Biomedical engineering

140: 1154:". The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification. In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries. The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps. The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device. The 1380:– the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure. 1355:(PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine. 908:-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering. Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also, see 1337:

large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.

543: 897:, selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly. 1163: 1722: 3308: 623: 460: 5481: 4662: 3807: 4532: 157: 970: 5511: 4692: 293: 5521: 1407: 1007: 43: 810: 720: 5501: 4682: 928: 284:

include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in agricultural species), or differences between populations. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.

5491: 4672: 3819: 3232: 829: 265: 1710: 1259:) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as 1178:", accredited by the European Member States. The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a 195:. Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards. This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a 1321:

the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master's degree or apply to medical school afterwards.

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development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever

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While some rehabilitation engineers have master's degrees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty of Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers have an undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engineering. A Portuguese

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Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different functions and processes of the

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Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a

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A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards (death, injuries, ...) in its intended use. Protective measures have to be introduced on the devices to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the

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An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite

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Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as

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is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications,

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In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention. Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower

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Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common

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The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports – or explain why they are lacking. For the first time, not only manufacturers

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Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The original EU legislation "Restrictions of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in

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is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them. Since most BME-related professions

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The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American agencies will only require these

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The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical

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contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification. FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure. The Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles. The same

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placement systems. For example, ENvizion Medical's ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient's body contour, and a real-time view of the

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Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis "pipelines" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics. Common uses of bioinformatics

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Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university's Medical School or other engineering

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As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible

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The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory

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Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by devices to patients. For example, from 2008 to 2011, in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices classified as class I. According to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

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for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician. One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio. Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and

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Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment. It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy,

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for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable

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university provides an undergraduate degree and a master's degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility. Qualification to become a Rehab' Engineer in the UK is possible via a University BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design & Technology Institute, Coventry University.

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have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.

1373:. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division. The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM. 1513:

in 2006 from President George Bush for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing

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In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022. Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions.

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The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device. This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle.

501:(also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. 279:

is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data.

363:. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. 872:

extremity trauma. The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.) under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals.

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is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices. The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g. Hospital). The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards.

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being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, of complex diseases.

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A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use. Effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device.

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factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.

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Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.

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is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). BME is also traditionally logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including

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One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid

490:), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research. 802:

depending on what is the most functional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g. artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or

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Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement

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molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (

696:. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means. 1149:

In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the "Conformity Assessment" which is defined as "the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European

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The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote the inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation.

1142:. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the 1254:

Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor's (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) or Master's (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a doctoral (Ph.D., or

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in the heart. Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms. More recently,

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Jacobson, Lewis E.; Olayan, May; Williams, Jamie M.; Schultz, Jacqueline F.; Wise, Hannah M.; Singh, Amandeep; Saxe, Jonathan M.; Benjamin, Richard; Emery, Marie; Vilem, Hilary; Kirby, Donald F. (1 November 2019).

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but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.

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The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning.

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seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled.

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Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and

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products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under

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of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.

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standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard.

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Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an

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is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging.

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Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide. For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be: 1) safe

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is associated to "a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death"

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P. Hunter Peckham – Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)

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divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or

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J. Thomas Mortimer – Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)

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as a four-year B.Eng. program. The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedical engineering as is Flinders University.

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rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the

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is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of

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Curtis, Adam SG; Dalby, Matthew; Gadegaard, Nikolaj (2006). "Cell signaling arising from nanotopography: implications for nanomedical devices".

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hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community.

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specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of

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Shah, Syaiful; Velander, Jacob; Mathur, Parul; Perez, Mauricio; Asan, Noor; Kurup, Dhanesh; Blokhuis, Taco; Augustine, Robin (2018-02-21).

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Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.

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Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including:

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eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools.

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Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole

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As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered

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and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising

3011: 2642: 2591: 2027:. Tracheobronchial bio-engineering: biotechnology fulfilling unmet medical needs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2011; 63(4–5): 367–74. 402:(PDT). OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the 210:, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of 5250: 4362: 4000: 2003: 1275:. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology. 1661: 1493: 1370: 1286:

as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET.

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schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of

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feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the

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In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in biomedical engineering are common. For example,

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due to its focus on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing better medicinal treatment.

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standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide.

207: 2356: 5181: 5155: 4548: 4507: 4430: 4390: 4184: 4173: 3544: 3322: 2981: 1417: 1366: 1017: 386: 372: 53: 2222:"Feasibility and safety of a novel electromagnetic device for small-bore feeding tube placement" 4773: 4721: 4425: 4405: 4400: 4385: 4320: 4179: 4125: 4090: 4035: 4025: 4017: 3990: 3955: 3943: 3933: 3882: 3877: 3811: 3701: 3529: 3423: 3403: 3250: 3085:"P. Hunter Peckham, PhD | Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University" 2960: 1743: – interdisciplinary science that stands at the junction of cardiology and medical physics 1565:– Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering. 981: 841: 837: 728: 713: 631: 234: 31: 5424: 5310: 5283: 5256: 5208: 5162: 4857: 4540: 4477: 4447: 4420: 4274: 4264: 4226: 4216: 4130: 4098: 4030: 3965: 2085: 1749: 1480: 1352: 1346: 378:

spectroscopy, and therapy. Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include

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joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.

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is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems. As a science,

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offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering. The first Canadian

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Medical & Radiation Emitting Device Recalls

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is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of

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which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a "

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Application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology

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Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of

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ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as

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Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also

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Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with

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In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering,

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scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of

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Scientific and Technical Terms in Bioengineering and Biological Engineering

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an example of widely used clinical medical equipment (operates by applying

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implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards

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Celebrating 35 years of Biomedical Engineering: An Historical Perspective

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Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University

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Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014–15 Edition: Biomedical Engineers

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authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical

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Trial begins for first artificial liver device using human cells

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http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfres/res.cfm

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Hatze, Herbert (1974). "The meaning of the term biomechanics".

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is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called

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List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization

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in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.

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In the European Union, there are certifying entities named "

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associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items.

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Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering – Purdue University

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AS/NZS 3551:2012 Management programs for medical equipment

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Fagette Jr., Paul H.; Horner, Patricia I., eds. (2004).

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Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

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discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or

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2) effective and 3) for all the manufactured devices

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tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical

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For the journal known as Biomedical Engineering, see

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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(2018-01-03). 2550:"Disciplines. Countries. USA" 1875:Alexander R. McNeill (2005). 1774: 1686:(deceased) – provider of the 1593:University of Texas at Austin 1516:cardiopulmonary resuscitation 703:tracking technology, such as 5357:Bachelor of Medical Sciences 5124:Neurosurgical anesthesiology 4736: 3888:List of engineering branches 1940:10.1016/0021-9290(74)90060-8 1670:electrophysiological signals 1664:, a pioneer in the field of 1660:– professor emeritus at the 1511:National Medal of Technology 1249: 1211: 757:positron emission tomography 707:placement into the brain or 524:Hospital and medical devices 381:optical coherence tomography 249:Subfields and related fields 7: 3622:Environmental biotechnology 2928:Kassab, Ghassan S. (2004). 2728:"Job Outlook for Engineers" 1694: 1297:BME program was offered at 1271:" major in preparation for 1117:(why is this part deleted?) 453:artificial urinary bladders 10: 5562: 3060:CSE Faculty/Staff Profiles 2536:February 19, 2006, at the 1666:instrumentation amplifiers 1642:– University Professor at 1344: 1245:Training and certification 1193: 955:Rehabilitation engineering 923:Rehabilitation engineering 920: 917:Rehabilitation engineering 879: 858:Bionics § In medicine 855: 851: 794: 749:magnetic resonance imaging 685: 644:is a practical example of 615:, somato prosthetics, and 527: 510:Pharmaceutical engineering 505:Pharmaceutical engineering 474: 428: 370: 344: 310: 257: 29: 5475: 5397: 5335: 5096: 5024: 4979: 4888: 4759: 4744: 4656: 4603: 4587: 4539: 4528: 4303: 4245: 4164: 4089: 4016: 3909: 3896: 3873: 3801: 3775: 3682: 3562: 3492: 3441: 3432: 3391: 3336: 3315: 3304: 3293:Timeline of biotechnology 3280: 3143:"The Whitaker Foundation" 2238:10.1136/tsaco-2019-000330 2146:10.1007/s11095-006-0284-8 1896:10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.016 628:instrumentation amplifier 484:not a medical application 5311:Transplantation medicine 5202:Clinical neurophysiology 5119:Obstetric anesthesiology 5039:Interventional radiology 4799:Digestive system surgery 3649:Microbial biodegradation 3328:Industrial biotechnology 3288:History of biotechnology 3062:. engineering.case.edu. 2949:10.3970/mcb.2004.001.005 2532:– Profile for Engineers 1832:Cell Surface Engineering 1640:Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic 1617:– professor emeritus at 1574:– professor emeritus at 1524:(deceased) – pioneer of 1152:Medical Device Directive 1040:"Biomedical engineering" 900:Their inherent focus on 555:extremely broad category 208:research and development 167:are not working normally 76:"Biomedical engineering" 5182:Intensive care medicine 5156:Mass gathering medicine 5001:Maternal–fetal medicine 4549:Bachelor of Engineering 4391:Engineering mathematics 3323:Colors of biotechnology 2980:. YouTube. 2007-07-31. 2619:. www.eng.mcmaster.ca. 2190:10.2217/17435889.1.1.67 2133:Pharmaceutical Research 1928:Journal of Biomechanics 1587:– Chaired Professor in 1341:Licensure/certification 842:biocompatible materials 667:postmarket surveillance 387:fluorescence microscopy 373:Medical optical imaging 333:, using the methods of 5546:Biomedical engineering 4774:Cardiothoracic surgery 4648:Structural engineering 4643:Mechanical engineering 4386:Engineering management 3717:Biomedical engineering 3424:Pharmaceutical company 3404:Biotechnology products 3237:Biomedical engineering 2672:Polytechnique Montréal 1481:mechanical ventilators 1186:differences about the 1171: 993: 982:electronic engineering 951: 848: 838:mechanical engineering 825: 740: 729:electrical engineering 638: 632:electronic engineering 571:Some examples include 550: 467: 308: 273: 172:Biomedical engineering 168: 153: 32:Meditsinskaya Tekhnika 18:Biomedical Engineering 5425:Personalized medicine 5284:Reproductive medicine 5209:Occupational medicine 5163:Evolutionary medicine 4628:Aerospace engineering 4541:Engineering education 2738:on December 19, 2011. 2477:Dartmouth Engineering 2086:University of Chicago 1841:10.1039/9781782628477 1750:Computational anatomy 1668:for the recording of 1353:Professional Engineer 1347:Professional engineer 1165: 1140:21 CFR 829 regulation 972: 930: 856:Further information: 831: 812: 722: 625: 545: 462: 295: 267: 159: 142: 5445:Traditional medicine 5405:Alternative medicine 5272:Addiction psychiatry 5086:Transfusion medicine 5081:Medical microbiology 4996:Gynecologic oncology 4848:Reproductive surgery 4569:Graduate certificate 3742:Chemical engineering 3605:Reproductive cloning 3469:Hybridoma technology 3419:Human Genome Project 3239:at Wikimedia Commons 3209:(First ed.). . 3177:(Third ed.). . 3056:"J. Thomas Mortimer" 2966:on December 2, 2007. 2139:(7): 1417–1450(34). 2002:. October 10, 2009. 1461:Julia Tutelman Apter 1425:improve this article 1299:University of Guelph 1025:improve this article 887:Clinical engineering 882:Clinical engineering 876:Clinical engineering 514:Chemical Engineering 399:photodynamic therapy 61:improve this article 5467:History of medicine 5450:Veterinary medicine 5257:Preventive medicine 5109:Adolescent medicine 4951:Infectious diseases 4554:Bachelor of Science 4396:Engineering physics 4380:Engineering drawing 3902:Interdisciplinarity 3627:Genetic engineering 3610:Therapeutic cloning 3590:Bionic architecture 3570:Animal cell culture 3337:Biological concepts 2702:Flinders University 2674:. 15 January 2018. 2307:2018Senso..18..636S 2088:, February 25, 1999 1688:Whitaker Foundation 1644:Columbia University 1536:Institute Professor 1369:status through the 1327:another engineering 1291:McMaster University 822:myoelectric control 804:drug-eluting stents 785:electron microscopy 477:Genetic engineering 471:Genetic engineering 393:confocal microscopy 180:medical engineering 144:Telemedicine system 5415:Molecular oncology 5372:Doctor of Medicine 5362:Master of Medicine 5279:Radiation oncology 5151:Emergency medicine 5104:Addiction medicine 5071:Clinical chemistry 5066:Clinical pathology 4858:Transplant surgery 4816:Orthopedic surgery 4794:Colorectal surgery 4156:Telecommunications 4061:Naval architecture 3683:Interdisciplinary 3637:Molecular genetics 3383:Selective breeding 3118:Faculty – Duke BME 2858:The New York Times 2840:2021-04-17 at the 2362:2013-09-30 at the 2080:2011-01-05 at the 1648:tissue engineering 1585:Nicholas A. Peppas 1548:tissue engineering 1522:Willem Johan Kolff 1490:professor emeritus 1367:Chartered Engineer 1309:Graduate education 1261:its own discipline 1172: 1166:Implants, such as 994: 952: 934:representation of 910:safety engineering 867:Biomedical sensors 849: 826: 797:Implant (medicine) 781:optical microscopy 741: 733:diagnostic imaging 639: 613:facial prosthetics 609:ocular prosthetics 581:heart-lung machine 551: 538:Medical technology 499:Neural engineering 494:Neural engineering 468: 431:Tissue engineering 425:Tissue engineering 408:in the eye or the 309: 274: 243:biopharmaceuticals 169: 154: 5533: 5532: 5367:Master of Surgery 5331: 5330: 5316:Tropical medicine 5262:Prison healthcare 5177:Hospital medicine 5141:Disaster medicine 5131:Aviation medicine 4946:Hospital medicine 4853:Surgical oncology 4838:Pediatric surgery 4832: 4779:Endocrine surgery 4704: 4703: 4633:Civil engineering 4579:Licensed engineer 4574:Engineer's degree 4526: 4525: 4358:Building services 4341:Health technology 4202:Chemical reaction 4151:Signal processing 3833: 3832: 3762:Nanobiotechnology 3757:Molecular biology 3558: 3557: 3409:Biotechnology law 3235:Media related to 3216:978-1-61539-663-4 3184:978-0-8493-2124-5 3091:. 25 April 2018. 2793:on 5 January 2008 2587:978-1-351-36035-7 2418:978-1-74342-277-9 2316:10.3390/s18020636 2103:cancerjournal.net 2049:. 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Webster 1619:Duke University 1572:Robert M. Nerem 1453: 1442: 1436: 1433: 1422: 1410: 1399: 1397:Notable figures 1390: 1349: 1343: 1252: 1247: 1231: 1214: 1196: 1176:Notified Bodies 1097: 1086: 1080: 1077: 1034: 1032: 1022: 1010: 999: 948:medical science 936:urinary bladder 925: 919: 884: 878: 869: 860: 854: 799: 793: 701:electromagnetic 694:medical devices 690: 688:Medical imaging 684: 682:Medical imaging 617:dental implants 540: 528:Main articles: 526: 507: 496: 479: 473: 433: 427: 418:adaptive optics 375: 369: 349: 343: 331:cell organelles 315: 290: 262: 256: 251: 219:medical devices 133: 122: 116: 113: 70: 68: 58: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5559: 5549: 5548: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5527: 5517: 5507: 5497: 5487: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5469: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5401: 5399: 5398:Related topics 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5347:Medical school 5343: 5341: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5301:Sleep medicine 5298: 5297: 5296: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5248: 5243: 5242: 5241: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5205: 5204: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5165: 5160: 5159: 5158: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5114:Anesthesiology 5111: 5106: 5100: 5098: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5044:Neuroradiology 5041: 5030: 5028: 5022: 5021: 5019: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4987: 4985: 4981:Obstetrics and 4977: 4976: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4932: 4931: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4896: 4894: 4886: 4885: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4876: 4875: 4865: 4863:Trauma surgery 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4834: 4833: 4826:Otolaryngology 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4754: 4752:subspecialties 4742: 4741: 4734: 4733: 4726: 4719: 4711: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4688: 4678: 4668: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4609: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4591: 4589: 4588:Related topics 4585: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4545: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4508:Sustainability 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4377: 4372: 4370:Geoengineering 4367: 4366: 4365: 4355: 4354: 4353: 4351:Rehabilitation 4348: 4346:Pharmaceutical 4343: 4338: 4333: 4331:Bioinformatics 4323: 4318: 4313: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4292: 4290:Semiconductors 4287: 4282: 4280:Nanotechnology 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4251: 4249: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4177: 4170: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4101: 4095: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4022: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4008: 4003: 3996:Transportation 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3915: 3913: 3904: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3870: 3863: 3862: 3855: 3848: 3840: 3831: 3830: 3828: 3827: 3815: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3702:Bioengineering 3699: 3697:Bioelectronics 3694: 3688: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3674:Tissue culture 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3640: 3639: 3634: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3580:Bioinformatics 3577: 3575:Biofabrication 3572: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3559: 3556: 3555: 3553: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3515:Chromatography 3512: 3507: 3502: 3500:Centrifugation 3496: 3494: 3493:Chemical field 3490: 3489: 3487: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3464:Flow cytometry 3461: 3456: 3451: 3445: 3443: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3427: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3351: 3346: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3330: 3325: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3277: 3270: 3269: 3262: 3255: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3226: 3225:External links 3223: 3222: 3221: 3215: 3200: 3183: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3134: 3105: 3076: 3047: 3025: 2994: 2969: 2920: 2882: 2860:. 1979-04-18. 2845: 2826: 2804: 2778: 2759: 2741: 2719: 2689: 2659: 2634: 2604: 2586: 2566: 2541: 2522: 2493: 2464: 2435: 2417: 2398: 2367: 2348: 2281: 2232:(1): e000330. 2211: 2168: 2119: 2090: 2064: 2029: 2017: 1984: 1953: 1918: 1867: 1849: 1821: 1803: 1779: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1771: 1765: 1759: 1753: 1747: 1738: 1730: 1729: 1717: 1696: 1693: 1692: 1691: 1681: 1677:, coauthor of 1672: 1655: 1637: 1634:Ascher Shapiro 1631: 1622: 1615:Robert Plonsey 1612: 1582: 1579: 1569: 1566: 1563:Alfred E. Mann 1560: 1550: 1529: 1519: 1500: 1483: 1474: 1464: 1455: 1454: 1437:September 2016 1413: 1411: 1404: 1398: 1395: 1389: 1386: 1363:Bioengineering 1342: 1339: 1318:medical device 1314:pharmaceutical 1273:medical school 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1230: 1227: 1213: 1210: 1195: 1192: 1188:optimal extent 1168:artificial hip 1156:technical file 1106:Class I recall 1099: 1098: 1013: 1011: 1004: 998: 995: 921:Main article: 918: 915: 880:Main article: 877: 874: 868: 865: 853: 850: 834:prosthetic eye 795:Main article: 792: 789: 723:A T1-weighted 686:Main article: 683: 680: 679: 678: 670: 662: 577:infusion pumps 569: 568: 565: 530:Medical device 525: 522: 506: 503: 495: 492: 475:Main article: 472: 469: 429:Main article: 426: 423: 371:Main article: 368: 365: 345:Main article: 342: 339: 311:Main article: 299:obtained from 289: 286: 277:Bioinformatics 260:Bioinformatics 258:Main article: 255: 254:Bioinformatics 252: 250: 247: 135: 134: 49: 47: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5558: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5526: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5506: 5498: 5496: 5488: 5486: 5478: 5477: 5474: 5468: 5465: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5430:Public health 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5410:Allied health 5408: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5334: 5322: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5219:Oral medicine 5217: 5215: 5214:Ophthalmology 5212: 5210: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5099: 5095: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5076:Cytopathology 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5017: 5016:Urogynecology 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4919:Endocrinology 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4829: 4828: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4727: 4725: 4720: 4718: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4687: 4679: 4677: 4669: 4667: 4659: 4658: 4655: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4181: 4178: 4175: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4051:Manufacturing 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4041:Biomechanical 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3939:Environmental 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3919:Architectural 3917: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3895: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3856: 3854: 3849: 3847: 3842: 3841: 3838: 3826: 3825: 3816: 3814: 3813: 3804: 3803: 3800: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3681: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3629: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3602: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3595:Cell immunity 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3550:Sedimentation 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3491: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3459:Cultured meat 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3442:Biology field 3440: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3285: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3274:Biotechnology 3268: 3263: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3249: 3248: 3245: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3207: 3201: 3191:on 2015-02-24 3190: 3186: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3148: 3144: 3138: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3109: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3051: 3036: 3029: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2931: 2924: 2906: 2903:. p. 4. 2902: 2895: 2894: 2886: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2792: 2788: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2723: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2693: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2663: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2593: 2589: 2583: 2580:. CRC Press. 2579: 2578: 2570: 2556:on 2023-02-20 2555: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2468: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2439: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2384: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2172: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2123: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2052: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2036: 2034: 2026: 2021: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1991: 1989: 1970: 1963: 1957: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1922: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1883: 1878: 1871: 1857:on 2021-01-25 1856: 1852: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833: 1825: 1810: 1806: 1800: 1796: 1795: 1787: 1785: 1780: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1742: 1741:Cardiophysics 1739: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1706: 1705: 1702: 1689: 1685: 1684:U.A. Whitaker 1682: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1646:, pioneer in 1645: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1597:drug delivery 1595:, pioneer in 1594: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1544:drug delivery 1541: 1537: 1533: 1532:Robert Langer 1530: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1503:Leslie Geddes 1501: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1488:(deceased) – 1487: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1451: 1448: 1440: 1430: 1426: 1420: 1419: 1414:This section 1412: 1408: 1403: 1402: 1394: 1385: 1381: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1348: 1338: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1295:undergraduate 1292: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1280:undergraduate 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1242: 1238: 1235: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1191: 1189: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1095: 1092: 1084: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1042: – 1041: 1037: 1036:Find sources: 1030: 1026: 1020: 1019: 1014:This section 1012: 1008: 1003: 1002: 991: 987: 983: 979: 977: 971: 967: 963: 959: 956: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 924: 914: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 888: 883: 873: 864: 859: 847: 846:ophthalmology 843: 839: 835: 830: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 805: 798: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 738: 734: 730: 726: 721: 717: 715: 710: 706: 702: 697: 695: 689: 676: 671: 668: 663: 659: 658: 657: 655: 650: 647: 643: 637: 633: 629: 624: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 566: 563: 562: 561: 558: 556: 549: 544: 539: 535: 531: 521: 519: 515: 511: 502: 500: 491: 489: 485: 478: 466: 461: 457: 454: 450: 446: 440: 438: 437:biotechnology 432: 422: 420: 419: 413: 412: 407: 406: 401: 400: 395: 394: 389: 388: 383: 382: 374: 364: 362: 358: 354: 348: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 314: 306: 302: 298: 294: 285: 281: 278: 271: 266: 261: 246: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 213: 212:biocompatible 209: 205: 200: 198: 194: 190: 186: 181: 177: 173: 166: 162: 158: 152: 150: 145: 141: 131: 128: 120: 109: 106: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: – 77: 73: 72:Find sources: 66: 62: 56: 55: 50:This article 48: 44: 39: 38: 33: 19: 5435:Rural health 5420:Nanomedicine 4971:Rheumatology 4902: / 4821:Hand surgery 4806:Neurosurgery 4612:Engineering 4458:Mechatronics 4325: 4311:Agricultural 3961:Geotechnical 3929:Construction 3822: 3810: 3747:Microbiology 3732:Biochemicals 3716: 3644:Gene therapy 3585:Biosynthesis 3563:Applications 3484:Spectroscopy 3454:Cell culture 3363:Fermentation 3205: 3193:. 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