Black people - Knowledge

2114: 706: 8635:: "Accurate figures are still not available but at a conservative estimate, using the figures that have been generated by the latest Slave Trade Database, of the estimated millions transported, Portugal dominated the trade with 5.8 million or 46%, while Great Britain transported 3.25 million or 26%, France accounted for 1.38 million or 11%, and Spain 1.06 million or 8%. So it is unmistakable, that the 4 leading colonial powers accounted for a combined total of 11.5 million Africans or 92% of the overall trade. The remainder was transported by the US 305,326, the Netherlands 554,336, and Denmark/Baltic 111,041. There were several stages to the trade. During the first phase between 1501 and 1600, an estimated 277,509 Africans or just 2% of the overall trade, were sent to the Americas and Europe. During the 17th century, some 15% or 1,875,631 Africans embarked for the Americas. The period from 1701 to the passage of the British Abolition Act in 1807 was the peak of the trade. Here an estimated 7,163,241 or 57% of the trafficking in Africans transpired, with the remaining 26% or 3,204,935 occurring between 1808 and 1866." 5285:, 2 December 2009: "But on the packed dirt streets of Zubayr, Iraq's scaled-down version of Harlem, African-Iraqis talk of discrimination so steeped in Iraqi culture that they are commonly referred to as "abd" – slave in Arabic – prohibited from interracial marriage and denied even menial jobs...Historians say that most African-Iraqis arrived as slaves from East Africa as part of the Arab slave trade starting about 1,400 years ago. They worked in southern Iraq's salt marshes and sugarcane fields. Though slavery – which in Iraq included Arabs as well as Africans – was banned in the 1920s, it continued until the 1950s, African-Iraqis say. Recently, they have begun to campaign for recognition as a minority population, which would grant them the same benefits as Christians, including reserved seats in Parliament..."Black people here are living in fear," said Jalal Dhiyab Thijeel, an advocate for the country's estimated 1.2 million African-Iraqis. "We want to end that."" 2288: 886: 3507:. Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean. In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean. In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of " 1806: 8654::"In the Americas, Brazil was the largest importer of Africans, accounting for 5.5 million or 44%, the British Caribbean with 2.76 million or 22%, the French Caribbean 1.32 million, and the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland accounting for 1.59 million. The relatively high numbers for Brazil and the British Caribbean is largely a reflection of the dominance and continued expansion of the plantation system in those regions. Even more so, the inability of the enslaved population in these regions to reproduce meant that the replacement demand for laborers was significantly high. In other words, Africans were imported to make up the demographic deficit on the plantations." 2748: 1713: 3850: 1498: 3834: 489: 3217: 3282: 3160:

according to census data. The Black population of metro Atlanta more than doubled between 1990 and 2020, surpassing 2 million in the most recent census. The Black population also more than doubled in metro Charlotte while Greater Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth both saw their Black populations surpass 1 million for the first time. Several smaller metro areas also saw sizable gains, including San Antonio; Raleigh and Greensboro, N.C.; and Orlando. Primary destinations are states that have the most job opportunities, especially

1392: 2602: 1407: 3765:) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons. 2407: 3050:, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black". The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological. 622:, settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g. "black ****"). As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic. Several American style guides, including the 671: 501: 7250: 9191: 3481: 2280:: "Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white". This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the 9179: 1133:, which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks. 1619: 2193: 1721: 1333:), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population. According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab. 5306:, p. 324: "But many Arabs were themselves Black. To the present day there are Arab princes in Saudi Arabia who, in the Western world, would be regarded as 'black'. One of the main reasons why the African Diaspora in the Arab world is so small is that people with African blood are much more readily accepted as Arabs than they would be accepted as 'whites' in the Americas." 1246: 3802: 2616:. The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions: 2891:, they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from 602:. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with " 3039:

that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black", although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.

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Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation".

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there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other". Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement

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Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven. It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic

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relations, there entrance into the culture of these Asian states often causes quite a stir. They also fit into Green and Goldberg's definition of psychological marginalization, which constitutes multiple attempts at assimilation with the dominant culture followed by continued rejection. The magazine

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From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas. Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended

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argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin. Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States. Still others believe

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the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former; ... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along

995:(both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context). Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants. The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the 3865:

in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the

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In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014. The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large

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in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in

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By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United

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were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents. Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced

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who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of

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By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black

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urged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However,

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This rise in net gain points to Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, and Houston being a growing hot spots for the migrants of The New Great Migration. The percentage of Black Americans who live in the South has been increasing since 1990, and the biggest gains have been in the region's large urban areas,

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of the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets, government agencies, and private companies. In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that

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policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not

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Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5

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Given the larger numbers of persons of African and indigenous descent in Spanish America, the region developed its own form of eugenics with the concepts of blanqueamiento (whitening) ...blanqueamiento was meant to benefit the entire nation with a white image, and not just individual persons of

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There are several models for analyzing the marginalization of ethnic minorities. The Afro-Asian population exemplifies Park's definition of marginalization, in that they are the "product of human migrations and socio-cultural conflict." Born into relatively new territory in the area of biracial

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According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil’s Black movement attribute the

1127:, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film 2271:

generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the

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The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure". One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community. Some of the most prominent abolitionists and

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accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.

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Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul; Guilay, Dennis; Reyes, Jennelyn; Allian, Fatima Pir; Mori, Virgilio; Azarcon, Lahaina Sue; Manera, Alma (30 March 2021).

1113:" was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black. Such classifications sometimes divided families. 6873: 642:

says that the 'b' should not be capitalized. Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial

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from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-

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acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups:

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emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was

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States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "

3304:", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music, and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement. 835:

ancestry). Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and

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population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing. A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.

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This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough". Racial tensions bubbled to the surface during the week before the

2587:. Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there. 3529:

is complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light

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of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the

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Jakobsson, Mattias; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Babiker, Hiba; Günther, Torsten; Schlebusch, Carina M.; Hollfelder, Nina (24 August 2017). "Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations".

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and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that

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The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the

2336:, a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography. In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any: 3155:

saw a net gain of 2,725 African Americans in the area. This number continued to rise as between 1985 and 1990 as the area had a net gain of 7,497 African Americans, and from 1995 to 2000 the net gain was 23,313 African Americans.

1018:("black men"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro") according to Western society's notion of race. 796:

or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was

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nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted the

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Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization; others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of the

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Soheil Baharian; Maxime Barakatt; Christopher R. Gignoux; Suyash Shringarpure; Jacob Errington; William J. Blot; Carlos D. Bustamante; Eimear E. Kenny; Scott M. Williams; Melinda C. Aldrich; Simon Gravel (27 May 2015).

2141:. Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans. This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the 3250:

held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of

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In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of

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Katarzyna Bryc; Adam Auton; Matthew R. Nelson; Jorge R. Oksenberg; Stephen L. Hauser; Scott Williams; Alain Froment; Jean-Marie Bodo; Charles Wambebe; Sarah A. Tishkoff; Carlos D. Bustamante (12 January 2010).

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Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.

6978:"Black on Track: Indigenous Men?s Programs, School Programs, Employment Programs, Sports Mentoring Programs, Community Engagement Live in Program, Motivational Speaking, Developing Programs for your Community" 2113: 1734:, are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient 2559:

is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland. Promised freedom by the British during the

1093:). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as 6279:

In one sense the word 'Moor' means Mohammedan Berbers and Arabs of North-western Africa, with some Syrians, who conquered most of Spain in the 8th century and dominated the country for hundreds of years.

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These negroes are the remnants of the original inhabitants of the fluvial region of Somaliland who were overwhelmed by the wave of Somali conquest. The Dube and Shabeli are often referred to as the Adone

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and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually

7164: 2421:, were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as 3095:

The New Great Migration is not evenly distributed throughout the South. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as

1920:. As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired 6168: 5143:, from 1967, outlines a number of Afro-Asians in Japan who find themselves as outcasts, most of which try to find acceptance within the American military bubble, but with varying degrees of success. 1311:

Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as

3550:. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity. 1212:

ancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians". Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.

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guards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the

3330:. Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a 8299: 3917:, and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the 2918:

By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.

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Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.

2252:, however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining the 6780: 3057:

generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%). Immigrants from some

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According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.

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was not put into law until the early 20th century. Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the

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The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including

1694:, these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani. There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry. 8253:

He is not only the first self-identified African American/person of color to be elected President of the United States—but he is also the first biracial person to hold this office.

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because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse. Malcolm X preferred

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This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. The

587:, though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. Indigenous African societies do not use the term 3300:, politics, and values. To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation, culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with " 598:

and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" as

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Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage, and instead identify as

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person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he lives

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service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9%

2449:, often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including 770:. In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish". 9061: 3846:

gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.

1351:, many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were 7868: 10186: 8399:

For Du Bois, blackness is political, it is existential, but above all, it is moral, for in it values abound; these values spring from the fact of being an oppressed.

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In still other instances, persons are counted in reference to equally ambiguous phenotypical variations, particularly skin color, facial features, or hair texture.

7271: 6874:"Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia (ALRC Report 96), Chapter 36 Kinship and Identity: Legal definitions of Aboriginality" 2320:

I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine today.

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that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.

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Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city of

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Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities in

4121: 2945: 977:, the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders or other surrounding areas of 8302:. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well. 2907:

identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the

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from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now

7751: 2925:, if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being " 1983:, the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..." 5558: 4066: 2084: 2060: 1753:(negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person"); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in the 575:, the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations. It is most commonly used for people of 7085: 7004: 6567: 5636: 3307:

Due to the often political and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people.

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and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.

3046:, black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa. According to the 8281: 3023: 6385: 1716:

Population genomic "TreeMix" analysis of Malaysian Negritos (Semang) and closely related populations (e.g. East Asians and Andamanese peoples).

1456:. Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. 531: 8800: 6774:"Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families" 6773: 10146: 7224: 3814:

racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.

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sources in Aljamiado and medieval Spanish texts, neither refer to individuals as Moors nor recognize any such group, community or culture."

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Dynamics of Religion: Past and Present. Proceedings of the XXI World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions

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Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean

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Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (

7502: 2933: 2332:, a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for 1839: 8507:

Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement". Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003.

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Marta Mirazón Lahr (1996). "R. A. Foley; Nina Jablonski; Michael Little; C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor; Karen Strier; Kenneth M. Weiss".

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meaning "islands of black ", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer

2312:. During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. Activist 2287: 10138: 7788: 4581: 4211:"The trans-Saharan slave trade – clues from interpolation analyses and high-resolution characterization of mitochondrial DNA lineages" 10162: 9036: 8478: 4302: 2498:

with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.

2305: 885: 7820: 3876:

Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term

2304:

The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. In

9592: 9152: 8849: 3327: 3054: 2445:, most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands. Those who remained in Australia, commonly called 7031: 3296:

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream

2308:, more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the national 10352: 9619: 9354: 8055: 3553:

Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achieving

3289: 1962:

people. Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.

341: 6363: 5489: 2817:. During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably 10332: 9754: 9581: 5344: 3866:

country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.

1441: 1396: 1386: 961:

and low castes. Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.

8186: 6877: 5887: 9223: 8938: 8832: 8761: 8731: 8698: 8461: 8427: 8392: 8246: 7717: 7234: 7204: 7102: 6835: 6691: 6545: 6334: 6272: 5944: 5915: 5671: 5473: 5165: 5077: 4979: 4824: 4760: 4740: 4710: 4571: 4551: 4531: 4411: 4176: 3081: 6402: 2805:

was considered more offensive. This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later

1010:("red men") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between 10337: 9087: 9006: 7872: 7627: 6915: 5411: 5232: 4717:

Gorgoryos had already named another concept in Ge'ez (shanqella), which means something like 'negro' in a pejorative sense.

4458: 4140: 2573: 2208: 359: 314: 9105: 8666: 7326:"As for terminology, in Canada, it is still appropriate to say Black Canadians." Valerie Pruegger, "Black History Month". 6900: 4993: 4350:, Vol. 2, pp. 112–113, footnote 44. See also commentary on verses : Vol. 3, notes 7–1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications. 2505:. This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes 10306: 9597: 9335: 9148: 8897: 8612: 7264: 7035: 3288:—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States—was throughout 2506: 2528:"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of 10342: 8647: 8628: 7574: 6446: 6382:

The emphasis is on the common experience and determination of the people of African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin

2961: 2844:

Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside from

1326:. As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. 524: 9195: 1742:, and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity. They inhabit isolated parts of 1658:, slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in 10210: 10154: 7314: 7066: 6235: 6023: 6003: 5303: 5219: 4426:

Vukoni Lupa Lasaga, "The slow, violent death of apartheid in Sudan," 19 September 2006, Norwegian Council for Africa.

4330: 2442: 1761:

itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable

242: 6930: 6421:"Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English" 3002:, a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of 2226:

during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-based

10178: 8977: 7522:

Smith, Tom W. (Winter 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"".

Chacko, Elizabeth (2003). "Identity and Assimilation among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington".

2725: 1232: 275: 62: 4925: 3894:

Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-

1141:

policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some

606:", a general term for non-European peoples. While the term "person of color" is commonly used and accepted in the 3047: 660: 7744: 6820: 4435:

Richard A. Lobban Jr. (2004): "Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia". The Scarecrow Press, p. 37.

10170: 10034: 9984: 9969: 9607: 9407: 9312: 9123: 8319: 3914: 3316: 2999: 2778: 2045: 1735: 366: 8155: 1746:, and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India. 1315:

in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as

735:, resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the 10194: 9412: 9303: 9259: 6797: 5370: 3475: 3378: 3353: 3010:

as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "

2915:. This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group. 2569: 2154: 1049: 1027: 517: 145: 105: 17: 5633: 2349:

identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer

1805: 1119:

is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her

10094: 9759: 8195: 7377:

Smith, Tom W (1992). "Changing racial labels: from 'Colored' to 'Negro' to 'Black' to 'African American'".

7082: 6560: 6290: 5687: 2940:, as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which 783: 656: 334: 8705:

The ways of defining blackness range from characteristics of skin tones, hair textures, facial features...

8128: 8056:"People overestimate the size of black men, perceive them as more threatening than white men, study finds" 7775: 6038:"Craniodental Affinities of Southeast Asia's "Negritos" and the Concordance with Their Genetic Affinities" 4192: 9809: 9774: 9724: 8964: 8159: 7954:

Katarzyna Bryc; Eric Y. Durand; J. Michael Macpherson; David Reich; Joanna L. Mountain (8 January 2015).

6977: 4376: 3148: 3043: 2662: 2227: 1161:

Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speak

1105: 323: 6228:

Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain

4791: 1979:, μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his 10226: 10120: 9939: 9394: 9288: 8989: 8751: 8268: 8002: 7450: 6607:"Land In Our Own Country: The Aboriginal Land Rights Movement in South Eastern Australia, 1860 to 1914" 6117: 3880:

to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.

2964:. African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s. 2949: 2871:(closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, as 2747: 2561: 2466: 2049: 1921: 1110: 7412: 6476: 4612:

Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg: With Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr

4495:

Ayittey, George B.N. (1999). "How the Multilateral Institutions Compounded Africa's Economic Crisis".

3319:, because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness". Clinton welcomed the label. 1904:

As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in

1432:, amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are 812:

from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was

9904: 9854: 9626: 9216: 8348: 7956:"The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States" 6918:. Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. 6424: 4454: 3152: 3100: 1609: 1597: 1448:

who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the

1236: 1147: 790:

children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as

699: 247: 8785: 8721: 8583: 8434:

In fact, Bill Clinton had promoted an even worse variation, that authentic blackness is political...

7413:"Going Back to Our Own: Interpreting Malcolm X's Transition From 'Black Asiatic' to 'Afro-American'" 6380: 5102: 3534:

individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of

10347: 10276: 10044: 9869: 9557: 9437: 9377: 7897:"Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans" 7776:

Sonya Tastogi; Tallese D. Johnson; Elizabeth M. Hoeffel; Malcolm P. Drewery, Jr. (September 2011).

7599:

Relethford, JH (2000). "Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations".

6955: 5278: 4215: 3778: 3465: 3297: 3124: 2912: 2130: 1712: 1289: 782:

to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see

614:" is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person of 381: 252: 232: 216: 6606: 4284: 3151:

area in particular, is a hot spot for African American migrants in the US. Between 1975 and 1980,

2357:

being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.

1768:

They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.

1509: 9734: 6260: 4403:

Waging Peace in Sudan: The Inside Story of the Negotiations that Ended Africa's Longest Civil War

3994: 3849: 3360: 3253: 3112: 2868: 2454: 2264: 2216: 1987: 1789: 1293: 35: 7684: 7474:

Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century

5519:"İSTANBUL'DAKİ AFRİKALI GÖÇMENLERİN ULUSÖTESİ SOSYAL ALANLARININ ENTEGRASYON SÜREÇLERİNE ETKİSİ" 5117: 5069: 4523: 2856:(used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as 2400: 2244:

with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.

2022:

and Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony

10079: 9834: 9694: 8930: 8824: 6851: 6248: 3453: 2976: 2941: 2810: 2620: 2606: 2577: 2482: 2325: 2291: 2257: 2253: 2236: 2204: 2197: 2187: 2076: 1899: 1800: 1154: 1085:. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some 1045: 935: 913: 855: 629: 599: 580: 237: 211: 166: 130: 7508: 5661: 5442: 5155: 4994:"'Not Black Enough': Changing Expressions of Coloured Identity in Post-Apartheid South Africa" 4730: 4700: 4306: 1524:

captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between

1497: 1288:

in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by

10218: 10074: 10054: 9999: 9631: 8569:"Unions, Radicals, and Democratic Presidents: Seeking Social Change in the Twentieth Century" 8453: 8236: 6326: 6322: 5867: 4166: 4071: 3979: 3933: 3372: 3144: 2721: 2491: 2297: 2277: 1687: 1468: 1076: 732: 568: 479: 150: 125: 9859: 8547: 7953: 7777: 7707: 7196:

Resisting racism and xenophobia : global perspectives on race, gender, and human rights

6739:

A.O.N, (A. O. Neville, Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia) (18 April 1930).

6679: 5932: 5647:(1960–), Vol. 21, No. 2 (2nd Qtr 1960), pp. 124–130. Published by: Clark Atlanta University. 3334:

and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya. Obama chose to identify as black and

2960:" or "Colored American". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the 1727:

woman, Philippines – the Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.

694:, some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historical 10271: 9989: 9954: 9769: 9209: 9183: 7908: 7893: 5770: 4874: 4840: 4343: 4224: 3838: 3833: 3754: 3496: 3461: 3161: 3140: 3062: 2937: 2752: 1707: 1655: 1422: 1312: 257: 198: 135: 82: 8954: 8486: 7813: 7745:"Race, Ethnicity, and Language data – Standardization for Health Care Quality Improvement" 4626:

Alcobé, Santiago (November 1947). "The Physical Anthropology of the West Saharan Nomads".

8: 9934: 9884: 9829: 9709: 9445: 8122: 7709:

What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market

3757:

was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people of

3077: 3066: 2541: 2478: 2446: 2072: 1824:, it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million black people residing there. 1356: 1277: 1240: 869: 695: 387: 281: 140: 100: 9979: 9714: 8880: 7912: 6037: 5774: 5181: 5035: 4878: 4228: 3208:, have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration. 2353:

being widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer and journalist

739:, including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in 10099: 10029: 9889: 9844: 9744: 9520: 9243: 8959: 8872: 8608: 8032: 8005: 7980: 7955: 7931: 7896: 7658: 7555: 7539: 7394: 7145: 7083:"Australian South Sea Islanders: A Century of Race Discrimination under Australian Law" 6752: 6073: 5977: 5850: 5825: 5801: 5758: 5610: 5585: 5090: 5062: 4953: 4906: 4898: 4886: 4770: 4680: 4643: 4516: 4247: 4210: 3858: 3576:(black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status. 3407: 3395: 3266: 3243: 3221: 3132: 3015: 2971:

was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "

2922: 2613: 2502: 2396: 2261: 1965: 1739: 1568:. Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report 1544:, and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported to 1488: 1142: 1138: 863: 644: 615: 576: 406: 6143: 5365: 4089: 3937: 3873:, for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color. 804:

Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan

698:

or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the

10242: 10130: 10089: 10014: 9929: 9899: 9799: 9668: 9641: 9614: 9515: 9386: 9283: 8934: 8828: 8769:

African descent seeking access to the legal rights and privileges of colonial whites.

8757: 8727: 8694: 8457: 8423: 8388: 8242: 8037: 7985: 7936: 7723: 7713: 7650: 7608: 7559: 7547: 7398: 7310: 7230: 7200: 7149: 7062: 6831: 6687: 6541: 6367: 6330: 6268: 6231: 6065: 6057: 6019: 5999: 5940: 5911: 5905: 5855: 5806: 5788: 5738: 5667: 5615: 5540: 5469: 5299: 5215: 5161: 5073: 5064:

Light, bright, and damned near white : biracial and triracial culture in America

4975: 4910: 4890: 4820: 4736: 4706: 4651: 4567: 4547: 4527: 4466: 4407: 4359: 4326: 4252: 4172: 4048: 4000: 3823: 2929:", a term used effectively as a synonym for "black person" within the United States. 2798: 2710: 2596: 2418: 2281: 2122: 2023: 2003: 1925: 1445: 1285: 1120: 939: 916:

extraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in the

633: 89: 9814: 9007:"Mixed-race people become Brazil's biggest population group | Brazil | The Guardian" 8876: 8183: 6077: 5385: 3281: 2406: 2173:

had its own black community. In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.

1866:

ancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of

724:"the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his 10069: 10064: 10039: 10019: 9784: 9495: 9232: 8864: 8027: 8017: 7975: 7967: 7926: 7916: 7662: 7642: 7531: 7386: 7367:, Campus News. San Jose State University, 24 February 2004. Accessed 12 April 2008. 7137: 6537: 6049: 5969: 5891: 5845: 5837: 5796: 5778: 5728: 5692: 5605: 5597: 5530: 5341: 5257: 4882: 4635: 4242: 4232: 4193:

Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations

4094: 4038: 3954: 3818: 3769: 3559: 3547: 3535: 3457: 3335: 3247: 3136: 3116: 2926: 2537: 1813: 1750: 1651: 1627: 1593: 1525: 1301: 1297: 1268:

In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not only

1129: 921: 837: 801:, the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free. 556: 454: 448: 263: 53: 7106: 6264: 4122:"Black with a Capital "B": Mainstream Media Join Black Press in Upper-casing Race" 4043: 4026: 3216: 10104: 10059: 9949: 9919: 9794: 9779: 9719: 9656: 9552: 9346: 8924: 8818: 8688: 8670: 8651: 8632: 8447: 8417: 8382: 8190: 8022: 7472: 7360: 7306: 7298: 7141: 7089: 6571: 6406: 6389: 6316: 5823: 5640: 5348: 4814: 4759:

Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964).

4669:

Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964).

4610: 4561: 4541: 4401: 4319: 4270: 3969: 3907: 3889: 3870: 3862: 3827: 3554: 3520: 3469: 3445: 3437: 3429: 3389: 3073: 3035: 2838: 2694: 2612:

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the

2565: 2523: 2434: 2350: 2345: 2249: 2231:

into low paid or effectively slave labour. The social position of mixed-race or "

2104: 2055: 1958:

ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia. Moors were not a distinct or

1785: 1352: 1305: 1249: 1170: 978: 832: 805: 744: 679: 603: 376: 352: 300: 269: 68: 9091: 8644: 8625: 8087:"Latinos, Blacks Show Strong Growth in San Antonio as White Population Declines" 5716: 5198: 3416:. Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island. 3238:, to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice of 3034:

controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate.

2300:

addressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an "Australia has a Black History" T-shirt

1844:

As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.

1391: 1347:

Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During the

10049: 10009: 9959: 9944: 9924: 9874: 9839: 9824: 9804: 9789: 9661: 9602: 9455: 8663: 8552: 8518: 8364:

Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white—it's that he's too black.

7971: 7901:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7486: 6583: 5826:"Unveiling the Genetic History of the Maniq, a Primary Hunter-Gatherer Society" 5601: 4462: 3918: 3508: 3449: 3433: 3331: 3197: 3165: 3120: 3069:

nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.

3058: 2972: 2872: 2814: 2676: 2552: 2158: 2118: 2100: 1995: 1973: 1863: 1743: 1569: 1517: 1505: 1476: 1323: 1178: 1166: 954: 950: 917: 873: 866:

ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.

843: 824: 763: 595: 505: 461: 75: 8901: 8868: 8306: 7847:"African Immigrants in the United States: Implications for Affirmative Action" 7646: 7128:

Lawson, Stephanie (2013). "'Melanesia': The History and Politics of an Idea".

5535: 5518: 2601: 1946:" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to 1436:, most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from 1406: 10321: 10281: 10084: 10024: 9994: 9974: 9914: 9879: 9864: 9849: 9819: 9764: 9689: 9500: 9480: 9470: 8988:

V.F. Gonçalves, F. Prosdocimi, L. S. Santos, J. M. Ortega and S. D. J. Pena,

8568: 8543: 8179: 7551: 7190: 7059:

Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands

6740: 6144:"In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream – and now a lobby" 6061: 5792: 5742: 5657: 5544: 4894: 4480: 4237: 4052: 3926: 3750: 3500: 3441: 3347: 3308: 3270: 3234: 3030: 2864: 2634: 2580:

during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.

2450: 2080: 2064: 2039: 1955: 1937: 1647: 1348: 1342: 1182: 1174: 982: 902: 740: 721: 607: 572: 548: 493: 441: 115: 8449:

Missions in the Dark Soil: Life and Work of Thomas Jefferson Bowen in Africa

7921: 7727: 6489: 6454: 6297:, New York University. Quote: "Andalusi Arabic sources, as opposed to later 5783: 5733: 628:, changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020 10261: 9964: 9749: 9535: 9490: 9485: 9427: 9293: 9106:"Brazil census shows African-Brazilians in the majority for the first time" 8041: 7989: 7940: 7654: 7612: 6584:"Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld)" 6185: 6069: 5859: 5810: 5619: 5416: 4655: 4256: 3323: 3312: 3301: 3285: 2908: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2806: 2648: 2642: 2630: 2430: 2422: 2142: 2134: 2096: 2087:, which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin". 1879: 1833: 1501: 1472: 1209: 1116: 1090: 1071: 1057: 1044:, the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages between 1041: 748: 691: 624: 305: 9673: 8990:"Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians" 6664: 5841: 3806: 2809:

movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev.

2765:

had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term

414: 10301: 10291: 9894: 9704: 9651: 9525: 9465: 9460: 7009: 6253: 6053: 5412:"Israel PM: Illegal African immigrants threaten identity of Jewish state" 3974: 3964: 3942: 3413: 3239: 3189: 3128: 3019: 3011: 2876: 2702: 2670: 2656: 2487: 2458: 2366: 2354: 2212: 2108: 1991: 1951: 1859: 1754: 1433: 1415: 1380: 1330: 1320: 1205: 1199: 1146:

white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (

1086: 1056:) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the European 1006:(dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or 847: 798: 755: 725: 683: 675: 619: 584: 421: 400: 294: 205: 171: 7218: 7216: 6169:"Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein?" 5717:"A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia" 4902: 1585: 1581: 1002:

These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as

712:

women, a community of recent Sub-Saharan African origin residing in the

591:

as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.

10296: 10286: 10004: 9909: 9739: 9729: 9699: 9542: 9510: 9475: 9417: 9322: 9255: 9249: 9154:

Historia de Venezuela – Procedencia de los Esclavos Negros en Venezuela

7543: 7165:"Black Founders: The Unknown Story of Australia's First Black Settlers" 5981: 4647: 3959: 3786: 3758: 3563: 3425: 3229: 2900: 2740: 2736: 2624: 2495: 2438: 2426: 2232: 2170: 1887: 1853: 1724: 1533: 1492: 1364: 787: 774: 736: 560: 287: 120: 8269:"Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: "A More Perfect Union" (transcript)" 6298: 5824:

Göllner, Larena, Kutanan, Lukas, Fieder, Schaschl (10 February 2022).

4067:"Blak, Black, Blackfulla: Language is important, but it can be tricky" 2219:

ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.

1875: 1577: 1564:

million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in

1557: 670: 9547: 9269: 8238:

Obama and the Biracial Factor: The Battle for a New American Majority

8210: 7213: 7105:. National Archives of Australia: Foundingdocs.gov.au. Archived from 5996:

The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity: A Study of Cranial Variation

5759:"Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years" 5559:"Türkiye'de Afrikalı göçmenler: Bize insan değilmişiz gibi bakılıyor" 3921:, a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the 3543: 3504: 3265:

civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as

3193: 3177: 2818: 2533: 2469:, which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries. 2372: 2223: 1667: 1659: 1573: 1226: 1162: 1101: 1081: 1035: 987: 846:

are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically

828: 817: 792: 767: 638: 564: 500: 427: 95: 8116:

Felton, Emmanuel; Harden, John D.; Schaul, Kevin (14 January 2022).

6351:

Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean

5973: 4639: 10266: 9646: 9201: 9147: 8276: 7628:"Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping" 7535: 7390: 4974:

Hatred for Black People; by Shehu Sani; Xlibris Corporation, 2013;

4027:"'People of Color' as a category and identity in the United States" 3895: 3539: 3492: 3484: 3205: 3173: 3169: 2706: 2313: 2294: 1999: 1959: 1905: 1883: 1703: 1691: 1643: 1623: 1565: 1529: 1437: 1360: 1208:" or "African-Asians" are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African and 1124: 970: 831:

campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of

559:-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown 552: 434: 6981: 6771: 6684:

Indifferent Inclusion: Aboriginal People and the Australian Nation

2059:

and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as

1549: 1104:

bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the

10236:

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

9569: 9564: 9530: 9505: 9422: 9298: 9190: 8926:

Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil

8820:

Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil

8584:"A Transcript Excerpt of Steve Kroft's Interview With Sen. Obama" 6901:"Population Growth: Growth and distribution of Indigenous people" 6665:"Preliminary Report on the Aboriginals of the Northern Territory" 6302: 6220: 5755: 5386:"Israel deports Sudanese asylum seekers as S. Sudanese nationals" 5352: 4347: 3989: 3984: 3531: 3201: 3181: 3104: 3096: 2892: 2767: 2698: 2688: 2652: 2410: 2162: 2019: 1917: 1871: 1731: 1675: 1663: 1464: 1261: 1053: 1031: 974: 938:

language. These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowed

905: 859: 827:

of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab

809: 759: 713: 709: 611: 394: 181: 176: 8719: 8664:"Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 7103:"Documenting Democracy: Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth)" 6173:

Rund eine Million schwarzer Menschen leben laut ISD hierzulande.

5018:"We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese" 3491:

Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the

1440:. In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the 996: 9636: 9450: 9178: 6898: 3922: 3587:

Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)

3526: 3480: 3398:

by Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.

3108: 2896: 2761: 2729: 2638: 2545: 2529: 2309: 2207:

have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the

2166: 2138: 2011: 1947: 1909: 1821: 1762: 1679: 1671: 1537: 1453: 1429: 1419: 1400: 1368: 926: 898: 890: 813: 9088:"The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil" 7229:. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. 3499:

from 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped to

2944:

had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under

2501:

At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were

9307: 9263: 9056: 9054: 7626:

Shriver M.D.; Parra E.J.; Dios S.; et al. (April 2003).

7625: 6830:. Australian National University and Aboriginal History Inc. 5463: 5182:"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History" 4005: 3857:

Some commentators observe that the United States practice of

3568: 3292:

criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".

3185: 2957: 2773: 2714: 2684: 2666: 2386: 2376: 2027: 2007: 1969: 1943: 1913: 1867: 1683: 1639: 1635: 1618: 1613: 1545: 1460: 1449: 1316: 1281: 1257: 958: 909: 851: 779: 110: 31: 8118:"Still looking for a 'Black mecca,' the new Great Migration" 8006:"The Great Migration and African-American Genomic Diversity" 7869:"The size and regional distribution of the black population" 3273:

and James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.

3084:

genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.

2192: 1720: 743:. He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned 690:

Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in

10122:

An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People

6821:"Moving Blackwards: Black Power and the Aboriginal Embassy" 6092:"Beyond the beach: The untold story of Boracay's Ati tribe" 4705:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 2017. p. PT306. 3753:

or segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries,

2680: 2073:

is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism

2015: 1820:

While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in

1521: 1411: 1273: 1269: 1181:. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than 567:; in certain countries, often in socially based systems of 9051: 2551:

Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of

2403:, noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa. 2026:. Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in 1765:, although this term actually refers to a specific group. 1516:

Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of the

8863:(3). California Center for Population Research: 415–441. 5157:

Islam on the Margins: Studies in Memory of Michael Bonner

3476:

Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas

3412:

Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to

3379:

Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas

3354:

Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas

2867:, they primarily identified themselves by their specific 2568:

were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as

1548:, from where they or their descendants later reached the 7705: 6913: 6828:

Transgressions: Critical Australian Indigenous histories

6708:"Bringing them home 8. The History – Northern Territory" 6318:

Moorings: Portuguese Expansion and the Writing of Africa

2256:

ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.

1245: 8786:"Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil" 8749: 7081:

Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie, and Susanna Iuliano.

6451:

Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict?

5586:"Indian Siddis: African ancestry with Indian Admixture" 5490:"Africans in Turkey leave lasting impression on locals" 3801: 920:

or taken during raids. Their origin is denoted via the

10204:

The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy

8686: 5960:

Hajek, John (June 1996). "Unraveling Lowland Semang".

5924: 3822:

ancestry. One-third of the population lives under the

2328:

received the National Book Council award for his book

2137:

offered many of their citizens the chance to study in

9085: 8445: 4090:"AP changes writing style to capitalize "b" in Black" 3322:

The question of blackness also arose in the Democrat

2863:

In the first 200 years that black people were in the

4608: 4559: 4494: 3394:

The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to the

2899:

and in some cases from the south-east coast such as

2555:

ancestry and those of other African roots. The term

1428:

About 150,000 East African and black people live in

1260:, Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the first 9030: 8922: 8816: 8783: 8384:

Postcolonial Imaginations and Moral Representations

7750:. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. 5468:. American University in Cairo Press. p. 190. 4539: 2887:. However, when the first captives were brought to 2572:. In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand 2215:, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or 1153:In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that 9376: 9124:"Brazil Separates into a World of Black and White" 8127: 8115: 7601:Human Biology; an International Record of Research 7572: 7005:"Anthony Mundine echoes the Ku Klux Klan: Mansell" 6876:. Australian Law Reform Commission. Archived from 6252: 6247: 6115: 5279:"In Iraq's African Enclave, Color is Plainly Seen" 5061: 4515: 4285:"Abīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization)" 3562:" of one's social status may be open to people of 2936:, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared 8850:"Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population" 8847: 8720:Whitten, Norman E.; Torres, Arlene, eds. (1998). 8234: 6677: 5409: 5036:"Coloureds – the most authentic SA citizens" 4946: 2833:, but later gradually abandoned that as well for 2276:The official policy became one of biological and 2235:" individuals varied over time. A 1913 report by 2222:Being identified as either "black" or "white" in 1280:. Historians estimate that between the advent of 10319: 8263: 8261: 8078: 6826:. In Macfarlane, Ingereth; Hannah, Mark (eds.). 6604: 6353:, Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 439–700. 5632:John B. Edlefsen, Khalida Shah, Mohsin Farooq, " 4991: 4625: 4513: 4202: 4141:"Manuscript Writing Style // Purdue Writing Lab" 8900:(in Brazilian Portuguese). IBGE. Archived from 8715: 8713: 8380: 7712:. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. p. 8. 7592: 7507:(Google Video). Washington, D.C. Archived from 7032:"Bolt breached discrimination act, judge rules" 6637: 6531: 6118:"Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply" 5930: 5763:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5332:, (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104. 4812: 4164: 2536:origin, though the population also consists of 1968:, writing in the 7th century, claimed that the 766:) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned 751:because they have some distant white ancestry. 8566: 8542: 8415: 8342: 8340: 8317: 7682: 7598: 7477:, Louisiana State University Press, 1992/1995. 7002: 6818: 6798:"Indigenous Australia Timeline – 1901 to 1969" 5933:"On the Polynesian, or East-Insular Languages" 5212:Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition 4305:. UCLA International Institute. Archived from 3932:There are entire communities of blacks in the 2429:, some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought from the 1284:in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the 10148:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races 9362: 9217: 8258: 8211:"Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule" 7521: 7162: 6928: 6508:"Aboriginal identity goes beyond skin colour" 5910:. Wisconsin: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1997. 5383: 5033: 4923: 4579: 4208: 4024: 3997:– the first free African town in the Americas 3228:From the late 19th century, the South used a 1554:population exchange between Greece and Turkey 934:), which alludes to slaves that only spoke a 525: 8779: 8777: 8723:Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean 8710: 8581: 8516: 7619: 7376: 7121: 6757:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6141: 5907:The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Geography 5872:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5584:Shah, Anish M.; et al. (15 July 2011). 5230: 4775:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4685:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4615:. National Museum of Copenhagen. p. 16. 4300: 4115: 4113: 3789:. Some classified as pardo were tri-racial. 3072:Recent surveys of African Americans using a 2540:immigrants and their descendants (including 1158:apartheid do not qualify for such benefits. 30:"Blacks" redirects here. For the color, see 8675:Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative 8337: 8153: 7769: 7432:, Brookings Institution Press, 1999, p. 99. 7294: 7292: 6772:Australian Human Rights Commission (1997). 6534:Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800 6505: 5959: 5115: 4789: 4393: 3796: 3785:(brown), and 25% white, with the remainder 3511:" (racial whitening) and related concepts. 3257:, which Virginia adopted into law in 1662. 1840:Persecution of black people in Nazi Germany 1359:, in an area roughly comprising modern-day 957:observed a class system consisting of high 10140:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question 9369: 9355: 9224: 9210: 8756:. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. 8347:Coates, Ta-Nehisi Paul (1 February 2007). 8084: 7947: 7844: 7501:Martin Luther King, Jr. (28 August 1963). 6686:. Aboriginal Studies Press. pp. 1–5. 6321:. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 5663:Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River 4926:"Township tourism booming in South Africa" 4728: 4377:"Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" 4370: 4368: 3566:, a large part of the population known as 2995:; for example, "black men and white men". 2330:Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert 1738:meta-population which gave rise to modern 532: 518: 10164:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century 9121: 9112:, 17 November 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2018. 9098: 8774: 8726:. Indiana University Press. p. 161. 8411: 8409: 8407: 8149: 8147: 8031: 8021: 7979: 7930: 7920: 7887: 7320: 6563:State Records Office of Western Australia 6314: 5849: 5800: 5782: 5732: 5609: 5534: 5374:, 1 September 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018. 4518:Negative Ethnicity: From Bias to Genocide 4374: 4246: 4236: 4110: 4084: 4082: 4042: 4025:Starr, Paul; Freeland, Edward P. (2023). 2852:(in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and 2813:of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, 2532:. The majority of black Canadians are of 2181: 1272:, or Africans, but also communities like 912:" slaves. Most of these captives were of 720:In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan 563:. Not all people considered "black" have 8560: 7787:. United States Department of Commerce. 7333: 7289: 7189: 6899:Australian Bureau of Statistics (1998). 6640:"Aborigines: Problems of Race and Class" 5688:"Services of Sheedis for Sindh recalled" 5464:Walz, Terence; Cuno, Kenneth M. (2010). 5330:Zamani: A Survey of East African History 4816:The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896–1974 4758: 4668: 4497:Law and Policy in International Business 4171:. Harvard University Press. p. 70. 3848: 3832: 3800: 3479: 3280: 3215: 2746: 2600: 2405: 2286: 2191: 2112: 1804: 1719: 1711: 1617: 1496: 1405: 1390: 1244: 884: 704: 669: 9122:Rodriguez, Gregory (3 September 2006). 8823:. Princeton University Press. pp. 8376: 8374: 8372: 8156:"Who is Black? One Nation's Definition" 7861: 7739: 7737: 7573:McWhorter, John H. (8 September 2004). 7530:(4). Oxford University Press: 496–514. 7257: 7251:"2006 Census of Canada – Ethnic Origin" 7222: 7056: 6662: 6035: 5656: 5160:. BRILL. 6 February 2023. p. 222. 4540:George B.N. Ayittey (15 January 1999). 4399: 4365: 4031:Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 3830:accounting for 70 percent of the poor. 2441:to work in sugarcane fields. Under the 2067:is "black, Asian and minority ethnic" ( 1998:ancestry. Today, they mainly come from 1749:Negrito means "little black people" in 1355:-speaking peoples that lived along the 985:peoples who were collectively known as 964: 14: 10320: 9755:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 8929:. Princeton University Press. p. 8575: 8404: 8346: 8144: 7960:The American Journal of Human Genetics 7871:. Lewis Mumford Center. Archived from 7127: 6713:. Australian Human Rights Commission. 6364:"Home- Office for National Statistics" 5998:. Cambridge University Press, p. 303. 5937:Miscellaneous Works of William Marsden 5721:Human Population Genetics and Genomics 5634:Makranis, the Negroes of West Pakistan 5516: 5309: 5224: 4947:Eusebius McKaiser (15 February 2012). 4864: 4543:Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History 4420: 4079: 3090: 3053:According to U.S. Census Bureau data, 2991:, it is in parallel construction with 2465:For instance, the term is used in the 2053:was of those who came on the ship the 1442:African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem 1387:African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem 9350: 9205: 8753:Racial Subordination in Latin America 8476: 8208: 7575:"Why I'm Black, Not African American" 7303:Black Like Who?: Writing Black Canada 7092:, Australian Human Rights Commission. 7075: 6916:"Indigenous Settlements of Australia" 6738: 6018:. Grolier Incorporated. 1990. p. 76. 6016:The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 20 5953: 5512: 5510: 5355:. 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018. 4819:. The Red Sea Press. pp. 60–61. 4406:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 38. 4119: 3768:In the 19th century, a philosophy of 3383: 3024:Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud 2938:the transatlantic slave trade illegal 2771:became the mainstream alternative to 1908:. They mainly live in the regions of 1588:as having a strong African presence. 9231: 8806:from the original on 9 October 2022. 8690:Hispanic American Religious Cultures 8369: 7734: 7683:Newport, Frank (28 September 2007). 7672:from the original on 9 October 2022. 7061:. The Scarecrow Press. p. 215. 6800:. Australian Museum. 3 November 2011 6786:from the original on 9 October 2022. 6663:Spencer, Sir Baldwin (20 May 1913). 6652:from the original on 9 October 2022. 6627:from the original on 9 October 2022. 6230:, Little, Brown, & Co., p. 241. 6116:Richburg, Keith B. (24 April 2005). 5714: 5583: 5577: 5342:"The Ethiopian Population In Israel" 5322: 5116:Reicheneker, Sierra (January 2011). 5068:. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. 5059: 4949:"Not White Enough, Not Black Enough" 4806: 4598:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4478:George Ayittey, "Africa and China," 4389:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4303:"The Subtle Racism of Latin America" 1697: 758:had a mother who was a dark-skinned 551:classification of people, usually a 10328:Black (human racial classification) 10307:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness 9336:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness 9149:University of the Andes (Venezuela) 9035:. New America Media. Archived from 8613:Minority Rights Group International 8287:from the original on 9 October 2022 8085:O'Hare, By Peggy (13 August 2021). 7826:from the original on 9 October 2022 7794:from the original on 9 October 2022 7757:from the original on 9 October 2022 7706:Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). 7488:African American Journeys to Africa 7343:. Cambridge University Press, 2000. 7277:from the original on 9 October 2022 7036:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 6914:Memmott, Paul; Moran, Mark (2001). 6741:"COLOURED FOLK. Some Pitiful Cases" 6720:from the original on 9 October 2022 6561:Aboriginal Protection Board at the 6403:"MediaRights: Film: Black Russians" 6036:Bulbeck, David (27 November 2013). 5715:Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). 4438: 4429: 4272:Race and Slavery in the Middle East 4199:, Volume 82, Number 4, August 2010. 3188:. Other southern states, including 2987:four times. Each time that he uses 2576:reached freedom in Canada from the 2121:, who was the great-grandfather of 1886:. The Netherlands also has sizable 27:Racialized classification of people 24: 8784:Skidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992). 8066:from the original on 14 March 2017 7265:"Blacks in Canada: A long history" 7003:Shepherd, Tony (19 October 2012). 5650: 5590:American Journal of Human Genetics 5507: 4887:10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x 4765:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 4675:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 4582:"Mauritania, the other apartheid?" 4546:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 50. 2962:African Methodist Episcopal Church 2071:), but sometimes the term "black" 1540:. Some of their ancestry remained 1021: 665: 25: 10364: 10212:The Myth of the Twentieth Century 10132:The Outline of History of Mankind 9171: 8582:Kroft, Steve (11 February 2007). 8517:Hansen, Suzy (20 February 2002). 8097:from the original on 1 March 2023 5410:Sherwood, Harriet (20 May 2012). 4591:(16). Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. 3147:, and so forth. North Carolina's 3029:In 1988, the civil rights leader 2777:and its derived terms. After the 2443:Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 2209:early days of European settlement 2090: 2085:National Black Police Association 2033: 1972:word Maurus was derived from the 1779: 1646:. Members are descended from the 10180:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics 9189: 9177: 9141: 9115: 9079: 9024: 8999: 8982: 8947: 8916: 8898:"Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento" 8890: 8848:Telles, Edward E. (3 May 2002). 8841: 8810: 8750:Hernandez, Tanya Kateri (2012). 8743: 8680: 8657: 8638: 8619: 8601: 8536: 8510: 8501: 8470: 8439: 8311: 8228: 8202: 8173: 8109: 8048: 7996: 7838: 7806: 7699: 7676: 7566: 7515: 7494: 7480: 7465: 7435: 7430:The African-American predicament 7422: 7405: 7370: 7354:"Origins of Black History Month" 7346: 7243: 7226:Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples 7183: 7156: 7095: 7050: 7024: 6996: 6970: 6948: 6922: 6907: 6892: 6866: 6844: 6812: 6790: 6765: 6732: 6700: 6638:Armstrong, Mick (October 2004). 6586:. Museum of Australian Democracy 6142:Sachs, Susan (12 January 2007). 5384:Collins, Toby (18 August 2012). 5233:"A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight" 5231:Labb, Theola (11 January 2004). 5001:South African Historical Journal 4924:Nullis, Clare (8 January 2007). 4322:Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared 4275:, Oxford University Press, 1994. 3487:, an Afro-Brazilian martial art. 3419: 3211: 3080:, 18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9% 3006:, activists promoted the use of 2726:Democratic Republic of the Congo 2590: 2512: 1858:Afro-Dutch are residents of the 1654:. Some were merchants, sailors, 1603: 1233:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 823:In early 1991, non-Arabs of the 499: 487: 9033:"African 'Americans' in Brazil" 8687:De La Torre, Miguel A. (2009). 8645:United Nations Slavery Memorial 8626:United Nations Slavery Memorial 8387:. Lexington Books. p. 25. 8318:Adesioye, Lola (27 June 2008). 7199:. AltaMira Press. p. 180. 6671: 6656: 6631: 6598: 6576: 6554: 6525: 6499: 6483: 6469: 6439: 6413: 6395: 6374: 6356: 6343: 6308: 6284: 6241: 6195: 6178: 6161: 6135: 6109: 6084: 6029: 6009: 5988: 5898: 5880: 5817: 5749: 5708: 5680: 5626: 5565:(in Turkish). 18 September 2020 5551: 5482: 5457: 5431: 5403: 5377: 5358: 5335: 5288: 5271: 5250: 5204: 5192: 5174: 5148: 5109: 5053: 5034:du Preez, Max (13 April 2006). 5027: 5011: 4985: 4968: 4940: 4917: 4858: 4845:The United States Census Bureau 4833: 4783: 4752: 4722: 4693: 4662: 4619: 4602: 4563:Indigenous African Institutions 4522:. Seven Stories Press. p. 4507: 4488: 4472: 4457::10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976. 4353: 4336: 4313: 4294: 4278: 4138: 3583: 3048:Office of Management and Budget 2691:west of the Niger Delta): 20.2% 1890:and other African communities. 1638:are an ethnic group inhabiting 1592:and social challenges, notably 1479:; some are illegal immigrants. 1215: 661:List of ethnic groups of Africa 10353:Ethnonyms of African Americans 10172:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples 9378:Historical definitions of race 8477:Edler, Melissa (Spring 2007). 8241:. Policy Press. p. xiii. 7163:Sparrow, Jeff (17 June 2006). 5517:Şimşek, Doğuş (25 July 2019). 5366:Why Jews see racism in Israel" 5296:Debating the African Condition 4263: 4185: 4158: 4132: 4059: 4018: 3853:Black people in Brazil c. 1821 3401: 3317:President of the United States 3000:American Civil Rights Movement 2779:American Civil Rights Movement 2490:, nicknamed "Black Caesar", a 2417:Melanesians, along with other 2360: 2211:. While originally related to 2079:, which started with a mainly 2046:Office for National Statistics 1847: 1622:A Siddi girl from the town of 1444:movement that are ancestry of 1276:, Sindis and Indians from the 1193: 13: 1: 10333:Indigenous peoples of Oceania 10196:The Passing of the Great Race 8320:"Ralph Nader's guilt complex" 8209:Sweet, Frank (1 April 2006). 7223:Magocsi, Paul Robert (1999). 6148:The Christian Science Monitor 5939:. Parbury, Allen. p. 4. 5888:"35. The Negrito of Thailand" 5371:The Christian Science Monitor 5317:The Last Great Muslim Empires 5060:Bird, Stephanie Rose (2009). 4609:Nicolaisen, Johannes (1963). 4560:George B. N. Ayittey (2006). 4120:Henry, Tanyu (17 June 2020). 4044:10.1080/1369183x.2023.2183929 4011: 3936:zone, as well as part of the 3579: 2751:The main slave routes in the 1220: 1050:Bantu peoples of South Africa 1028:Bantu peoples of South Africa 1014:("red men"—light-skinned) or 674:The main slave routes in the 10095:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer 8923:Telles, Edward Eric (2004). 8817:Telles, Edward Eric (2004). 8280:. 18 March 2008. p. 2. 8196:The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer 8023:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006059 7778:"The Black Population: 2010" 7524:The Public Opinion Quarterly 7328:Culture and Community Spirit 7142:10.1080/00223344.2012.760839 6929:Darby, Andrew (1 May 2012). 6506:Byrd, Dylan (6 April 2011). 6226:Menocal, María Rosa (2002). 5830:Genome Biology and Evolution 4566:. Transnational Publishers. 3901: 3572:, but a person perceived as 3366: 3276: 3220:Multiracial social reformer 3044:U.S. census race definitions 2797:as the most polite word for 2228:Aboriginal Protection Boards 1862:who are of Black African or 1556:in 1923, or indirectly from 1089:ancestry, especially in the 784:Ma malakat aymanukum and sex 657:Indigenous peoples of Africa 7: 10338:Latin American caste system 9810:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt 9775:Houston Stewart Chamberlain 9725:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 9086:Roland, Edna Maria Santos. 8965:Central Intelligence Agency 8446:Olatunde, Allen Timilehin. 7785:United States Census Bureau 7685:"Black or African American" 6565:, accessed 20 December 2012 5439:"Ayvalık'ın renkli derneği" 3948: 3883: 3659: 3636: 3613: 2324:In 1978, Aboriginal writer 2161:that had flourished in the 1893: 1630:district, Karnataka, India. 1106:Population Registration Act 618:. In other regions such as 324:Race (human categorization) 10: 10369: 9289:Color terminology for race 8235:Jolivétte, Andrew (2012). 7972:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010 7341:Transformations in Slavery 7130:Journal of Pacific History 6678:McGregor, Russell (2012). 6315:Blackmore, Josiah (2009). 5602:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030 5199:"Focus on the slave trade" 4762:Area Handbook for Ethiopia 4735:. Routledge. p. 221. 4729:Trimingham, James (2013). 4672:Area Handbook for Ethiopia 4400:Johnson, Hilde F. (2011). 3905: 3887: 3586: 3518: 3473: 3423: 3405: 3387: 3376: 3370: 3351: 3345: 3328:2008 presidential campaign 3246:. For instance, President 2998:With the successes of the 2950:United States Constitution 2594: 2562:American Revolutionary War 2521: 2476: 2467:Melanesian Spearhead Group 2387: 2377: 2364: 2185: 2176: 2148: 2094: 2037: 1935: 1897: 1851: 1837: 1831: 1827: 1798: 1783: 1701: 1690:provinces in southwestern 1607: 1536:population in present-day 1486: 1384: 1378: 1340: 1290:east African slave traders 1230: 1224: 1197: 1025: 953:indigenous peoples of the 654: 610:, the near-sounding term " 29: 10343:People of African descent 10254: 10113: 9905:Georges Vacher de Lapouge 9682: 9580: 9436: 9393: 9384: 9331: 9279: 9239: 9031:Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri. 8869:10.1080/01419870252932133 8857:Ethnic and Racial Studies 8693:. ABC-Clio. p. 386. 8519:"Blacks and Bill Clinton" 7647:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y 6935:The Sydney Morning Herald 6605:Goodall, Heather (1990). 6512:The Sydney Morning Herald 5536:10.14783/maruoneri.594943 5294:Alamin M. Mazrui et al., 4992:Mohamed Adhikari (2004). 4514:Koigi wa Wamwere (2003). 3514: 3341: 3018:) and the popular singer 2517: 2063:. The preferred official 1794: 1774: 1610:Afro-Asians in South Asia 1598:opposition to immigration 1532:, which gave rise to the 1482: 1374: 1237:Trans-Saharan slave trade 1148:African National Congress 880: 700:trans-Saharan slave trade 650: 248:Trans-Saharan slave trade 10277:History of anthropometry 10045:Charles Gabriel Seligman 9870:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman 9558:Sinodonty and Sundadonty 8978:(Archived 2018 edition.) 8650:10 December 2013 at the 8631:10 December 2013 at the 8381:Eze, Chielozona (2011). 8349:"Is Obama Black Enough?" 8091:San Antonio Express-News 7447:www.africanholocaust.net 7428:Christopher H. Foreman, 7379:Public Opinion Quarterly 7330:, Government of Alberta. 6931:"The forgotten conflict" 6532:Broome, Richard (2005). 6388:17 February 2010 at the 6291:Ross Brann, "The Moors?" 5931:William Marsden (1834). 5347:13 November 2010 at the 4813:Tibebu, Teshale (1995). 4238:10.1186/1471-2148-10-138 4216:BMC Evolutionary Biology 4165:Levinson, Meira (2012). 3826:, with blacks and other 3797:Race relations in Brazil 3298:African-American culture 2913:African-American English 2472: 2117:Bust of Russian general 1931: 1397:African Hebrew Israelite 382:Historical race concepts 253:East African slave trade 217:African-American culture 9735:Daniel Garrison Brinton 8996:, 2007, Vol. 12, No. 6. 8571:. Praeger. p. 220. 8567:Martin Halpern (2003). 8422:. Regnery. p. 58. 8416:Olson, Barbara (2003). 7922:10.1073/pnas.0909559107 7849:. Iowa State University 7814:"2000 US Census basics" 6819:Lothian, Kathy (2007). 6494:The Hobart Town Courier 6261:Oxford University Press 5784:10.1073/pnas.2026132118 5734:10.47248/hpgg2202010001 5639:4 November 2012 at the 5319:, (Brill: 1997), p.174. 5186:Encyclopædia Britannica 4348:Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi 4289:Encyclopædia Britannica 3995:San Basilio de Palenque 3686:Demographics of Brazil 3525:The concept of race in 3361:Costa Chica of Guerrero 3254:partus sequitur ventrem 2821:, objected to the word 2061:the Windrush generation 1790:Black people in Ireland 1520:, tens of thousands of 1475:groups of the southern 1336: 1300:was abolished in 1962, 1294:Slavery in Saudi Arabia 1188: 190:African-derived culture 36:Blacks (disambiguation) 10080:Thomas Griffith Taylor 9835:Reginald Ruggles Gates 9194:Quotations related to 8300:South Carolina primary 7471:Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, 7419:7(1), 2005, pp. 66–83. 7359:2 October 2011 at the 7191:Harrison, Faye Venetia 5315:F.R.C. Bagley et al., 4589:Current African Issues 4580:Diallo, Garba (1993). 4209:Harich et .al (2010). 4168:No Citizen Left Behind 4126:www.blackvoicenews.com 3854: 3842: 3817:The philosophy of the 3810: 3488: 3454:Afro-Surinamese people 3293: 3225: 2977:Martin Luther King Jr. 2811:Martin Luther King Jr. 2756: 2609: 2607:Martin Luther King Jr. 2605:Civil rights activist 2578:Southern United States 2483:African New Zealanders 2414: 2342: 2334:Inside Black Australia 2322: 2301: 2274: 2246: 2217:Torres Strait Islander 2205:Indigenous Australians 2201: 2188:Indigenous Australians 2182:Indigenous Australians 2165:, the coastal town of 2126: 2083:constituency, and the 2077:Southall Black Sisters 1950:, especially those of 1922:Portuguese citizenship 1900:Afro-Portuguese people 1817: 1810:Young Negro with a Bow 1801:Black people in France 1728: 1717: 1631: 1513: 1425: 1403: 1265: 1155:Chinese South Africans 894: 850:indigenous peoples of 747:, consider themselves 717: 687: 630:murder of George Floyd 581:Indigenous Australians 212:Afro-American religion 167:Indigenous Australians 34:. For other uses, see 10220:Annihilation of Caste 10124:in Different Climates 10075:William Graham Sumner 10055:Samuel Stanhope Smith 10000:James Cowles Prichard 9632:Racial discrimination 8452:. aiconcept. p. 8189:1 August 2013 at the 8184:A Credit to His Races 7088:14 March 2011 at the 7057:Quanchi, Max (2005). 6570:10 March 2013 at the 4139:Lab, Purdue Writing. 4072:Sydney Morning Herald 3980:Lists of black people 3915:independence movement 3852: 3836: 3804: 3781:), a further 20% was 3483: 3474:Further information: 3377:Further information: 3373:Afro-Caribbean people 3352:Further information: 3284: 3219: 2789:gave way to "black". 2750: 2735:Southeastern Africa ( 2722:Republic of the Congo 2720:West Central Africa ( 2604: 2409: 2338: 2318: 2290: 2278:cultural assimilation 2269: 2241: 2195: 2116: 1808: 1723: 1715: 1621: 1500: 1409: 1394: 1248: 1026:Further information: 888: 708: 673: 569:racial classification 480:Lists of black people 243:Indigenous Australian 10272:Great chain of being 9990:Ludwig Hermann Plate 9955:Samuel George Morton 9770:Samuel A. Cartwright 9620:in the United States 9186:at Wikimedia Commons 9062:"Slavery's legacies" 8904:on 23 September 2009 8669:27 July 2020 at the 8489:on 29 September 2008 6880:on 27 September 2020 6854:. Teaching Aust. Lit 6540:. pp. 130–131. 6054:10.3378/027.085.0305 4634:(160–168): 141–143. 4320:Joseph Finklestone, 3497:Atlantic slave trade 3466:Afro–French Guianans 3462:Afro-Guyanese people 2946:Article I, Section 9 2759:By the early 1900s, 2753:Atlantic Slave Trade 2401:Yñigo Ortiz de Retez 2375:is named from Greek 2265:Protector of Natives 1708:Africans in Malaysia 1678:in Pakistan. In the 1560:in pursuit of work. 965:North-Eastern Africa 600:socially constructed 360:in the United States 342:in the United States 258:Atlantic slave trade 199:African-American art 10228:The Races of Europe 10156:The Races of Europe 9935:Dominick McCausland 9885:Thomas Henry Huxley 9830:Stanley Marion Garn 9710:Robert Bennett Bean 9438:Historical concepts 8886:on 15 January 2005. 8483:Kent State Magazine 8132:on 23 December 2022 8123:The Washington Post 7913:2010PNAS..107..786B 7352:Nguyen, Elizabeth, 7038:. 29 September 2011 6958:. 13 September 2016 6457:on 18 November 2016 6122:The Washington Post 5962:Oceanic Linguistics 5842:10.1093/gbe/evac021 5775:2021PNAS..11826132L 5769:(13): e2026132118. 5237:The Washington Post 5084:blasian definition. 4879:2003GeoRv..93..491C 4867:Geographical Review 4229:2010BMCEE..10..138H 4191:Frigi et al. 2010, 3687: 3604:Yellow (East Asian) 3315:as the first black 3091:New Great Migration 2544:), as well as many 2542:black Nova Scotians 2479:African Australians 2447:South Sea Islanders 1986:Afro-Spaniards are 1926:Portuguese citizens 1656:indentured servants 1467:, particularly the 1357:African Great Lakes 1278:Indian subcontinent 1241:Red Sea slave trade 870:American University 786:), leading to many 754:Egyptian President 696:trans-Saharan trade 577:sub-Saharan African 282:Scramble for Africa 10100:Alexander Winchell 10030:Henric Sanielevici 9890:Calvin Ira Kephart 9860:Hans F. K. Günther 9845:Arthur de Gobineau 9745:Alice Mossie Brues 9642:Racial stereotypes 8960:The World Factbook 8677:, 4 February 2006. 8546:(5 October 1998). 7875:on 12 October 2007 7453:on 5 November 2020 7109:on 26 October 2009 6614:Aboriginal History 6496:, 8 November 1828. 6427:on 15 January 2011 6249:John Randall Baker 5696:. 16 December 2013 5445:on 31 January 2009 5364:Mitnick, Joshua. " 5328:Bethwell A. Ogot, 5283:The New York Times 5277:Timothy Williams, 4954:The New York Times 4928:. Associated Press 4792:"Sabbatical Notes" 4301:Musselman, Anson. 4145:Purdue Writing Lab 3855: 3843: 3811: 3777:(black; most were 3685: 3489: 3408:Afro-Puerto Ricans 3396:Dominican Republic 3384:Dominican Republic 3294: 3267:Frederick Douglass 3244:American Civil War 3226: 3222:Frederick Douglass 3055:African immigrants 3016:Stokely Carmichael 2983:fifteen times and 2837:after leaving the 2757: 2614:Western Hemisphere 2610: 2585:Caribbean Canadian 2415: 2302: 2262:Northern Territory 2202: 2133:in the 1960s, the 2131:became independent 2129:As African states 2127: 1966:Isidore of Seville 1818: 1740:East Asian peoples 1729: 1718: 1632: 1514: 1489:Africans in Turkey 1426: 1404: 1266: 1143:affirmative action 1139:affirmative action 908:populations kept " 895: 718: 688: 645:racial segregation 506:Oceania portal 407:Black is beautiful 111:India and Pakistan 10315: 10314: 10244:The Race Question 10090:John H. Van Evrie 10015:William Z. Ripley 9985:Charles Pickering 9930:Felix von Luschan 9900:Robert E. Kuttner 9800:Charles Davenport 9669:Whiteness studies 9395:Color terminology 9387:Scientific racism 9344: 9343: 9284:Fitzpatrick scale 9182:Media related to 9128:Los Angeles Times 8963:(2024 ed.). 8940:978-0-691-11866-6 8834:978-0-691-11866-6 8763:978-1-107-02486-1 8733:978-0-253-21194-1 8700:978-1-59884-139-8 8463:978-978-52387-6-1 8429:978-0-89526-125-0 8394:978-0-7391-4508-1 8248:978-1-4473-0100-4 8215:The One-Drop Rule 8154:James, F. Davis. 8062:. 14 March 2017. 8060:Los Angeles Times 7719:978-0-9725290-9-9 7579:Los Angeles Times 7511:on 15 March 2010. 7339:Lovejoy, Paul E. 7236:978-0-8020-2938-6 7206:978-0-7591-0482-2 6837:978-1-921313-44-8 6693:978-0-85575-779-3 6547:978-1-74114-569-4 6538:Allen & Unwin 6409:on 17 April 2011. 6370:on 13 March 2009. 6349:Jonathan Conant, 6336:978-0-8166-4832-0 6274:978-0-19-212954-3 5946:978-0-342-28944-8 5917:978-0-395-86448-7 5673:978-0-393-06322-6 5475:978-977-416-398-2 5210:A. Klein (2002), 5167:978-90-04-52783-6 5079:978-0-275-98954-5 4980:978-1-4931-2076-5 4826:978-1-56902-001-2 4790:Hoyland, Robert. 4742:978-1-136-97022-1 4732:Islam in Ethiopia 4712:978-3-11-045110-8 4573:978-1-57105-337-4 4553:978-0-312-21787-7 4533:978-1-58322-576-9 4485:19 February 2010. 4413:978-1-84519-453-6 4360:Tafsir ibn Kathir 4344:Tahfeem ul Qur'an 4178:978-0-674-06529-1 4075:. 30 August 2021. 4001:Scientific racism 3837:Fruit sellers in 3746: 3745: 3683: 3682: 3014:" by Kwame Ture ( 2799:African Americans 2711:Equatorial Guinea 2597:African Americans 2419:Pacific Islanders 2306:a 1967 referendum 2282:Stolen Generation 2123:Alexander Pushkin 2044:According to the 2024:Equatorial Guinea 2004:Equatorial Guinea 1988:Spanish nationals 1698:Southeastern Asia 1552:area through the 1446:African Americans 1286:Arabian Peninsula 542: 541: 494:Africa portal 465: 451: 444: 437: 430: 418: 409: 397: 390: 297: 290: 278: 266: 92: 85: 78: 71: 16:(Redirected from 10360: 10123: 10070:Lothrop Stoddard 10065:Morris Steggerda 10040:Ilse Schwidetzky 10035:Heinrich Schmidt 10020:Alfred Rosenberg 9980:Isaac La Peyrère 9785:Carleton S. Coon 9760:Charles Caldwell 9715:François Bernier 9598:in Latin America 9371: 9364: 9357: 9348: 9347: 9270:Dark/Black/Ebony 9250:Light/White/Fair 9233:Human skin color 9226: 9219: 9212: 9203: 9202: 9193: 9181: 9165: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9151:(3 March 2011), 9145: 9139: 9138: 9136: 9134: 9119: 9113: 9102: 9096: 9095: 9094:on 14 June 2007. 9090:. Archived from 9083: 9077: 9076: 9074: 9072: 9058: 9049: 9048: 9046: 9044: 9028: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9017: 9003: 8997: 8986: 8980: 8975: 8973: 8971: 8951: 8945: 8944: 8920: 8914: 8913: 8911: 8909: 8894: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8879:. Archived from 8854: 8845: 8839: 8838: 8814: 8808: 8807: 8805: 8790: 8781: 8772: 8771: 8747: 8741: 8740: 8717: 8708: 8707: 8684: 8678: 8661: 8655: 8642: 8636: 8623: 8617: 8616: 8605: 8599: 8598: 8596: 8594: 8579: 8573: 8572: 8564: 8558: 8557: 8540: 8534: 8533: 8531: 8529: 8514: 8508: 8505: 8499: 8498: 8496: 8494: 8485:. 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Archived from 6974: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6963: 6952: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6941: 6926: 6920: 6919: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6896: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6885: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6859: 6852:"Gilbert, Kevin" 6848: 6842: 6841: 6825: 6816: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6794: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6778: 6769: 6763: 6762: 6756: 6748: 6736: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6719: 6712: 6704: 6698: 6697: 6675: 6669: 6668: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6644: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6611: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6580: 6574: 6558: 6552: 6551: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6518: 6503: 6497: 6490:"A Proclamation" 6487: 6481: 6480: 6477:"Ulcinj History" 6473: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6462: 6453:. Archived from 6443: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6432: 6423:. Archived from 6417: 6411: 6410: 6405:. Archived from 6399: 6393: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6366:. Archived from 6360: 6354: 6347: 6341: 6340: 6312: 6306: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6258: 6245: 6239: 6224: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6182: 6176: 6175: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6033: 6027: 6013: 6007: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5928: 5922: 5921: 5902: 5896: 5895: 5890:. Archived from 5884: 5878: 5877: 5871: 5863: 5853: 5821: 5815: 5814: 5804: 5786: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5736: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5666:. UK: Hachette. 5654: 5648: 5630: 5624: 5623: 5613: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5538: 5514: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5452: 5450: 5441:. 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Morgan 9920:Cesare Lombroso 9795:Jan Czekanowski 9780:Sonia Mary Cole 9720:Renato Biasutti 9678: 9657:Nazism and race 9576: 9553:Proto-Mongoloid 9432: 9389: 9380: 9375: 9345: 9340: 9327: 9275: 9235: 9230: 9174: 9169: 9168: 9159: 9157: 9146: 9142: 9132: 9130: 9120: 9116: 9103: 9099: 9084: 9080: 9070: 9068: 9060: 9059: 9052: 9042: 9040: 9029: 9025: 9015: 9013: 9011:theguardian.com 9005: 9004: 9000: 8987: 8983: 8969: 8967: 8953: 8952: 8948: 8941: 8921: 8917: 8907: 8905: 8896: 8895: 8891: 8883: 8852: 8846: 8842: 8835: 8815: 8811: 8803: 8788: 8782: 8775: 8764: 8748: 8744: 8734: 8718: 8711: 8701: 8685: 8681: 8671:Wayback Machine 8662: 8658: 8652:Wayback Machine 8643: 8639: 8633:Wayback Machine 8624: 8620: 8609:"Afro-Mexicans" 8607: 8606: 8602: 8592: 8590: 8580: 8576: 8565: 8561: 8541: 8537: 8527: 8525: 8515: 8511: 8506: 8502: 8492: 8490: 8475: 8471: 8464: 8444: 8440: 8430: 8414: 8405: 8395: 8379: 8370: 8357: 8355: 8345: 8338: 8328: 8326: 8316: 8312: 8290: 8288: 8284: 8271: 8267: 8266: 8259: 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article: 2592: 2589: 2553:Afro-Caribbean 2522:Main article: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2507:white Africans 2503:born in Africa 2474: 2471: 2397:etymologically 2371:The region of 2365:Main article: 2362: 2359: 2267:, noted that: 2186:Main article: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2159:Ottoman Empire 2150: 2147: 2119:Abram Gannibal 2101:Afro-Romanians 2092: 2091:Eastern Europe 2089: 2038:Main article: 2035: 2034:United Kingdom 2032: 1936:Main article: 1933: 1930: 1895: 1892: 1864:Afro-Caribbean 1852:Main article: 1849: 1846: 1832:Main article: 1829: 1826: 1799:Main article: 1796: 1793: 1781: 1780:Western Europe 1778: 1776: 1773: 1744:Southeast Asia 1699: 1696: 1605: 1602: 1518:Ottoman Empire 1508:, painting by 1506:Ottoman Empire 1502:A Bashi-bazouk 1484: 1481: 1477:Nuba Mountains 1385:Main article: 1379:Main article: 1376: 1373: 1341:Main article: 1338: 1335: 1324:kinship system 1225:Main article: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1198:Main article: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1167:first language 1048:and Africans ( 1023: 1020: 966: 963: 955:Western Sahara 922:Ahaggar Berber 882: 879: 874:George Ayittey 844:Sudanese Arabs 825:Zaghawa people 667: 664: 652: 649: 612:colored person 540: 539: 537: 536: 529: 522: 514: 511: 510: 509: 508: 496: 483: 482: 474: 473: 472:Related topics 469: 468: 467: 466: 462:Blanqueamiento 457: 452: 445: 438: 431: 424: 419: 410: 403: 398: 391: 384: 379: 374: 371: 370: 363: 355: 351: 349: 346: 345: 338: 330: 328: 326: 318: 317: 311: 310: 309: 308: 303: 298: 291: 284: 279: 272: 267: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 238:Afro-Caribbean 235: 227: 226: 222: 221: 220: 219: 214: 209: 204: 202: 197: 192: 191: 187: 186: 185: 184: 179: 174: 169: 161: 160: 156: 155: 154: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 86: 79: 72: 65: 57: 56: 50: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10365: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10325: 10323: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10282:Miscegenation 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Mitchell 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9915:Carl Linnaeus 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9880:Julian Huxley 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9865:Ernst Haeckel 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9850:Madison Grant 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9820:Eugen Fischer 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9765:Petrus Camper 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9690:Louis Agassiz 9688: 9687: 9685: 9681: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9590: 9588: 9587: 9585: 9583: 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8991: 8985: 8979: 8966: 8962: 8961: 8956: 8950: 8942: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8927: 8919: 8903: 8899: 8893: 8882: 8878: 8874: 8870: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8851: 8844: 8836: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8821: 8813: 8802: 8798: 8794: 8793:Working Paper 8787: 8780: 8778: 8770: 8765: 8759: 8755: 8754: 8746: 8739: 8735: 8729: 8725: 8724: 8716: 8714: 8706: 8702: 8696: 8692: 8691: 8683: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8665: 8660: 8653: 8649: 8646: 8641: 8634: 8630: 8627: 8622: 8614: 8610: 8604: 8589: 8585: 8578: 8570: 8563: 8555: 8554: 8549: 8545: 8539: 8524: 8520: 8513: 8504: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8473: 8465: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8450: 8442: 8435: 8431: 8425: 8421: 8420: 8412: 8410: 8408: 8400: 8396: 8390: 8386: 8385: 8377: 8375: 8373: 8365: 8354: 8350: 8343: 8341: 8325: 8321: 8314: 8308: 8303: 8301: 8283: 8279: 8278: 8270: 8264: 8262: 8254: 8250: 8244: 8240: 8239: 8231: 8216: 8212: 8205: 8199:, 1 May 1997. 8198: 8197: 8192: 8188: 8185: 8181: 8180:Clarence Page 8176: 8161: 8157: 8150: 8148: 8130: 8125: 8124: 8119: 8112: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8081: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8051: 8043: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8010:PLOS Genetics 8007: 7999: 7991: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7890: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7848: 7841: 7822: 7815: 7809: 7790: 7786: 7779: 7772: 7753: 7746: 7740: 7738: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7715: 7711: 7710: 7702: 7686: 7679: 7668: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7629: 7622: 7614: 7610: 7607:(5): 773–80. 7606: 7602: 7595: 7580: 7576: 7569: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7518: 7510: 7506: 7505: 7497: 7490: 7489: 7483: 7476: 7475: 7468: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7438: 7431: 7425: 7418: 7414: 7411:Liz Mazucci, 7408: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7373: 7366: 7365:Spartan Daily 7362: 7358: 7355: 7349: 7342: 7336: 7329: 7323: 7316: 7315:1-894663-40-3 7312: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7293: 7273: 7266: 7260: 7252: 7246: 7238: 7232: 7228: 7227: 7219: 7217: 7208: 7202: 7198: 7197: 7192: 7186: 7170: 7166: 7159: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7124: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7091: 7087: 7084: 7078: 7070: 7068:0-8108-5395-7 7064: 7060: 7053: 7037: 7033: 7027: 7012: 7011: 7006: 6999: 6983: 6979: 6973: 6957: 6951: 6936: 6932: 6925: 6917: 6910: 6902: 6895: 6879: 6875: 6869: 6853: 6847: 6839: 6833: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6799: 6793: 6782: 6775: 6768: 6760: 6754: 6746: 6742: 6735: 6716: 6709: 6703: 6695: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6674: 6667:. p. 21. 6666: 6659: 6648: 6641: 6634: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6601: 6585: 6579: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6557: 6549: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6528: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6478: 6472: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6426: 6422: 6416: 6408: 6404: 6398: 6391: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6377: 6369: 6365: 6359: 6352: 6346: 6338: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6319: 6311: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6287: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6256: 6250: 6244: 6237: 6236:0-316-16871-8 6233: 6229: 6223: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6187: 6181: 6174: 6170: 6164: 6149: 6145: 6138: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6097: 6093: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6048:(1): 95–133. 6047: 6043: 6042:Human Biology 6039: 6032: 6025: 6024:0-7172-0121-X 6021: 6017: 6012: 6005: 6004:0-521-47393-4 6001: 5997: 5991: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5948: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5927: 5919: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5901: 5893: 5889: 5883: 5875: 5869: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5744: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5711: 5695: 5694: 5689: 5683: 5675: 5669: 5665: 5664: 5659: 5653: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5629: 5621: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5564: 5560: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5523:Öneri Dergisi 5520: 5513: 5511: 5495: 5494:www.aa.com.tr 5491: 5485: 5477: 5471: 5467: 5460: 5444: 5440: 5434: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5406: 5391: 5390:Sudan Tribune 5387: 5380: 5373: 5372: 5367: 5361: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5338: 5331: 5325: 5318: 5312: 5305: 5304:1-59221-145-3 5301: 5297: 5291: 5284: 5280: 5274: 5259: 5253: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5221: 5220:0-8108-4102-9 5217: 5214:, Page xxii, 5213: 5207: 5200: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5177: 5169: 5163: 5159: 5158: 5151: 5144: 5142: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5112: 5104: 5092: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5056: 5041: 5037: 5030: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4988: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4943: 4927: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4846: 4842: 4836: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4817: 4809: 4793: 4786: 4778: 4772: 4764: 4763: 4755: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4734: 4733: 4725: 4718: 4714: 4708: 4704: 4703: 4696: 4688: 4682: 4674: 4673: 4665: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4614: 4613: 4605: 4594: 4590: 4583: 4575: 4569: 4565: 4564: 4555: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4520: 4519: 4510: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4484: 4482: 4481:The Economist 4475: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4447:PLOS Genetics 4441: 4432: 4423: 4415: 4409: 4405: 4404: 4396: 4385: 4378: 4371: 4369: 4361: 4356: 4349: 4345: 4339: 4332: 4331:0-7146-3487-5 4328: 4324: 4323: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4274: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4217: 4212: 4205: 4198: 4197:Human Biology 4194: 4188: 4180: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4161: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4114: 4097: 4096: 4091: 4085: 4083: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4017: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3946: 3944: 3939: 3938:Bolívar state 3935: 3930: 3928: 3927:Gaita zuliana 3924: 3923:Llanera music 3920: 3916: 3909: 3899: 3897: 3891: 3881: 3879: 3874: 3872: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3794: 3790: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3755:intermarriage 3752: 3751:miscegenation 3741: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3577: 3575: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3522: 3512: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3501:South America 3498: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3442:Afro-Chileans 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3420:South America 3417: 3415: 3409: 3399: 3397: 3391: 3380: 3374: 3364: 3362: 3355: 3349: 3348:Afro-Mexicans 3339: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3309:Toni Morrison 3305: 3303: 3299: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3274: 3272: 3271:Robert Purvis 3268: 3262: 3258: 3256: 3255: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3236: 3235:one-drop rule 3231: 3223: 3218: 3212:One-drop rule 3209: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3031:Jesse Jackson 3027: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2934:Great Britain 2930: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2865:United States 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2850:Afro-American 2847: 2842: 2840: 2836: 2835:Afro-American 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2635:Guinea-Bissau 2632: 2629: 2626: 2623:(Senegal and 2622: 2619: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2591:United States 2588: 2586: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2570:Thomas Peters 2567: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2525: 2513:North America 2510: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2451:Faith Bandler 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2384: 2374: 2368: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2341: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2326:Kevin Gilbert 2321: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2245: 2240: 2239:states that: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2200:woman in 1911 2199: 2194: 2189: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2124: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2081:British Asian 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2065:umbrella term 2062: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2047: 2041: 2040:Black British 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1938:Afro-Spaniard 1929: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1825: 1823: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1791: 1787: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1736:East Eurasian 1733: 1726: 1722: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1682:strip of the 1681: 1677: 1673: 1670:in India and 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1648:Bantu peoples 1645: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1604:Southern Asia 1601: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412:ethnic Jewish 1408: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349:Qajar dynasty 1344: 1343:Afro-Iranians 1334: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1309: 1307: 1304:in 1963, and 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1201: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1156: 1151: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1134: 1132: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1112: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1074: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1000: 998: 994: 990: 989: 984: 980: 976: 972: 962: 960: 956: 952: 947: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 928: 923: 919: 918:Western Sudan 915: 911: 907: 904: 901:, the native 900: 893:(Bella) woman 892: 887: 878: 875: 871: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 839: 834: 830: 826: 821: 819: 815: 811: 807: 802: 800: 795: 794: 789: 785: 781: 776: 771: 769: 765: 764:Sudanese Arab 761: 757: 752: 750: 746: 742: 741:Latin America 738: 734: 731:According to 729: 727: 723: 722:Moulay Ismail 715: 711: 707: 703: 701: 697: 693: 685: 681: 677: 672: 662: 658: 648: 646: 641: 640: 635: 631: 627: 626: 621: 617: 613: 609: 608:United States 605: 601: 597: 594:Contemporary 592: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 573:Western world 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 535: 530: 528: 523: 521: 516: 515: 513: 512: 507: 502: 497: 495: 485: 484: 481: 478: 477: 476: 475: 471: 470: 464: 463: 458: 456: 453: 450: 446: 443: 442:Jim Crow laws 439: 436: 432: 429: 425: 423: 420: 417: 416: 411: 408: 404: 402: 399: 396: 392: 389: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 368: 364: 361: 357: 356: 354: 350: 343: 339: 336: 332: 331: 327: 325: 322: 321: 320: 319: 316: 313: 312: 307: 304: 302: 299: 296: 292: 289: 285: 283: 280: 277: 273: 271: 268: 265: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 230: 229: 228: 224: 223: 218: 215: 213: 210: 207: 203: 200: 196: 195: 194: 193: 189: 188: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 163: 162: 158: 157: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 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Retrieved 9127: 9117: 9110:The Guardian 9109: 9100: 9092:the original 9081: 9069:. Retrieved 9065: 9041:. Retrieved 9037:the original 9026: 9014:. Retrieved 9010: 9001: 8993: 8984: 8968:. Retrieved 8958: 8949: 8925: 8918: 8906:. Retrieved 8902:the original 8892: 8881:the original 8860: 8856: 8843: 8819: 8812: 8796: 8792: 8767: 8752: 8745: 8737: 8722: 8704: 8689: 8682: 8674: 8659: 8640: 8621: 8603: 8591:. Retrieved 8587: 8577: 8562: 8551: 8538: 8526:. Retrieved 8522: 8512: 8503: 8491:. Retrieved 8487:the original 8482: 8472: 8448: 8441: 8433: 8418: 8398: 8383: 8363: 8356:. Retrieved 8352: 8327:. Retrieved 8324:The Guardian 8323: 8313: 8296: 8289:. Retrieved 8275: 8252: 8237: 8230: 8218:. Retrieved 8214: 8204: 8194: 8175: 8163:. Retrieved 8134:. Retrieved 8129:the original 8121: 8111: 8099:. Retrieved 8090: 8080: 8068:. Retrieved 8059: 8050: 8013: 8009: 7998: 7966:(1): 37–53. 7963: 7959: 7949: 7904: 7900: 7889: 7877:. Retrieved 7873:the original 7863: 7851:. Retrieved 7840: 7828:. 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