:
499:
498:
489:
477:
470:
463:
457:
450:
443:
442:
441:
440:
431:
424:
417:
411:
404:
397:
396:
395:
394:
393:
381:
374:
367:
361:
354:
347:
346:
345:
344:
335:
328:
321:
315:
308:
301:
300:
299:
298:
297:
295:
291:
287:
277:
275:
271:
260:
257:
253:
240:
233:
226:
220:
213:
206:
205:
204:
203:
194:
187:
180:
174:
167:
160:
159:
158:
157:
148:
141:
134:
128:
121:
114:
113:
112:
111:
102:
95:
88:
82:
75:
68:
67:
66:
65:
64:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2922:Type shifter
2892:Quantization
2842:Continuation
2709:Veridicality
2589:Exhaustivity
2554:Cumulativity
2473:Indexicality
2453:Definiteness
2448:Conditionals
2442:
2375:Logical form
2224:
2215:
2205:
2195:
2185:
2176:
2167:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2140:
2131:
2118:
2048:
2040:
2036:
2025:
2019:
2007:
2003:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1950:
1944:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1853:
1845:
1831:
1830:grade upset
1824:
1811:
1810:grade upset
1804:
1785:
1778:
1765:
1758:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1723:
1716:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1692:
1678:
1671:
1652:
1645:
1636:
1626:
1622:
1620:
1606:
1605:felt tired,
1599:
1580:
1579:felt tired,
1573:
1563:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1549:
1535:
1528:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1490:
1483:
1464:
1457:
1441:
1431:
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998:was hungry,
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978:was hungry,
972:
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769:Linear order
755:
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731:
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2837:Context set
2811:Type theory
2694:Subtrigging
2458:Disjunction
2385:Proposition
2263:Radford, A.
2082:Coreference
2020:Condition C
1945:Condition B
1920:, which is
1901:Condition A
1869:proper name
1865:common noun
1784:hopes that
1764:hopes that
1612:lay down.
1448:verb phrase
1044:twice when
1024:twice when
754:work, e.g.
195:was tired.
175:was tired.
37:antecedents
21:linguistics
3007:Categories
2987:Pragmatics
2634:Mirativity
2400:Speech act
2355:Entailment
2350:Denotation
2235:References
2210:tradition.
2067:Antecedent
1997:washed him
1885:themselves
1586:lay down.
1406:predicates
530:mentioned
473:each other
453:each other
357:each other
290:reciprocal
3018:Semantics
2786:Mereology
2722:Formalism
2604:Givenness
2529:Cataphora
2517:Phenomena
2508:Vagueness
2438:Ambiguity
2390:Reference
2370:Intension
2360:Extension
2073:C-command
1677:promoted
1651:promoted
1489:promoted
1463:promoted
1432:C-command
1401:c-command
446:the girls
370:The girls
350:The girls
252:reflexive
49:semantics
29:anaphoric
2940:See also
2825:Concepts
2699:Telicity
2534:Coercion
2488:Negation
2483:Modality
2433:Anaphora
2054:See also
1572:a. When
1212:argument
1145:the boys
1136:b. When
1118:the boys
1116:a. When
1077:d. When
1057:c. When
991:d. That
971:c. That
691:admires
671:admires
329:praises
309:praises
256:personal
33:pronouns
2443:Binding
2145:author.
2100:Raising
2094:Proform
1985:himself
1918:himself
1889:anaphor
1881:himself
1786:Barbara
1759:Barbara
1741:himself
1717:himself
1703:himself
1699:himself
1672:Himself
1653:himself
1598:b When
1552:himself
1534:upsets
1529:himself
1519:himself
1511:himself
1484:Himself
1465:himself
1418:subject
1348:Zelda's
1335:Zelda's
1208:adjunct
1189:tries,
1169:tries,
1091:twice.
1071:twice.
837:Larry's
673:herself
427:herself
407:herself
311:himself
124:herself
78:himself
41:anaphor
25:binding
2872:Monads
2419:Topics
2158:- and
1968:, and
1805:Bill's
1722:upset
1564:cannot
1422:object
1366:d. In
1346:c. In
1182:b. If
1162:a. If
883:Tina's
294:clause
274:proper
270:common
209:Fred's
45:syntax
2564:De se
2468:Focus
2426:Areas
2395:Scope
2160:Zelda
2111:Notes
1867:or a
1777:b. *
1745:Larry
1724:Larry
1707:Larry
1695:Larry
1679:Larry
1646:Larry
1627:Alice
1607:Alice
1574:Alice
1556:Larry
1536:Larry
1515:Larry
1507:Larry
1491:Larry
1458:Larry
1375:Zelda
1373:bed,
1353:bed,
1340:bed.
1308:Zelda
1191:Susan
1164:Susan
864:Larry
791:Jim's
693:Susan
686:Susan
666:Susan
653:Nouns
571:Wilma
451:like
420:Susan
375:like
355:like
188:said
168:said
137:Susan
117:Susan
2156:Mary
2154:The
2041:John
2004:John
1993:John
1962:John
1951:John
1926:John
1922:John
1907:John
1877:they
1832:Bill
1757:a.
1670:b. *
1482:b. *
1326:b. *
1320:bed.
1289:Rosa
1262:Rosa
1249:Rosa
1240:b. *
1222:Rosa
1138:they
1125:they
1086:Fred
1059:Fred
1046:Fred
1019:Fred
951:b. *
910:Tina
789:a.
739:Fred
732:Fred
730:b. #
712:Fred
684:b. #
627:Gina
601:Fred
551:Gina
505:Fred
466:They
400:Jill
377:them
368:b. *
324:Fred
322:b. *
304:Fred
288:and
272:and
254:and
236:Fred
181:b. *
115:a. *
91:Fred
89:b. *
71:Fred
47:and
2816:TTR
2008:him
1970:him
1966:him
1883:or
1875:or
1825:His
1823:b.
1812:him
1803:a.
1779:She
1766:she
1644:a.
1623:she
1600:she
1581:she
1456:a.
1368:her
1355:she
1328:She
1315:her
1306:a.
1282:her
1269:she
1242:She
1229:her
1220:a.
1184:she
1171:she
1066:him
1039:him
1000:Sam
973:Sam
960:Sam
933:Sam
931:a.
903:her
890:her
857:His
855:b.
844:him
835:a.
818:Jim
811:His
809:b.
798:him
710:a.
664:a.
634:her
625:b.
608:him
599:a.
578:her
558:her
549:a.
532:him
525:Jim
512:him
503:a.
464:b.
418:b.
348:a.
331:him
302:a.
276:).
229:His
227:b.
216:him
207:a.
190:Sue
183:She
170:she
163:Sue
161:a.
144:her
135:b.
98:him
69:a.
19:In
3009::
2037:He
2026:He
1989:He
1974:He
1873:he
1837:.
1817:.
1747:.
1729:.
1684:.
1658:.
1558:.
1541:.
1496:.
1470:.
1287:,
1267:,
1254:.
1234:.
1079:he
1026:he
993:he
980:he
953:He
940:he
915:.
895:.
869:.
849:.
823:.
803:.
719:he
698:.
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2323:e
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