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mechanisms might work. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food manufacturers, State government, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. The AC21 recommended that a study should be conducted to answer the question of whether and to what extent there are any economic losses to US organic farmers; recommended that if the losses are serious, that a crop insurance program for organic farmers be put in place, and that an education program should be undertaken to ensure that organic farmers are putting appropriate contracts in place for their crops and that neighboring GM crop farmers are taking appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system in which many different farming systems could co-exist.
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was not just a few seeds from a passing truck, but that Mr
Schmeiser was growing a crop of 95–98% pure Roundup Ready plants, a commercial level of purity far higher than one would expect from inadvertent or accidental presence. The judge could not account for how a few wayward seeds or pollen grains could come to dominate hundreds of acres without Mr Schmeiser's active participation, saying '. . .none of the suggested sources could reasonably explain the concentration or extent of Roundup Ready canola of a commercial quality evident from the results of tests on Schmeiser's crop'" – in other words, the original presence of Monsanto seed on his land in 1997 was indeed inadvertent, but the crop in 1998 was entirely purposeful.
99:
before reaching non-GM plants. Pollen barriers attempt actively catch pollen, and can consist of hedges and trees which physically hinder pollen movement. Pollen barriers consisting of conventional crops of the same species as the GM crop have a special advantage, as the conventional plants not only physically limit the GM pollen flow, but also produce competitive, conventional pollen. During harvest, the buffer strip of conventional crops is considered part of the GM crop yield.
475:, and was a strain that was field-tested from 1998 to 2005 and was in the American regulatory approval process before Monsanto withdrew it based on concern that importers would avoid the crop. The last field test in Oregon had occurred in 2001. Volunteer wheat from a field two miles away owned by the same farmer and planted with the same seed was tested and it was not found to be glyphosate-resistant. Monsanto was liable for fines of up to $ 1 million, if violations of the
1978:"Genetically Engineered Crops Benefit Many Farmers, but the Technology Needs proper Management to Remain Effective" – press release on the report "The Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the United States" Office of News and Public Information, News from the Academies, 13 April 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
120:. As the chloroplasts of plants are maternally inherited, the transgenes are not spread by pollen thus achieving biological containment. In other words, the cell nucleus contains no transgenes, and the pollen contains no chloroplasts and thus no transgenes. Two important research projects on co-existence are and
448:'s Roundup-Ready (RR) canola blew across a neighboring organic farm. The organic farm lost its organic certification and the organic farmer sued the GM farmer - so far without success. The certifier called it "contamination" and in the 2014 judgement the judge called it an "incursion" and rejected claims for
397:
stated that "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper". A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, other authors have stated that they also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural
299:
which held for
Monsanto by a 5‑4 vote in late May 2004. The case is widely cited or referenced by the anti-GM community in the context of a fear of a company claiming ownership of a farmer's crop based on the inadvertent presence of GM pollen grain or seed. "The court record shows, however, that it
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although he had not planted GM seed. He had initially discovered that some canola growing by a roadside along one of his fields was
Roundup resistant when he was killing weeds along the road; this led him to spray a 3- to 4‑acre section of his adjacent field and 60% of the canola survived. Schmeiser
233:
Since GM-free products yield higher prices in many countries, some governments have introduced limits for the mixing of both production systems, with compensation for non-GM farmers for economic losses in cases where mixing inadvertently occurred. One tool for compensation is a liability fund, to
224:
convened an
Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study the issue and make recommendations as to whether to address these concerns and if so, how. economic losses to farmers caused by unintended presence of genetically engineered materials, as well as how such
98:
for GM crops. In addition to the thorough cleaning of machinery, recommended measures include the establishment of "isolation distances" and "pollen barriers". Isolation distances are the minimum distances required between GM and non-GM cultivations for most of the GM pollen to fall to the ground
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sued
Schmeiser for patent infringement for the 1998 planting. Schmeiser claimed that because the 1997 plants grew from seed that was blown into his field from neighboring fields, that he owned the harvest and was entitled to do with it whatever he wished, including saving the seeds from the 1997
216:
was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified (GM) organisms. It is focussed on movement of GMOs between countries and has been called a de facto trade agreement. One
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were found. According to
Monsanto it was "mystified" by its appearance, having destroyed all the material it held after completing trials in 2004 and because they did not think that seed left in the ground or pollen transfer could account for it. Later in the month, Monsanto suggested that the
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genes. According to the researchers, the lack of reports in the US suggests inadequate oversight and monitoring protocols are in place in the US. The development of weeds resistant to glyphosate, the most commonly applied herbicide, could mean that farmers must return to more labour-intensive
53:
Many consumers are critical of genetically modified plants and their products, while, conversely, most experts in charge of GMO approvals do not perceive concrete threats to health or the environment. The compromise chosen by some countries - notably the
European Union - has been to implement
139:
While SIGMEA was focused on co-existence at the farm level, Co-Extra studies co-existence along the whole production chain, and has a second focus on the traceability of GMOs, since co-existence cannot work without traceability. To be able to monitor and enforce compliance with co-existence
505:] wheat in commerce." As of August 30, while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders, and the export market resumed. The Oregon wheat commissioner, Blake Rowe, said that "the overall economic impact has been minimal".
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announced: "As of today, USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm. All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of
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Mixing can occur already at the agricultural stage. Fundamentally, two reasons exist for the presence of GMOs in the harvest of a non-GM cultivation: first, that the seed has been contaminated already or, secondly, that the plants in the non-GM field have received
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halted wheat orders from the United States, leaving wheat growers in neighboring communities unable to decide what to plant next season. The crop growing when the genetically modified wheat was discovered had already been sold or insured. On June 14, 2013, the
107:
In addition to agricultural measures, there may be also biological tools to prevent the genetically modified crop from fertilising conventional fields. Researchers are investigating methods either to prevent GM crops from producing pollen at all (for example
58:. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries in the world, but the traceability of GMOs is made more challenging by the addition of very strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Within the
331:, which had been approved only as animal feed due to concerns about possible allergic reactions in humans, was found contaminating corn products in U.S. supermarkets and restaurants. This corn became the subject of a widely publicized
201:(OECD) released a report into the potential hazards of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment as the first transgenic plants were being developed. As the technology improved and genetically organisms moved from
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reported that the variety of wheat was rarely imported into Europe and doubted that the discovery of the wheat would affect Europe, but more likely destined for Asia. As a result of the discovery of the unapproved strain,
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from the
Pacific Northwest of the United States, even though transgenic wheat had never been approved for sale and was only ever grown in test plots. No one could explain how the transgenic wheat got into the food supply.
62:, since 2001, conventional and organic food and feedstuffs can contain up to 0.9% of authorised GM material without being labelled GM (any trace of non-authorised GM products would cause shipments to be rejected).
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In the United States there is no legislation governing the co-existence of neighboring farms growing organic and GM crops; instead the US relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies
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stated that the advent of glyphosate-herbicide resistant weeds could cause the genetically engineered crops to lose their effectiveness unless farmers also use other established weed management strategies. In
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law. In other regions, such as Europe, regulations require that the separation and the identity of the respective food and feed products must be maintained at all stages of the production process.
1199:
Marta
Czarnak-Kłos, Emilio Rodríguez-Cerezo, 2010. European Coexistence Bureau (ECoB) Best Practice Documents for coexistence of genetically modified crops with conventional and organic farming.
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recommended a set of guidelines regarding the cautious use of recombinant technology and any products resulting from that technology. The
Asilomar recommendations were voluntary, but in 1976 the
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presence of the wheat was likely an act of "sabotage". The discovery could have threatened U.S. wheat exports, which totaled $ 8.1 billion in 2012; the US is the world's largest wheat exporter.
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modification, which had not been approved for release. An investigation by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) was unable to determine the cause of the contamination.
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King D, Gordon A. Contaminant found in Taco Bell taco shells. Food safety coalition demands recall (press release), vol 2001. Washington, DC: Friends of the Earth, 2000. Available:
209:(OSTP) to develop mechanisms to regulate the developing technology. In 1986 the OSTP assigned regulatory approval of genetically modified plants in the US to the USDA, FDA and EPA.
1551:
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Piñeyro-Nelson A, Van Heerwaarden J, Perales HR, Serratos-Hernández JA, Rangel A, Hufford MB, Gepts P, Garay-Arroyo A, Rivera-Bustamante R, Alvarez-Buylla ER (February 2009).
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Kaplinsky N, Braun D, Lisch D, Hay A, Hake S, Freeling M (April 2002). "Biodiversity (Communications arising): maize transgene results in Mexico are artefacts".
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that was not yet approved for release, but which had been declared safe for consumption in the USA, was discovered in a farm in Oregon, growing as a weed or "
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1004:
Redick, T.P. (2007). "The Cartagena Protocol on biosafety: Precautionary priority in biotech crop approvals and containment of commodities shipments, 2007".
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in parallel. In some countries, such as the United States, co-existence is not governed by any single law but instead is managed by regulatory agencies and
1161:
782:
1614:
1397:
Agricultural Biotechnology: Updated Benefit Estimates, Janet E. Carpenter and Leonard P. Gianessi 2001, National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy
1328:
335:, when Taco Bell taco shells were found to contain the corn, eventually resulting in the recall of over 300 products. It was the first-ever recall of a
1992:
112:), or to develop GM crops with pollen that nonetheless does not contain the additional, genetically engineered material. In an example of the latter,
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in the 1970s, concerns have been raised about the dangers of the technology. Laws, regulations, and treaties were created in the years following to
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374:) as well as in native grasses up to 21 km (13 mi) away from the test sites, released when freshly cut grass was blown by the wind.
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1025:"Implications of Import Regulations and Information Requirements under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety for GM Commodities in Kenya"
79:
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In the face of continuing concerns about the economic losses that might be suffered by organic farmers by unintended intermixing, the
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two years previously and the scientific community recognized that as well as benefits this technology could also pose some risks. The
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for maize, concerns have been raised about the effect that genetically modified maize could have on local strains. A 2001 report in
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to weeds, in a few plants from a single season; they found no evidence that any of the hybrids had survived in subsequent seasons.
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1485:"Evidence for landscape-level, pollen-mediated gene flow from genetically modified creeping bentgrass with CP4 EPSPS as a marker"
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831:"US regulatory system for genetically modified [genetically modified organism (GMO), rDNA or transgenic] crop cultivars"
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hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.
1793:"Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations"
626:
Berg P, Baltimore D, Boyer HW, Cohen SN, Davis RW, Hogness DS, Nathans D, Roblin R, Watson JD, Weissman S, Zinder ND (1974).
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In 2006, American exports of rice to Europe were interrupted when the U.S. crop was contaminated with rice containing the
2314:
Research projects: Biological confinement of new genes - methods for containing the spread of genetically modified plants
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942:
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Quist D, Chapela IH (November 2001). "Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico".
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In the context of agriculture and food and feed production, co-existence means using cropping systems with and without
1483:
Watrud LS, Lee EH, Fairbrother A, Burdick C, Reichman JR, Bollman M, Storm M, King G, Van de Water PK (October 2004).
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124:. With the end of the de facto moratorium on genetically modified plants in Europe, several research programmes (e.g.
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Suing Monsanto: Intellectual Property, Genetic Contamination, and Farmers' Rights – Notice of 2011 talk being given
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In 2007, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined Scotts Miracle-Gro $ 500,000 when modified genetic material from
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590:. In Lichtfouse, Eric; Navarrete, Mireille; Debaeke, Philippe; Véronique, Souchere; Alberola, Caroline (eds.).
26:
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which all GM farmers, and sometimes GM seed producers, contribute. After a notable GMO contamination event in
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1988:
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1968:
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Devos, Yann; Demont, Matty; Dillen, Koen; Reheul, Dirk; Kaiser, Matthias; Sanvido, Olivier (2009-11-11).
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Best Practice documents for coexistence of Genetically Modified Crops with Conventional and Organic Crops
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159:
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Transcontainer – EU research programme on biological containment systems for genetically modified plants
2216:
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368:, a new golf-course grass Scotts had been testing, was found within close relatives of the same genus (
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To limit mixing in the first stages of production, researchers and politicians are developing codes of
43:
2018:
707:
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Nevertheless, there are several examples of failure to keep GM crops separate from conventional ones.
339:. The registration for the Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000.
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from neighbouring GM fields. Mixing may also occur post-harvest, anywhere in the production chain.
246:, a Parliamentary Inquiry considered six proactive proposals for compensating farms contaminated by
347:
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Co-Extra – EU research programme on co-existence and traceability along the whole production chain
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USDA Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21). November 19, 2012
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harvested the seed from the surviving, Roundup resistant plants, and planted the seed in 1998.
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Genetically Altered Wheat Flagged – Thailand Detects Shipment Not Cleared for Commercial Sales
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1734:"Absence of detectable transgenes in local landraces of maize in Oaxaca, Mexico (2003-2004)"
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showed that about 83 percent of wild or weedy canola tested contained genetically modified
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182:(NIH) formed a rDNA advisory committee. This was followed by other regulatory offices (the
167:
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The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at
1897:
393:, although the data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact and
8:
1162:
Contamination of Farms by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Options for Compensation
1131:
Bernhard A. Koch (ed.) April 2007, produced under contract from the European Commission.
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20:
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Michael Baram. "Governance of GM Crop and Food Safety in the United States" pp 15-56 in
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588:"Coexistence of Genetically Modified and Non-GM Crops in the European Union: A Review"
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can be generated in which the genetic modification has been integrated in the DNA of
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1059:"AC21 Wants USDA to Investigate Crop Insurance for Genetic Harm To Organic Crops"
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272:
163:
1237:
CT NOFA is the Connecticut Chapter of the Northeast Organic Farming Association
871:
250:, however the Inquiry did not recommend a particular mechanism of compensation.
708:
Berg, P., Baltimore, D., Brenner, S., Roblin, R. O., and Singer, M. F. (1975).
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59:
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In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for approval of
2322:
2211:
1327:
Hannelore Sudermann for the Spokesman Review (Spokane, WA). October 14, 1999
1306:
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1091:) Enhancing Coexistence: A Report of the AC21 to the Secretary of Agriculture
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1347:
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710:"Summary Statement of the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA Molecules"
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573:, eds. Michael Baram, Mathilde Bourrier. Cambridge University Press 2011.
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to potential commercial products the USA established a committee at the
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136:) have begun investigating biological containment strategies for GMOs.
1702:
1849:"First Wild Canola Plants With Modified Genes Found in United States"
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Mike Shanahan for Science and Development Network, 10 November 2004.
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Katie Mantell for Science and Development Network, 30 November 2001
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Genetically Modified (GM) Canola: Price Penalties and Contaminations
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the soil (so increasing then risk of erosion). A 2010 report by the
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1119:, Biomed Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 17(2):1-4.
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370:
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879:. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
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growing on his farm was genetically modified to be resistant to
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system, governed by state law, to manage risks of co-existence.
2309:
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390:
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Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy
783:"Research on recombinant DNA molecules: the regulatory issues"
2292:
SIGMEA – EU research programme on co-existence in agriculture
2069:"Monsanto Modified Wheat Not Approved by USDA Found in Field"
486:
166:(rDNA) technology had just been successfully accomplished by
2239:"GMO Wheat Found in Oregon Was Isolated Incident, Says USDA"
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Mexico: controlled cultivation of genetically modified maize
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628:"Letter: Potential biohazards of recombinant DNA molecules"
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2207:"Japan's wheat-import suspension worries state growers"
1369:"Taco Bell Recalls Shells That Used Bioengineered Corn"
920:"Coordinated framework for regulation of biotechnology"
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In 1999 scientists in Thailand claimed they discovered
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1680:
1180:
Jim Riddle, University of Minnesota Outreach Service.
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410:A study published in 2010 by scientists at the
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1453:"APHIS Report of LibertyLink Rice Incidents"
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903:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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766:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1940:"Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds"
1544:"10 reasons why organic can feed the world"
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311:that was not yet approved for release in a
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2090:Andrew Pollack (May 29, 2013).
1995:from the original on 2013-10-04
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886:from the original on 2015-09-24
805:from the original on 2019-11-08
690:from the original on 2011-08-12
608:from the original on 2021-12-04
346:reported the first evidence of
292:Monsanto Canada Inc v Schmeiser
214:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
188:Environmental Protection Agency
180:US National Institute of Health
162:, California. The first use of
2334:Genetically modified organisms
863:
774:
701:
619:
556:
537:
342:In 2005, scientists at the UK
27:genetically modified organisms
1:
2041:Andy Coghlan (June 3, 2013).
1896:Black, Richard. (2010-08-06)
1219:Canadian Supreme Court ruling
546:The Guardian 7 December 2007
508:
444:, some of a 2010 planting of
416:North Dakota State University
222:U.S. Secretary of Agriculture
2067:Alan Bjerga (May 29, 2013).
1489:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
655:10.1126/science.185.4148.303
437:National Academy of Sciences
381:, but because Mexico is the
192:Food and Drug Administration
7:
2118:Ian Berry (June 21, 2013).
835:Plant Biotechnology Journal
420:California State University
37:
10:
2370:
714:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
465:genetically modified wheat
379:genetically modified maize
309:genetically modified wheat
151:
96:good agricultural practice
44:genetically modified crops
2158:. Reuters. May 29, 2013.
1732:Ortiz-Garcia, S. (2005).
1572:GMO Compass. 5 June 2009
1434:Attack of the mutant rice
1299:10.1016/j.nbt.2010.03.006
550:December 8, 2007, at the
337:genetically modified food
2354:Biological contamination
1918:GM crops are on the move
1201:1. Maize crop production
405:
348:horizontal gene transfer
319:
266:
142:detect and identify GMOs
2237:Staff (June 17, 2013).
2125:The Wall Street Journal
2100:(subscription required)
1991:. Npr.org. 2010-04-13.
1920:Chemistry and Industry
1759:10.1073/pnas.0503356102
1510:10.1073/pnas.0405154101
592:Sustainable Agriculture
735:10.1073/pnas.72.6.1981
412:University of Arkansas
2219:on September 22, 2013
148:Regulation and policy
114:transplastomic plants
103:Biological approaches
82:) and the common law
1928:accessed 7 July 2012
1160:Paull, John (2019)
1108:Paull, John (2019)
980:"About the Protocol"
477:Plant Protection Act
428:herbicide resistance
352:pesticide resistance
90:Containment measures
19:Since the advent of
2339:Genetic engineering
2017:Paull, John (2015)
1922:Ten Alps Publishing
1809:2009MolEc..18..750P
1750:2005PNAS..10212338O
1695:2002Natur.416..601K
1644:2001Natur.414..541Q
1501:2004PNAS..10114533W
1140:Paull, John (2015)
787:South Calif Law Rev
781:Hutt, P.B. (1978).
726:1975PNAS...72.1981B
647:1974Sci...185..303B
383:center of diversity
110:male-sterile plants
21:genetic engineering
2302:2011-09-26 at the
2270:2013-09-14 at the
2244:2020-10-19 at the
2187:2013-09-22 at the
2105:2017-03-11 at the
2096:The New York Times
2074:2016-11-09 at the
2024:2015-05-29 at the
1974:2013-10-01 at the
1944:The New York Times
1903:2017-10-16 at the
1883:2018-04-02 at the
1617:2013-06-14 at the
1598:2012-03-14 at the
1579:2013-10-05 at the
1439:2020-11-09 at the
1412:2013-10-05 at the
1357:. 3 November 2001.
1353:2000-12-09 at the
1334:2013-10-02 at the
1263:2013-02-03 at the
1244:2013-06-03 at the
1224:2012-09-05 at the
1206:2013-05-21 at the
1187:2012-07-10 at the
1167:2019-09-21 at the
1147:2021-08-17 at the
1115:2019-05-27 at the
1096:2013-10-17 at the
964:has generic name (
829:, Smyth S (2008).
569:2013-12-08 at the
530:2013-05-21 at the
366:creeping bentgrass
30:and prevent their
2078:. Bloomberg News.
2045:. New Scientist.
1926:HighBeam Research
1853:Arkansas Newswire
1703:10.1038/nature739
1373:Los Angeles Times
1282:New Biotechnology
933:(123): 23302–50.
240:certified organic
236:Western Australia
2361:
2275:
2261:
2255:
2251:Food Safety News
2235:
2229:
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2215:. Archived from
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1404:
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400:transgenic maize
275:discovered that
176:Asilomar meeting
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469:volunteer plant
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273:Percy Schmeiser
269:
256:
254:Notable escapes
231:
203:model organisms
164:Recombinant DNA
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927:Fed. Regist
841:(1): 2–12.
491:South Korea
463:-resistant
359:LibertyLink
307:-resistant
2323:Categories
2053:August 28,
1999:2013-05-30
1863:10 October
1469:2013-05-30
1075:October 2,
1043:2016-01-05
1029:AgBioForum
990:2016-01-05
890:2013-10-05
827:McHughen A
809:2021-12-04
694:2013-10-05
612:2019-01-10
509:References
461:glyphosate
454:negligence
398:maize and
305:glyphosate
190:(EPA) and
1797:Mol. Ecol
1719:195690886
1558:1 October
1548:Ecologist
1383:1 October
1307:1871-6784
1012:: 51–116.
899:cite book
459:In 2013,
442:Australia
324:In 2000,
271:In 1997,
2300:Archived
2268:Archived
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2185:Archived
2160:Archived
2136:June 23,
2130:Archived
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2072:Archived
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2022:Archived
1993:Archived
1972:Archived
1948:Archived
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1377:Archived
1351:Archived
1332:Archived
1315:20359558
1291:Elsevier
1261:Archived
1242:Archived
1222:Archived
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1165:Archived
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857:17956539
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681:32512330
606:Archived
567:Archived
548:Archived
528:Archived
473:Monsanto
450:nuisance
446:Monsanto
422:and the
371:Agrostis
286:Monsanto
238:where a
186:(USDA),
160:Asilomar
130:Co-Extra
122:Co-Extra
38:Overview
25:contain
2223:June 5,
2166:May 30,
1826:3001031
1805:Bibcode
1769:1184035
1746:Bibcode
1691:Bibcode
1668:4403182
1640:Bibcode
1497:Bibcode
722:Bibcode
673:4600381
643:Bibcode
635:Science
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