Black War - Knowledge

285: 223:) in 1803, the Aboriginal population was 3,000 to 7,000 people. Until the 1820s, the British and Aboriginal people coexisted with only sporadic violence, often caused by settlers kidnapping Aboriginal women and children. Conflict intensified from 1824, as Aboriginal warriors resisted the rapid expansion of British settlement over their land. In 1828, the British declared martial law and in 1830 they unsuccessfully attempted to force hostile Aboriginal nations from the settled districts in a military operation called "The Black Line". In a series of "Friendly Missions" in 1830 and 1831, 603:, blaming convicts for mistreating the Aboriginal people but adding, "it is increasingly apparent the Aboriginal natives of this colony are, and have ever been, a most treacherous race; and that the kindness and humanity which they have always experienced from the free settlers has not tended to civilize them to any degree." Murray stated in response that the Aboriginal people could become extinct in the near future and that any British conduct with that aim would "leave an indelible stain upon the character of the British Government." 1421:, which were carried out for ideological reasons, Tasmanian settlers participated in violence largely out of revenge and self-preservation. He adds: "Even those who were motivated by sex or morbid thrillseeking lacked any ideological impetus to exterminate the natives." He also argues that while genocides are inflicted on defeated, captive or otherwise vulnerable minorities, Tasmanian natives appeared as a "capable and terrifying enemy" to colonists and were killed in the context of a war in which both sides killed noncombatants. 463: 100: 668:

Roving parties were groups of soldiers, convicts and authorised civilians who patrolled the frontier for 12 to 18 days at a time with the aim of dispersing hostile Aboriginal groups. The main tactic of the official parties was to attack at night after campfires had revealed the position of the Aboriginal groups. Although their instructions were to capture hostile Aboriginal people where possible, in practice a successful ambush of a campsite almost always led to lethal violence. The main weapons used in ambushes were the

413: 1398:. He says Arthur was determined to defeat the Aboriginal people and take their land, but believes there is little evidence he had aims beyond that objective and wished to destroy the Tasmanian race. In contrast to Reynolds' argument, historian Lyndall Ryan, based on a sample of massacres taking place in the Meander River region in June 1827, concludes that massacres of Aboriginal Tasmanians by white settlers were likely part of an organised process and were sanctioned by government authorities. 508:, 40th and 63rd Regiments that scoured the settled districts for Aboriginal people, whom they should capture or shoot. By March 1829, about 400 troops were deployed in the settled districts and about 200 soldiers patrolled the area in 23 parties of eight to ten men. Patrols usually included convict police who were familiar with the area and sometimes included Aboriginal guides from outside the settled areas. Settlers also formed patrols whose official role was to capture Aboriginal people. 1113: 611:

two of his emissaries, George Augustus Robinson and Captain Welsh, had established friendly contacts with Aboriginal groups outside the settled districts. On 19 August, he issued a notice informing settlers of this success and advising them not to harm or capture any non-hostile Aboriginal person in search of food. He also warned settlers that the bounty would not be paid to colonists who captured friendly Aboriginal people and that anyone killing them would be prosecuted.

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evening school. All were expected to attend scripture classes and wear European clothes and many were given European names. However, convicts were assigned to do most of the labour and the Aboriginal people were free to roam the island where they hunted and gathered food and performed traditional ceremonies. Despite the presence of a resident doctor, a high rate of respiratory disease cut the population from about 220 in 1833 to 46 in 1847.

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introduction of hunting dogs. She states that by 1819 the Aboriginal and British population reached parity with about 5,000 of each, although among the colonists men outnumbered women four to one. At that stage both population groups enjoyed good health, with infectious diseases not taking hold until the late 1820s. She therefore concludes that settler violence was the main cause of Aboriginal population decline before the Black War.

488:... that the actual use of arms be in no case resorted to, if the Natives can by other means be induced or compelled to retire into the places and portions of this Island herein before excepted from the operation of Martial Law; that bloodshed be checked, as much as possible; that any Tribes which may surrender themselves up, shall be treated with every degree of humanity; and that defenceless women and children be invariably spared. 561: 516: 441:

north-east region which was largely uncolonised and was traditionally visited by many Aboriginal groups for its abundant native game and other foods. The proclamation authorised colonists to use violence to expel Aboriginal people from the settled districts in defined circumstances. However, the restrictions on violence were unclear and difficult to enforce and the settled districts were not well defined. Historian

643:. An investigation was launched but no one was prosecuted. Three company men were fatally speared in July and October 1831 and there were heavy losses inflicted on sheep and oxen. There were 16 recorded acts of violence against Aboriginal people in the conflict, but the number of Aboriginal deaths is unknown. Company employees stated that they believed killing Aboriginal people was justified to protect livestock. 4947: 615:

response, Arthur extended martial law to the whole of Van Diemen's Land on 1 October. He also ordered every able-bodied male colonist to assemble on 7 October at one of seven designated places to join a massive drive to sweep the hostile Aboriginal people from the settled districts in a military campaign which became known as the Black Line. The news was greeted enthusiastically by the colonist press. The

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Aboriginal people "in some remote quarter of the island, which should be reserved strictly for them, and to supply them with food and clothing, and afford them protection ... on condition of their confining themselves peaceably to certain limits". His preferred location for the reserve was Tasmania's north-east coast and he suggested they remain there "until their habits shall become more civilised".

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have died through internecine conflict, disease and natural deaths, leaving an estimated 600 deaths from frontier violence. However, he states: "The true figure might be as low as 400 or as high as 1,000." Johnson and McFarlane argue that at least 400 Aboriginal deaths in the north-west conflict should be added to this figure, giving over 1,000 Aboriginal deaths in the conflict across Tasmania.

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From January to September 1830, Robinson and 19 Aboriginal negotiators had carried out a "Friendly Mission" to establish contacts with the Aboriginal clans of south-west, western and north-west Tasmania. In October that year, he reported to Arthur that his mission had been a partial success and the governor authorised him to seek conciliation with the north-eastern clans.

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British civilisation and Christianity. In February 1832, Robinson and his Aboriginal negotiators embarked on the first of several expeditions to the west and north-west of Tasmania. His party persuaded several small groups to seek refuge on Flinders Island, warning them that they faced violent hostility without protection.

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colluded in transforming that mission into a campaign of ethnic cleansing from 1832. He says that once on Flinders Island, indigenous peoples were taught to farmland like Europeans and worship God like Europeans and concludes: "The campaign of transformation enacted on Flinders Island amounted to cultural genocide."

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Aboriginal women was the most important immediate trigger for the Black War. However, after 1828 settler violence was mainly motivated by fear of Aboriginal attacks and a growing conviction among those on the frontier that extermination of the Aboriginal population was the only means by which peace could be secured.

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area. The expansion of the colony over Aboriginal hunting grounds led to increased conflict which, according to Nicholas Clements, developed into an Aboriginal resistance movement. Aboriginal attacks on colonists averaged 1.7 per year over the 1803–1823 period, but increased to 18 per year over 1824–1826.

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argue that although Aboriginal deaths in the conflict were devastating, the major cause of Aboriginal depopulation was disease. Ryan and Boyce, however, argue that the Aboriginal death rate from disease was low before 1820 and that Aboriginal Tasmanians were more likely to die from disease after they

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Clements, however, believes that frontier violence does not explain population decline in the first 20 years of British settlement as there were few colonists in the interior. He argues that reduced fertility caused by venereal diseases was probably a significant cause of early population decline. He

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Ryan, based on a contemporary newspaper estimate, states that there were 1,200 Aboriginal people in the settled districts in 1826. She estimates that 838 Aboriginal people were killed in eastern Tasmania from November 1823 to January 1832 and that 40 more were killed in the following period to August

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The campaign was hampered by severe weather, difficult terrain, inadequate maps and poor supply lines. Although two of the divisions met in mid-October, the difficult terrain soon resulted in the cordon being broken, leaving many wide gaps through which the Aboriginal people were able to easily pass.

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of October to November 1830 consisted of 2,200 men: about 550 soldiers, 738 convict servants and 912 civilians. Arthur, who maintained overall control, placed Major Sholto Douglas of the 63rd Regiment in command of the forces. Separated into three divisions and aided by Aboriginal guides, they formed

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which had been granted land for grazing sheep and cattle. An escalating cycle of violence broke out in 1827 after company shepherds killed an Aboriginal man and abducted Aboriginal women for sex. A shepherd was speared and more than 100 sheep killed in retribution, and colonists responded with a dawn

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The war continued. In April, the military and colonists killed at least 12 Big River and Pallittorre people in separate encounters. From April to early August, there were 22 Aboriginal attacks in the Clyde district in which three colonists were killed and nine wounded. Arthur, however, had heard that

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in November 1829, Arthur established an Aborigines Committee to inquire into the causes of the Aboriginal violence and make policy recommendations. The following February, he introduced a bounty of £5 for every captured Aboriginal adult and £2 for each child. He also sought the help of other colonies

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Violence escalated from August to October 1828, with the Oyster Bay, Big River, Ben Lomond and Northern peoples launching raids on stock huts during which 15 colonists were killed in 39 attacks. From early October, Oyster Bay warriors also began killing white women and children. On 1 November, Arthur

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Regiments at 14 military posts along the frontier and within the settled districts. This measure appeared to deter Aboriginal attacks. Through the winter of 1828, few Aboriginal people appeared in the settled districts, and those that did were driven back by military parties. Among them were at least

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for the "extirpation" or "extermination" of the Aboriginal people. But he has contended that the British government acted as a source of restraint on settlers' actions. Reynolds says there is no evidence the British government deliberately planned the wholesale destruction of indigenous Tasmanians—a

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Boyce also argues that the impact of violence and disease on the Aboriginal population was moderate up to 1816 and that there is no evidence of low numbers of children and elderly people nor critically low numbers of women. Johnson and McFarlane, however, argue that kidnapping of Aboriginal women by

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Historians also disagree over the extent and causes of Aboriginal population decline before the Black War. Ryan argues that the population of some clans near the two main British settlements probably declined from 1803 to 1807 due to settler violence, although other clans possibly prospered from the

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In February 1833, the Aboriginal Establishment was moved to a more suitable location on Flinders Island and renamed Wybalenna. Children attended school, men were expected to work in the garden, build roads, erect fences and shear sheep, while women were required to cook, wash clothes, sew and attend

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Robinson's efforts at conciliation were more successful. In September, he and Mannalargenna persuaded Umarrah and his group to suspend hostilities. The following month, Robinson and Mannalargenna met Arthur to discuss the terms of a surrender. Robinson, Mannalargenna and Umarrah then set off for the

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In February 1831, the Aborigines Committee issued a report recommending that settlers should remain vigilant and that parties of armed men should be stationed in the most remote stock huts. In response, up to 150 stock huts were turned into ambush locations, military posts were established on native

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The predominant mood among colonists on the frontier was fear and panic mixed with anger and a desire for revenge. Although by the end of 1829 the number of Aboriginal people in the war zone had greatly diminished, this was not widely known and the threat that the remaining hostile Aboriginal groups

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and Richmond police districts. Settlers reported arson attacks on buildings and crops which threatened the viability of their farms. In late 1829, one police magistrate informed Arthur that he needed three times his allocation of soldiers to protect local settlers. In February 1830, settlers and the

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In September 1827, Arthur appointed another 26 field police and deployed another 55 soldiers into the settled districts to deal with the rising conflict. Between September 1827 and the following March, at least 70 Aboriginal attacks were reported on the frontier, taking the lives of 20 colonists. By

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George Arthur, governor of the colony since May 1824, had issued a proclamation on his arrival that placed Aboriginal people under the protection of British law and threatened prosecution for anyone who murdered them. Two Aboriginal men were hanged in September 1826 for the murder of three colonists

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From 1825 to 1828, the number of Aboriginal attacks on colonists and their property more than doubled each year. Clements states that although the colonists knew they were fighting a war, "this was not a conventional war, and the enemy could not be combated by conventional means. The blacks were not

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Clements states that the main reasons for frontier violence against Aboriginal people were revenge, killing for sport, sexual desire for women and children, and suppression of the native threat. Male colonists outnumbered females six to one in 1822 and Clements argues that a "voracious appetite" for

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Historians acknowledge that recorded killings in the Black War are minimum figures because most killings of Aboriginal people went unreported. Nevertheless, Clements concludes that even if only reported deaths are considered, annual deaths per head of population were over 600 per 10,000, making the

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By early 1835 almost 300 people had surrendered to Robinson, who reported to the colonial secretary that the entire Aboriginal population had been removed to Flinders Island. However, a family was discovered near Cradle Mountain in 1836 and they eventually surrendered in 1842. Aboriginal women also

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Arthur accepted most of the committee's recommendations but only deployed a small number of additional mounted police due to the expense and a shortage of horses in the colony. He also advised London that an increase in the convict population in remote frontier areas would help protect settlers and

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Arthur also pursued conciliation. In March 1829, he established an Aboriginal mission on Bruny Island in the hope it would attract Aboriginal people from the settled districts. He also commissioned "proclamation boards" with drawings meant to show Aboriginal people the benefits of living peacefully

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The main tactic of the military and settler patrols was to execute dawn raids on Aboriginal camps and there are many reported massacres of six or more Aboriginal people in these raids. The patrols reportedly killed 60 Aboriginal people and captured from 20 to 30 in the two years from November 1828.

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Although Arthur received reports that Aboriginal people were more interested in plundering huts for food than in killing colonists, settlers also reported Aboriginal warriors shouting, "Go away, go away!", burning crops and huts, and stating that they intended to kill every white man on the island.

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In June 1827, at least 80 to 100 members of the Pallittorre clan from the North nation were killed in reprisals for the killing of three stockmen. From December 1826 to July 1827, at least 140 Aboriginal people were killed, and Ryan suggests that the figure might be over 200 for their killing of 15

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Clements states that the recorded Aboriginal death toll in the conflict was 260. He estimates, however, that only 100 Aboriginal people survived the eastern conflict from a pre-war population of 1,000, and he therefore concludes that 900 died from 1824 to 1831. He surmises that about one-third may

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The December surrender effectively ended the Black War, and martial law was revoked in January 1832. There had been 70 Aboriginal attacks on colonists in 1831, in which 33 colonists were killed or wounded. But the number of attacks had been well below the 250 recorded in 1830, and it was now clear

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In April 1827, two shepherds were killed at a farm at Mount Augusta, south of Launceston, and a pursuit party launched a reprisal attack at dawn on an Aboriginal camp, killing up to 40 Aboriginal men, women and children. In May 1827, a group of Oyster Bay Aboriginal people killed a stock-keeper at

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between 1805 and 1813, and 149 male convicts from England in 1812. Former convicts and the Norfolk Islander settlers were given small grants of land. By 1814,12,700 hectares (31,000 acres) of land was under cultivation, with 5,000 cattle and 38,000 sheep. Conflict with Aboriginal people increased,

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Lawson, in a critique of Reynolds' stand, argues that genocide was the inevitable outcome of a set of British policies to colonise Van Diemen's Land. He says the British government endorsed the use of partitioning and "absolute force" against Tasmanians, approved Robinson's "Friendly Mission" and

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Boyce has claimed that the April 1828 "Proclamation Separating the Aborigines from the White Inhabitants" sanctioned force against Aboriginal people "for no other reason than that they were Aboriginal". However, as Reynolds, Broome and Clements point out, there was open warfare at the time. Boyce

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The committee, however, also endorsed the government's attempts to conciliate the hostile Aboriginal clans. In March 1829, George Augustus Robinson had been appointed the head of the Aboriginal Mission on Bruny Island where about 20 survivors of the south-east Aboriginal people were accommodated.

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could only be fired about once every 30 seconds, so they often encouraged colonists to fire then closed in for an attack. War parties would sometimes divide into separate diversionary and main attack groups and then disperse after an attack to make pursuit more difficult. Attacks on livestock and

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Writing in 2002, Keith Windschuttle argued that the Aboriginal population in 1803 was only about 2,000, that only 118 Aboriginal people were killed in the conflict with British settlers, and that the conflict was an outbreak of criminality rather than a war. His arguments have been challenged by

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The main British military response involved official pursuit parties and roving parties. Pursuit parties mostly consisted of soldiers and convicts whose task was to track down Aboriginal groups presumed to be responsible for a particular attack. They were usually in the field for 12 to 48 hours.

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In its report, published in March 1830, the committee stated that the Aboriginal people had lost their sense of superiority of white men, no longer feared British guns, and were now on a systematic plan of attacking the colonists and their possessions. The committee's report supported the bounty

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as chairman of the seven-man Aborigines Committee inquiring into the conflict. Since the declaration of martial law in November 1828 there had been 120 Aboriginal attacks on colonists, resulting in about 50 colonists dead and over 60 wounded. The inquiry was conducted in the context of a further

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Martial law would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period in Australian history. Although the proclamation authorised only the military to shoot Aboriginal people in the settled districts on sight, in practice other colonists did so with impunity. Only one colonist was ever

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Between 1815 and 1830, the colony expanded rapidly. The British population grew from 2,000 to 24,000, the number of sheep increased to 680,000 and cattle to 100,000. The settled districts—mainly in the midlands, east coast and north-west of the island—accounted for almost 30 per cent of its land

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Ryan states that there were 191 recorded deaths of colonists in the conflict from November 1823 to January 1834, and another 10 deaths after this. Clements, who studied a wider range of sources, states that there were 450 casualties among colonists, including 219 recorded deaths, in the eastern

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The population of the north-west clans fell from an estimated 400-700 at the time of colonisation to about 100 by 1835. The population of the neighbouring northern Aboriginal people fell from 400 in 1826 to fewer than 60 by mid-1830. Violence in the north-west ceased in 1834 but resumed between

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Following the killing of a prominent settler on 22 August, a group of settlers wrote to Arthur protesting against his change in policy. The Aborigines Committee and Executive Council also advised him that stronger measures were required to subdue the hostile Oyster Bay and Big River nations. In

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Arthur reported to the Colonial Office secretary in London that the Aboriginal people "already complain that the white people have taken possession of their country, encroached upon their hunting grounds, and destroyed their natural food, the kangaroo". In January 1828, he proposed settling the

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Arthur authorised Robinson to negotiate the surrender of the remaining south-western and western Aboriginal clans and their removal to Flinders Island, believing that this would be the only way of saving them from extermination at the hands of settlers while providing them with the benefits of

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When the Black Line commenced, about 300 members of the hostile Big River, Oyster Bay, Ben Lomond and North Midlands nations were still alive and about 100 to 200 of these were within the line's field of operations. They launched at least 50 attacks on colonists—both in front of and behind the

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In mid-1829 Arthur estimated that there were 2,000 Aboriginal people in the colony. Other estimates by the colonists ranged from 500 to 5,000. Settlers reported that the Oyster Bay people were moving in considerably smaller groups, but sightings of the Big River people in groups of 100 or more

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On 19 April 1828, Arthur issued a "Proclamation Separating the Aborigines from the White Inhabitants". The proclamation aimed to remove Aboriginal Tasmanians from the settled districts of eastern, central and north-western Tasmania as a precursor to negotiations with them for a reserve in the

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against the Aboriginal people in the settled districts, who were now "open enemies of the King". Arthur's move was effectively a declaration of war. Soldiers were authorised to arrest any Aboriginal person in the settled districts without warrant and to shoot those who resisted. However, the

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arrived as the colony's first lieutenant governor in February 1804 with instructions from London that any acts of violence against the Aboriginal people were to be punished. But he failed to publish those instructions, leaving an unclear legal framework for dealing with any violent conflict.

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saw this as a declaration of war on Aboriginal people in the settled districts. Historian Lyndall Ryan argues that Arthur intended to force the surrender of the hostile Aboriginal tribes. Clements states that the November proclamation failed to clarify when it was legal for settlers to kill

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There were no further reports of Aboriginal attacks in the eastern settled districts from December 1831, although isolated acts of violence continued in the north until 1834 and in the north-west until 1842. The death toll from 1832 to 1834 was ten colonists and 40 Aboriginal people.

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In June, Robinson and a party of Aboriginal negotiators set off to locate a resistance group led by Umarrah which had conducted a series of raids killing several colonists. The public mood, however, swung further against Arthur's conciliatory approach after an Aboriginal group led by

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In the first six months of 1829, the Oyster Bay people killed eight convict workers in the Pitt Water district. This was followed by a lull in fighting before a wave of attacks in the spring and summer. Overall, 33 colonists were kill in 1829 compared with 27 the previous year.

319:. Violence increased during a drought in 1806–7 as tribes in the south of the island killed or wounded several colonists in six incidents mostly sparked by competition for game. There were only three hostile encounters recorded in the northern settlements before 1819, although 725:

Following the Black Line campaign, there were probably only about 100 hostile Aboriginal people in the settled districts, although the colonists believed the figure was at least 500. Hopes of peace rose over the summer of 1830-31 as Aboriginal attacks fell to a low level. The

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Many of the colonists, by then barefoot and their clothes tattered, deserted the line and returned home. The campaign's single success was a dawn ambush on 25 October in which two Aboriginal people were captured and two killed. The Black Line was disbanded on 26 November.

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Over the summer of 1826–27, warriors from the Big River, Oyster Bay and North Midlands nations killed a number of stock-keepers on farms. The colonists responded with reprisal raids, in which many Aboriginal people were killed. On 8 December 1826, a group led by

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November 1830 letter to Arthur by Sir George Murray warned that the extinction of the race would leave "an indelible stain upon the character of the British Government"—and therefore what eventuated does not meet the definition of genocide codified in the 1948

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newspaper speculated that their enemy had either been wiped out or frightened into inaction. However, there was a new wave of attacks in late January and March in which several colonists were killed, and many men on the frontier refused to go out to work.

4781: 1342:, considered Tasmania the site of one of the world's clear cases of genocide and Hughes has described the loss of Aboriginal Tasmanians as "the only true genocide in English colonial history". However, other historians – including 379:

On 29 November 1826, Arthur issued a notice authorising settlers to treat hostile Aboriginal groups as open enemies and to use arms to force them from the settled districts. He also deployed additional soldiers and police to these areas. The

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migratory routes and new barracks were built at Spring Bay, Richmond and Break O'Day Plains. There was an increased military presence at farms, and military parties of 50 to 90 men sometimes went out in pursuit of hostile Aboriginal groups.

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About 500 Aboriginal people from five clan groups were still operating in the settled districts when martial law was declared and Arthur's first action was to encourage civilian parties to capture them. On 7 November, a party operating from

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conflict from 1824 to 1831. However, the number killed or wounded was probably under-reported due to administrative inefficiency and because the colonists did not want to discourage British investment in, and emigration to, the colony.

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as slaves. Settlers and soldiers gave evidence of killings and atrocities on both sides, but the committee was also told that despite the attacks, some settlers believed very few Aboriginal people now remained in the settled districts.

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a staggered front more than 300 km long that began pushing south and east across the Settled Districts from 7 October. The intention was to form a pincer movement to push members of four of the nine Aboriginal nations across the

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Arthur admitted that the British were "the first aggressors" but thought continued violence could only be prevented by enforcing the ban on Aboriginal people entering the settled areas. He deployed almost 300 troops from the 40th and

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Vigilante groups mainly consisted of convicts but settlers and their employees were often involved. They generally used the same weapons and tactics as the official parties but probably inflicted more deaths on Aboriginal groups.

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Clements states that much of the Aboriginal violence in the early stages of the war was targeted revenge for killings and abductions by the colonists, but that the arson and killing of livestock were clearly acts of resistance.

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On 3 May 1804, soldiers, settlers and convicts from Risdon Cove fired on a hunting party of 100 to 300 Aboriginal people. The British commanding officer stated that he thought the Aboriginal group was hostile. Witnesses to the

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describes the decision to remove all Aboriginal Tasmanians after 1832—by which time they had given up their fight against white colonists—as an extreme policy position. He concludes: "The colonial government from 1832 to 1838

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Particularly from the late 1820s, the Aboriginal people were also driven by hunger to plunder settlers' homes for food as their hunting grounds shrank, native game disappeared, and the dangers of hunting on open ground grew.

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and Arthur hoped that this would deter further attacks on colonists. But between September and November 1826 six more colonists were murdered, taking the number of colonists killed in the conflict to 36 since 1823. The

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and authorised him to negotiate the surrender of the remaining Big River and Oyster Bay people. In March, the 53 Aboriginal Tasmanians under Robinson's care were transferred to a settlement on Gun Carriage Island (now

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observed that Aboriginal people did not give up their land peacefully and that they were killed or forcibly removed from their land "in what amounted to attempted (and in Tasmania almost complete) genocide".

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interior to locate and negotiate with the remaining hostile Big River and Oyster Bay groups. On 31 December, they made contact with a party of 26 Big River and Oyster Bay people led by Montpelliatta and

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Robinson led the 26 Aboriginal people to Hobart where they surrendered to governor Arthur on January 7, 1832. Ten days later, the groups led by Montpelliatta, Tongerlongeter and Umarrah were sent to

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in an attempt to capture several dozen Aboriginal people who had entered the peninsula. The cordon was abandoned four days later after the Aboriginal people slipped through and escaped at night.

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continued. It is likely that the massacres, privation and a falling birth rate had reduced the Aboriginal population to under 1,000 and that less than 300 remained in south-eastern Tasmania.

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also states that although the health of the Aboriginal population was generally good, at least one southern Aboriginal clan was decimated by other introduced diseases before the Black War.

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The Aboriginal people of north-west Tasmania had sporadic and sometimes violent encounters with the British before the region was colonised in 1826. The colonists were servants of the

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has argued that the conflict should be known as the "Tasmanian War". She has also called for a public memorial to be commissioned to honour the dead on both sides of the war.

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March 1828 the death toll in the settled districts for the 16 months since Arthur's November 1826 official notice had risen to 43 colonists and up to 350 Aboriginal people.

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states that in practice: "Any Aborigine could now be legally killed for doing no more than crossing an unmarked border that the government did not even bother to define."

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Among submissions it received were suggestions to set up decoy huts containing poisoned flour and sugar, that Aboriginal people be rooted out with bloodhounds and that

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The Tasmanian settlements grew slowly up to 1815, with the population reaching 1,933 people that year. Growth was mainly through the arrival of 600 colonists from

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had begun in late 1798, the first significant European presence on the island came in September 1803 with the establishment of a small British military outpost at

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captured Umarrah—a leader of the North Midlands nation—and four others including his wife and a child. Umarrah remained defiant and was jailed for over a year.

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Clements accepts Reynolds' argument but also exonerates the colonists themselves of the charge of genocide. He says that unlike genocidal determinations by

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Almost all of the remaining Aboriginal people were removed from mainland Tasmania from 1832 to 1835, and the 220 survivors were eventually relocated to the

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on Flinders Island. Infectious diseases and a low birth rate cut the Aboriginal population at Wybalenna to 46 when the mission was closed in 1847.

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of 10 February 1828 in which shepherds armed with muskets ambushed up to 30 Aboriginal people as they collected shellfish at the foot of a cliff.

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Estimates of Tasmania's Aboriginal population in 1803, the year of British settlement, range from 3,000 to 7,000. Lydall Ryan, citing studies by

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and Nicholas Clements who conclude that the conflict was an Aboriginal war of liberation in which 600 to 900 Aboriginal Tasmanians were killed.

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points to the arguments of Windschuttle as being a minority opinion among historians who generally accept the Black War as a case of genocide.

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mainly due to sporadic murders and colonists hunting game and kidnapping Aboriginal women and children for domestic work and sexual purposes.

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The British had several hostile encounters with Aboriginal clans over the next five months, with shots fired and an Aboriginal boy abducted.

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with the colonists under an ideal British justice in which whites would be hanged for killing blacks and blacks hanged for killing whites.

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Barta, Tony (2023). "A Very British Genocide: Acknowledgement of Indigenous Destruction in the Founding of Australia and New Zealand". In

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press launched a campaign for increased military protection on the frontier and the removal of hostile tribes to the Bass Strait islands.

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from the mid-1820s to 1832 that precipitated the near extermination of the indigenous population. The conflict was fought largely as a

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Violence, however, did not abate. There were 60 Aboriginal attacks on colonists from November 1829 to March 1830, most of them in the

5322: 5290: 4951: 4910: 284: 758:, whose group had killed a number of colonists. In February, Arthur appointed Robinson to head an Aboriginal Establishment on the 5413: 5336: 4971: 4802: 4273: 450: 227:

and his Aboriginal negotiators secured the surrender of the Aboriginal belligerents. Martial law was revoked in January 1832.

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The frequent mass killings and near-destruction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians are regarded by some contemporary historians as

454:

16 Oyster Bay people who were killed in July at their encampment in the Eastern Tiers by a detachment of the 40th Regiment.

241:

by the colonists. Others, however, argue that the colonial authorities did not intend to destroy the Aboriginal population.

874:

continued to live with sealers on the Bass Strait islands and small Aboriginal groups remained in the Great Western Tiers.

600: 505: 300: 4168:""They will be hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed!": a comparative study of genocide in California and Tasmania" 4027:"Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia" 3776: 2752: 1084: 5393: 4939: 4915: 4099: 3990: 3971: 3947: 3864: 3329: 1046:

sealers was a key factor in the population decline of Aboriginal clans in the northern and southern coastal regions.

655:

Aboriginal warriors conducted a guerrilla war against the British. They mostly used three weapons: spears, rocks and

327:

inflicted "many atrocious cruelties" on Aboriginal people which led to Aboriginal attacks on solitary white hunters.

69: 857:

in September, Robinson resolved to use force if necessary to secure the removal of the remaining Aboriginal people.

750:

By January 1831, Robinson's party had contacted more than fifty Aboriginal people and had moved them temporarily to

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one people, but rather a number of disparate tribes. They had no home base and no recognisable command structure."

1369:

portrayed the obliteration of Tasmania's Aboriginal people as an example of "systematic massacre" and in the 1979

619:

said it doubted settlers would need persuading "to accomplish the one grand and glorious object now before them".

409:. A pursuit party of soldiers, police and civilians later attacked an Aboriginal camp killing at least six people. 36: 4792: 4776: 3898: 3397: 2757: 1298: 1207: 647:

September 1839 and February 1842 when Aboriginal people made at least 18 attacks on company men and property.

576:

escalation in hostilities: in February there were 30 separate incidents in which seven Europeans were killed.

4535: 4372: 1187: 4220:. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. 3802:. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. 833:

that the remnants of the hostile Aboriginal clans had been exhausted, hungry and desperate throughout 1831.

5383: 5137: 4462: 4172: 4031: 3667: 1137: 628: 231: 5418: 5223: 5141: 4868: 1464: 1229: 4845: 664:

arson of buildings and crops were also common but were not used systematically as a major war strategy.

372:

newspaper advocated the removal of all Aboriginal people from the settled districts to an island in the

5198: 4840: 4817: 4516: 4402: 4390: 4330: 4221: 4091: 4060: 3803: 1386: 1343: 1027: 685: 572: 5205: 4360: 4348: 1291: 1192: 309: 3663:"Massacre in the Black War in Tasmania 1823–34: a case study of the Meander River Region, June 1827" 2231: 2003: 1670: 5378: 5373: 5232: 4771: 4583: 4565: 4547: 4504: 4498: 4444: 4432: 4316: 4167: 4026: 1390: 1252: 1163: 858: 274: 224: 91: 4873: 4559: 4522: 4510: 4456: 4420: 4336: 1370: 854: 639:

On 21 August 1829, four company servants killed an Aboriginal woman at Emu Bay, near present-day

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the western half of Van Diemen's Land and then callously left the exiled people to their fate."

4994: 4607: 4595: 4414: 3957: 3926: 3917: 1323: 1197: 1182: 1157: 751: 536: 40: 315:

By 1806, the British had founded two main penal settlements on the sites of modern Hobart and

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system, recommended more mounted police, and urged settlers to remain well armed and alert.

5264: 5239: 5157: 5067: 4601: 4571: 4553: 4529: 4492: 4426: 4341: 3829: 1450: 1217: 1132: 442: 316: 292: 266: 220: 216:

by both sides; some 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and more than 200 British colonists died.

105: 16:

Period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania

51: 8: 5191: 5150: 5128: 4474: 4438: 1395: 1272: 1177: 801: 786: 697: 5164: 5117: 4878: 4850: 4619: 4408: 4384: 4189: 4140: 4048: 3684: 2747: 1362: 1322:

has been described as an act of genocide by historians and genocide scholars including

1147: 633: 540: 498: 394: 4963: 5246: 4613: 4486: 4233: 4193: 4152: 4121: 4095: 4072: 4052: 4011: 3986: 3967: 3943: 3902: 3879: 3860: 3837: 3815: 3772: 3688: 3393: 3325: 2779: 2771: 2761: 1414: 1281: 1212: 1127: 1093: 862: 797: 764: 406: 109: 4589: 416:

Samuel Calvert's depiction of Aboriginals attacking a shepherds' hut as released in

4723: 4450: 4354: 4225: 4181: 4144: 4117: 4040: 3939: 3856: 3807: 3762: 3676: 1471: 1406: 1355: 1331: 1262: 1224: 1167: 1067: 800:

and, in late October, 100 armed settlers formed a cordon across the narrow part of

701: 640: 512:

Ryan, however, estimates the Aboriginal death toll was at least 200 by March 1830.

462: 99: 519:

Samuel Thomas Gill's depiction of a night-time punitive raid on an Aboriginal camp

412: 401:

killed 14 Oyster Bay people and captured another nine, including Kickerterpoller.

5171: 5060: 5018: 4001: 3962: 3766: 1142: 1071: 1031: 826: 312:

stated that between three and fifty Aboriginal men, women and children had died.

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warriors be brought to Tasmania to capture the Aboriginal people for removal to

580: 5046: 4920: 4718: 4683: 4577: 4480: 4468: 4255: 1347: 1339: 1152: 819: 809: 759: 376:, warning: "if not, they will be hunted down like wild beasts, and destroyed!" 331: 250: 201: 157: 4148: 3680: 3322:

The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803–1847

552:

in increasing the military presence in Van Diemen's Land but without success.

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where the Aboriginal Establishment had been relocated the previous November.

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declared that only "utter annihilation" could subdue the Aboriginal people.

5032: 4997: 4366: 4285: 4109: 4007: 3658: 3385: 2035:"Site List Timeline, , Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930" 1446: 1327: 1112: 1061: 254: 4229: 3811: 5273: 5025: 4708: 4688: 4653: 4213: 4205: 4201: 3795: 3787: 2000:

The Centre of 21st Century Humanities, University of Newcastle, Australia

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in Bass Strait. Those moved to the island included the resistance leader

607:

asked that all convict transport ships be diverted to Van Diemen's Land.

584: 480: 373: 270: 219:

When a British penal settlement was established in Tasmania (then called

4728: 4673: 4668: 669: 569: 390: 359: 324: 320: 2228:

Centre For 21st Century Humanities, University of Newcastle, Australia

2039:

Centre for 21st Century Humanities, University of Newcastle, Australia

632:

attack on an Aboriginal campsite, killing 12. The conflict led to the

5074: 3205: 1996:"Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930: Sally Peak (1)" 1267: 3390:

Whitewash: on Keith Windschuttle's fabrication of Aboriginal history

2992: 2929: 2224:"Eastern Tiers, Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930" 738: 5001: 4788:

Aboriginal Protection and restriction of the sale of opium act 1897

4703: 4698: 4693: 4663: 4658: 4137:

The Memory of Genocide in Tasmania, 1803–2013: Scars on the Archive

3738: 2507: 2369: 2345: 1374: 1257: 1101: 560: 515: 238: 209: 132: 4204:(2023). "Genocide in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), 1803–1871". In 789:

culminating in the death of two prominent settlers in August. The

4782:

Act to provide certain matters connected with the Aborigines 1889

4738: 4713: 4648: 2905: 2857: 2833: 2667: 850: 815: 564:

Archdeacon William Broughton, who headed the Aborigines Committee

249:

The terms "Black War" and "Black Line" were coined by journalist

3353: 3301: 3241: 3193: 2703: 812:. Umarrah's wife, Woolaytopinnyer, persuaded them to surrender. 770: 4643: 4638: 3581: 3579: 2393: 2297: 2285: 1418: 1410: 660: 393:

threatened a farm overseer at Bank Hill farm at Orielton, near

278: 3768:

Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples

3433: 2081: 4733: 4396: 3639: 2691: 1844: 1607: 656: 3936:

The Original Australians: the story of the Aboriginal People

3576: 3277: 3229: 3181: 3139: 3028: 2881: 2869: 2495: 2333: 2204: 1745: 47: 3156: 3154: 1601:

The History of Van Diemen's Land From the Year 1824 to 1835

3726: 3702: 3627: 3591: 3469: 3127: 1663:"Centre For 21st Century Humanities: Risdon Cove massacre" 1389:

says there was a widespread call from settlers during the

712:

line—during the campaign, often plundering huts for food.

704:, which Arthur intended to declare an Aboriginal reserve. 3091: 2715: 2524: 2522: 2170: 2168: 2093: 1928: 1832: 1757: 1338:, and Tony Barta. The author of the concept of genocide, 3566: 3564: 3445: 3406: 3289: 3151: 3115: 3079: 3052: 3040: 3016: 2968: 2941: 2917: 2893: 2821: 2432: 2381: 2153: 2117: 1580: 1060:

numerous authors including James Boyce, Henry Reynolds,

840: 796:

Several weeks later, an Aboriginal group robbed huts at

4993: 3615: 3537: 3525: 3457: 3365: 3217: 2809: 2655: 2558: 2483: 2456: 2405: 2357: 2321: 2309: 2141: 2129: 3549: 3253: 2519: 2192: 2165: 2069: 1964: 1892: 1880: 1856: 1820: 1796: 1721: 1709: 1697: 1619: 861:, at Tasmania's north-west tip, and penal stations in 849:

However, after a hostile encounter with a group of 29

363:

Tasmanian tribes at the time of first European contact

3714: 3561: 3004: 2727: 2679: 2609: 2585: 2261: 2057: 2010: 1976: 1952: 1940: 1904: 1868: 1769: 1733: 1685: 1631: 1556: 1546: 1544: 1542: 720: 3603: 3069: 3067: 2980: 2845: 2597: 2546: 2273: 2180: 1808: 1568: 1527: 1503: 679: 104:

An 1833 painting of Aboriginal Tasmanians attacking

4886:

Parliamentary Select Committee on Aboriginal Tribes

3919:

Frontier Conflict in Van Diemen's Land (PhD thesis)

3384:Reynolds, Henry (2003). "Terra Nullius Reborn". In 3265: 2797: 2534: 2105: 1916: 1643: 1539: 1515: 1078: 3064: 684:"Black Line" redirects here. For other uses, see 5365: 3980: 3359: 3307: 3247: 3199: 2998: 2935: 2513: 2399: 2375: 2351: 2303: 2291: 1017: 650: 4139:. Palgrave Studies in the History of Genocide. 3429:. South Melbourne, Vic.: Macmillan. p. 75. 4762:List of laws concerning Indigenous Australians 253:in 1835. In the early 21st century, historian 4979: 4301: 2628: 2626: 2624: 1299: 504:Arthur established military patrols from the 493:prosecuted for killing an Aboriginal person. 457: 4315: 4003:The Last Man: A British Genocide in Tasmania 3853:Aboriginal Australians: a history since 1788 3771:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. 3319: 2473: 2471: 1054: 881: 289:Natives on the Ouse River, Van Diemen's Land 4906:List of massacres of Indigenous Australians 1442:List of massacres of Indigenous Australians 1002:Black War one of the deadliest in history. 597:Secretary of State for War and the Colonies 4986: 4972: 4308: 4294: 3392:. Melbourne: Black Inc. pp. 109–138. 2756:. Canberra: National Centre of Biography, 2621: 1306: 1292: 1111: 350: 50:. Please do not remove this message until 5291:List of Indigenous Australian group names 4911:Mass poisonings of Aboriginal Australians 2468: 568:In March 1830, Arthur appointed Anglican 200:was a period of violent conflict between 70:Learn how and when to remove this message 4767:Aboriginals Fire Arm Regulation Act 1840 4254: 4085: 4059: 3983:Van Diemen's Land: An Aboriginal History 3981:Johnson, Murray; McFarlane, Ian (2015). 3915: 3892: 3761: 3708: 3633: 3621: 3585: 3543: 3503: 3412: 3383: 3283: 3235: 3211: 3187: 3160: 3145: 3133: 3046: 3034: 3022: 2962: 2887: 2875: 2863: 2839: 2815: 2721: 2709: 2697: 2673: 2632: 2528: 2450: 2198: 2174: 2099: 1934: 1898: 1886: 1862: 1850: 1838: 1826: 1802: 1790: 1763: 1727: 1703: 1574: 1562: 1509: 1497: 1491: 814: 769: 737: 715: 559: 514: 461: 411: 358: 283: 46:Relevant discussion may be found on the 5409:Violence against Indigenous Australians 4813:Commonwealth Aboriginals Ordinance 1911 4803:Northern Territory Aboriginals Act 1910 4218:The Cambridge World History of Genocide 4134: 3985:. University of New South Wales Press. 3800:The Cambridge World History of Genocide 3531: 3424: 3171: 3169: 3112:, pp. xviii, 140–41, 198, 203–216. 2745: 1334:, Benjamin Madley, Ashley Riley Sousa, 555: 5366: 4200: 4024: 3999: 3956: 3873: 3850: 3744: 3732: 3720: 3645: 3609: 3570: 3555: 3515: 3507: 3499: 3487: 3475: 3343: 3341: 3073: 2958: 2956: 2733: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2615: 2591: 2575: 2573: 2267: 2251: 2249: 2029: 2027: 2025: 1814: 1786: 1784: 1637: 622: 397:; the following day soldiers from the 4967: 4289: 4165: 3933: 3828: 3785: 3597: 3519: 3511: 3491: 3463: 3439: 3371: 3295: 3097: 3010: 2827: 2649: 2603: 2552: 2477: 2438: 2422: 2420: 2279: 2186: 2159: 2135: 2123: 1751: 1715: 1625: 1173:Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders 841:Removal of western Aboriginal nations 4946: 4108: 3657: 3495: 3451: 3418: 3347: 3271: 3259: 3223: 3175: 3166: 3121: 3109: 3085: 3058: 2986: 2974: 2947: 2923: 2911: 2899: 2851: 2803: 2685: 2661: 2579: 2564: 2540: 2501: 2489: 2462: 2426: 2411: 2387: 2363: 2339: 2327: 2315: 2255: 2210: 2147: 2111: 2087: 2075: 2063: 2016: 1982: 1970: 1958: 1946: 1922: 1910: 1874: 1775: 1739: 1691: 1649: 1613: 1598: 1586: 1550: 1533: 1521: 20: 3338: 3313: 2953: 2638: 2570: 2444: 2246: 2022: 1781: 13: 5404:Indigenous Australians in Tasmania 4248: 2753:Australian Dictionary of Biography 2417: 1085:Genocide of Indigenous Australians 721:Surrender in the settled districts 548:posed to frontier farms was real. 14: 5430: 5389:History of Indigenous Australians 4267: 3938:(2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: 3855:(5th ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: 1049: 680:Black Line, October–November 1830 595:Arthur forwarded their report to 260: 5399:History of Australia (1788–1850) 4945: 4934: 4933: 3878:. Launceston: Fullers Bookshop. 3651: 3481: 3377: 1320:Tasmania's Aboriginal population 1075:had surrendered to the British. 98: 25: 3754: 2739: 2216: 1988: 1655: 1375:Coe v Commonwealth of Australia 1079:Academic discussion of genocide 785:conducted further raids in the 265:Although commercial sealing on 5414:Genocide of indigenous peoples 4916:Aborigines' Protection Society 4793:Aborigines Protection Act 1909 4777:Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 4276:Black War of Van Diemen’s Land 4262:, Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire Ltd 3899:University of Queensland Press 2758:Australian National University 1592: 700:to East Bay Neck and into the 418:The Illustrated Melbourne Post 1: 4536:Avenue Range Station massacre 4373:Corn Field Raids of 1827-1828 2748:"Douglas, Sholto (1795–1838)" 1484: 1478:Conflict in Van Diemen's Land 1018:Aboriginal population decline 651:Military strategy and tactics 466:Proclamation board labelled " 4463:Fighting Waterholes massacre 4274:Extract from James Bonwick, 4173:Journal of Genocide Research 4166:Sousa, Ashley Riley (2004). 4032:Journal of Genocide Research 3747:, pp. 486–487, 504–506. 3668:Journal of Genocide Research 3360:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 3320:Windschuttle, Keith (2002). 3308:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 3248:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 3214:, pp. iv, 279–281, 343. 3200:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2999:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2936:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2914:, pp. 133–134, 176–184. 2514:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2400:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2376:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2352:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2304:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 2292:Johnson & McFarlane 2015 995:Source: Ryan (2012). p. 143 868: 672:musket, bayonets and clubs. 323:stated in 1810 that convict 244: 232:Wybalenna Aboriginal Mission 7: 4869:Aboriginal Protection Board 4186:10.1080/1462352042000225949 4045:10.1080/1462352042000225930 3916:Clements, Nicholas (2013). 3893:Clements, Nicholas (2014). 3876:Levée, Line and Martial Law 1435: 1428:Writing in 2023, historian 143:British control of Tasmania 52:conditions to do so are met 10: 5435: 4818:Aboriginals Ordinance 1918 4517:War of Southern Queensland 4403:Convincing Ground massacre 4391:Port Phillip District Wars 4331:Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars 4222:Cambridge University Press 4092:Cambridge University Press 4090:. Melbourne and New York: 3804:Cambridge University Press 3425:Blainey, Geoffrey (1980). 2090:, pp. 89, 94, 97–100. 1415:Ottomans against Armenians 1082: 683: 458:Martial law, November 1828 5297: 5287: 5263: 5222: 5181: 5136: 5127: 5102: 5084: 5008: 4929: 4898: 4859: 4833: 4754: 4747: 4629: 4361:Minnamurra River massacre 4323: 4149:10.1057/978-1-137-48443-7 4025:Madley, Benjamin (2004). 3934:Flood, Josephine (2019). 3681:10.1080/14623520802447834 2676:, pp. 79, 83–84, 87. 1616:, pp. xxvi, 145–146. 1468:, an Australian 2018 film 1460:, an Australian 1980 film 1396:United Nations convention 1055:Conflict and depopulation 994: 886: 882:Population and death toll 629:Van Diemen's Land Company 484:proclamation also stated: 168: 151: 115: 97: 89: 84: 5394:Australian frontier wars 4846:R. v. Kilmeister (No. 2) 4841:R. v. Kilmeister (No. 1) 4772:Aboriginal Witnesses Act 4584:Koonchera Point massacre 4566:Cullin-La-Ringo massacre 4445:Murdering Gully massacre 4433:Campaspe Plains massacre 4317:Australian frontier wars 4086:Reynolds, Henry (2012). 3851:Broome, Richard (2019). 3836:. Melbourne: Black Inc. 3502:, pp. xvii, 2, 20; 3442:, pp. 109–111, 116. 2866:, pp. 146–150, 152. 2842:, pp. 130–140, 143. 2712:, pp. 45–48, 71–75. 2504:, pp. 121–126, 134. 2342:, pp. 109–112, 121. 2213:, pp. 101–103, 123. 1318:The near-destruction of 1253:Compulsory sterilization 742:George Augustus Robinson 225:George Augustus Robinson 92:Australian frontier wars 4874:Protector of Aborigines 4590:Jandamarra Guerilla War 4560:Hospital Creek Massacre 4523:Battle of One Tree Hill 4511:Warrigal Creek massacre 4457:Fighting Hills massacre 4421:Waterloo Creek massacre 4337:Battle of Richmond Hill 4281:Accessed 15 August 2009 4135:Shipway, Jesse (2017). 3874:Calder, Graeme (2010). 2746:McMahon, J. F. (2005). 1754:, pp. 53, 105–106. 351:Crisis years, 1825–1831 4630:Indigenous Australian 4608:Forrest River massacre 4596:Mistake Creek massacre 4415:Battle of Broken River 3927:University of Tasmania 3648:, pp. 15, 78, 85. 2230:. 2022. Archived from 2041:. 2022. Archived from 2002:. 2022. Archived from 1667:c21ch.newcastle.edu.au 822: 777: 743: 565: 520: 490: 475: 421: 364: 296: 5303:By state or territory 5010:Aboriginal Tasmanians 4554:Hornet Bank massacre 4548:East Ballina massacre 4542:Waterloo Bay massacre 4499:Pelican Creek tragedy 4278:, London, pp. 154–155 4230:10.1017/9781108765480 4088:A History of Tasmania 3812:10.1017/9781108765480 2700:, pp. 40, 82–90. 1853:, pp. 20, 42–50. 818: 791:Launceston Advertiser 773: 741: 716:Surrender and removal 563: 518: 486: 465: 415: 362: 287: 206:Aboriginal Tasmanians 169:Casualties and losses 163:Aboriginal Tasmanians 5213:"Lhotsky/Blackhouse" 5068:Fanny Cochrane Smith 4602:Mowla Bluff massacre 4572:Flying Foam Massacre 4530:Darkey Flat Massacre 4493:Rufus River massacre 4427:Myall Creek massacre 4381:(Tasmania) (1828–32) 4349:Risdon Cove massacre 4342:Battle of Parramatta 4224:. pp. 481–507. 4212:; Madley, Benjamin; 4114:Tasmanian Aborigines 4000:Lawson, Tom (2014). 3794:; Madley, Benjamin; 3600:, pp. 264, 296. 3498:, p. xix, 215; 2390:, pp. 112, 115. 1589:, p. 372 fn 28. 1451:Fanny Cochrane Smith 1407:Hutus against Tutsis 1188:Recognition politics 1133:Genocides in history 556:Aborigines Committee 405:Great Swanport near 108:'s Milton Farm near 5384:History of Tasmania 5129:Tasmanian languages 4823:Aborigines Act 1934 4808:Aborigines Act 1911 4798:Aborigines Act 1910 4632:resistance warriors 4505:Evans Head massacre 4475:Gippsland massacres 4439:Blood Hole massacre 4065:An Indelible Stain? 3735:, pp. 51, 205. 3661:(6 November 2008). 3588:, pp. 110–112. 3478:, pp. 481–484. 3454:, pp. 71, 144. 3286:, pp. 325–329. 3238:, pp. 324–325. 3190:, pp. 329–331. 3148:, pp. 323–324. 3124:, pp. 222–227. 3100:, pp. 299–306. 3088:, pp. 199–216. 3061:, pp. 198–203. 3037:, pp. 174–176. 3001:, pp. 215–216. 2977:, pp. 190–197. 2950:, pp. 187–191. 2938:, pp. 210–213. 2926:, pp. 182–184. 2902:, pp. 155–168. 2890:, pp. 160–161. 2878:, pp. 158–160. 2830:, pp. 273–274. 2664:, pp. 168–174. 2567:, pp. 127–129. 2516:, pp. 141–142. 2492:, pp. 122–125. 2465:, pp. 121–122. 2441:, pp. 194–195. 2414:, pp. 113–115. 2378:, pp. 138–139. 2366:, pp. 112–117. 2354:, pp. 136–140. 2330:, pp. 108–111. 2318:, pp. 106–107. 2162:, pp. 262–265. 2150:, pp. 101–102. 2126:, pp. 262–263. 1367:History of Tasmania 1356:ethnically cleansed 1273:Forced assimilation 1030:, Colin Pardoe and 802:Freycinet Peninsula 787:Great Western Tiers 698:Forestier Peninsula 623:North-west conflict 617:Hobart Town Courier 385:Aboriginal people. 39:of this article is 5419:British war crimes 5316:Northern Territory 5118:Cape Grim massacre 5103:Aboriginal history 4879:Aboriginal reserve 4851:Tuckiar v The King 4620:Caledon Bay crisis 4409:Battle of Pinjarra 4385:Cape Grim massacre 4141:Palgrave Macmillan 3806:. pp. 46–68. 3350:, pp. xx–xxvi 3298:, pp. 99–100. 3226:, pp. 14, 42. 3178:, pp. 142–144 2965:, pp. 165–167 2652:, pp. 202–205 2635:, pp. 180–189 2582:, pp. 129–130 2480:, pp. 268–270 2429:, pp. 117–120 2258:, pp. 103–105 2138:, pp. 263–64. 2078:, pp. 97–100. 1973:, pp. 88, 90. 1603:. pp. 89, 90. 1403:Nazis against Jews 959:Feb 1832—Aug 1834 942:Nov 1828—Jan 1832 928:Dec 1826—Oct 1828 914:Nov 1823—Nov 1826 897:Aboriginal people 823: 778: 744: 634:Cape Grim massacre 566: 521: 476: 422: 365: 297: 5361: 5360: 5351:Western Australia 5283: 5282: 5199:Tyerrernotepanner 4961: 4960: 4894: 4893: 4784:(statute 24/1889) 4614:Coniston massacre 4487:Wonnerup massacre 4282: 4239:978-1-108-48643-9 4158:978-1-137-48443-7 4127:978-1-74237-068-2 4118:Allen & Unwin 4078:978-0-67091-220-9 4017:978-1-78076-626-3 3940:Allen & Unwin 3908:978-0-70225-006-4 3885:978-0-64653-085-7 3857:Allen & Unwin 3843:978-1-86395-491-4 3834:Van Diemen's Land 3821:978-1-108-48643-9 3763:Adhikari, Mohamed 3711:, pp. 56–58. 3636:, pp. 52–54. 3466:, pp. 64–65. 3374:, pp. 10–11. 3324:. Macleay Press. 3262:, pp. 56–57. 3136:, pp. 79–81. 2767:978-0-522-84459-7 2724:, pp. 75–79. 2688:, pp. 82–83. 2453:, pp. 95–101 2102:, pp. 59–64. 2066:, pp. 95–96. 2019:, pp. 93–95. 2006:on 12 March 2024. 1985:, pp. 90–91. 1961:, pp. 87–88. 1949:, pp. 89–91. 1937:, pp. 53–54. 1913:, pp. 80–83. 1877:, pp. 78–80. 1841:, pp. 58–67. 1778:, pp. 74–75. 1766:, pp. 19–22. 1742:, pp. 58–64. 1718:, pp. 21–43. 1694:, pp. 49–51. 1628:, pp. 18–21. 1599:Melville, Henry. 1536:, pp. 11–17. 1405:in World War II, 1361:As early as 1852 1316: 1315: 1128:List of genocides 999: 998: 863:Macquarie Harbour 765:Vansittart Island 573:William Broughton 277:near present-day 267:Van Diemen's Land 221:Van Diemen's Land 202:British colonists 194: 193: 147: 146: 80: 79: 72: 5426: 5353: 5346: 5339: 5332: 5325: 5318: 5311: 5304: 5276: 5256: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5215: 5208: 5201: 5194: 5174: 5167: 5160: 5153: 5134: 5133: 5120: 5113: 5095: 5085:Tasmanian tribes 5077: 5070: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5028: 5021: 4988: 4981: 4974: 4965: 4964: 4949: 4948: 4937: 4936: 4752: 4751: 4724:Tunnerminnerwait 4451:Battle of Yering 4397:Yagan Resistance 4310: 4303: 4296: 4287: 4286: 4280: 4263: 4243: 4197: 4162: 4131: 4105: 4082: 4056: 4021: 3996: 3977: 3953: 3930: 3924: 3912: 3889: 3870: 3847: 3825: 3782: 3765:(25 July 2022). 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3574: 3568: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3506:, p. xxix; 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3345: 3336: 3335: 3317: 3311: 3305: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3164: 3158: 3149: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3076:, pp. 84–86 3071: 3062: 3056: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2636: 2630: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2568: 2562: 2556: 2550: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2244: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2234:on 12 March 2024 2220: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2045:on 18 March 2024 2031: 2020: 2014: 2008: 2007: 1992: 1986: 1980: 1974: 1968: 1962: 1956: 1950: 1944: 1938: 1932: 1926: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1902: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1848: 1842: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1794: 1793:, pp. 51–52 1788: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1761: 1755: 1749: 1743: 1737: 1731: 1725: 1719: 1713: 1707: 1701: 1695: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1673:on 12 March 2024 1669:. 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London: Pan. 3963:The Fatal Shore 3950: 3922: 3909: 3886: 3867: 3844: 3822: 3779: 3757: 3752: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3656: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3620: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3577: 3569: 3562: 3554: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3534:, pp. 4–6. 3530: 3526: 3518:, p. 484; 3494:, p. 296; 3490:, p. 120; 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3427:A Land Half Won 3423: 3419: 3415:, pp. 5–6. 3411: 3407: 3400: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3362:, pp. 7–9. 3358: 3354: 3346: 3339: 3332: 3318: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3294: 3290: 3282: 3278: 3270: 3266: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3210: 3206: 3198: 3194: 3186: 3182: 3174: 3167: 3163:, pp. 3–4. 3159: 3152: 3144: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2961: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2886: 2882: 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3204: 3202:, p. 199. 3192: 3180: 3165: 3150: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3063: 3051: 3049:, p. 180. 3039: 3027: 3025:, p. 176. 3015: 3013:, p. 289. 3003: 2991: 2989:, p. 196. 2979: 2967: 2952: 2940: 2928: 2916: 2904: 2892: 2880: 2868: 2856: 2854:, p. 133. 2844: 2832: 2820: 2818:, p. 144. 2808: 2806:, p. 131. 2796: 2766: 2738: 2736:, p. 183. 2726: 2714: 2702: 2690: 2678: 2666: 2654: 2637: 2620: 2618:, p. 182. 2608: 2606:, p. 273. 2596: 2594:, p. 181. 2584: 2569: 2557: 2555:, p. 270. 2545: 2543:, p. 126. 2533: 2518: 2506: 2494: 2482: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2416: 2404: 2402:, p. 140. 2392: 2380: 2368: 2356: 2344: 2332: 2320: 2308: 2306:, p. 130. 2296: 2294:, p. 139. 2284: 2282:, p. 196. 2272: 2270:, p. 175. 2260: 2245: 2215: 2203: 2191: 2189:, p. 265. 2179: 2164: 2152: 2140: 2128: 2116: 2114:, p. 100. 2104: 2092: 2080: 2068: 2056: 2021: 2009: 1987: 1975: 1963: 1951: 1939: 1927: 1915: 1903: 1891: 1879: 1867: 1855: 1843: 1831: 1819: 1807: 1795: 1780: 1768: 1756: 1744: 1732: 1720: 1708: 1696: 1684: 1654: 1642: 1640:, p. 122. 1630: 1618: 1606: 1591: 1579: 1567: 1555: 1553:, p. 141. 1538: 1526: 1524:, p. 143. 1514: 1502: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1474: 1469: 1461: 1453: 1444: 1437: 1434: 1387:Henry Reynolds 1348:Richard Broome 1344:Henry Reynolds 1340:Raphael Lemkin 1330:, Tom Lawson, 1314: 1313: 1311: 1310: 1303: 1296: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1278: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1247: 1246: 1245:Related topics 1242: 1241: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1232: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1116: 1108: 1107: 1098: 1097: 1080: 1077: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1050:Historiography 1048: 1019: 1016: 997: 996: 992: 991: 986: 981: 976: 970: 969: 966: 963: 960: 956: 955: 952: 949: 946: 944:(martial law) 939: 938: 935: 932: 929: 925: 924: 921: 918: 915: 911: 910: 907: 901: 899:killed (est.) 895: 888: 885: 883: 880: 870: 867: 842: 839: 820:Tongerlongeter 810:Tongerlongeter 728:Colonial Times 722: 719: 717: 714: 681: 678: 652: 649: 624: 621: 557: 554: 468:Governor Davey 459: 456: 382:Colonial Times 370:Colonial Times 352: 349: 332:Norfolk Island 262: 261:Early conflict 259: 251:Henry Melville 246: 243: 192: 191: 188: 171: 170: 166: 165: 160: 158:British Empire 154: 153: 149: 148: 145: 144: 141: 137: 136: 131: 129: 125: 124: 123:Mid-1820s–1832 121: 113: 112: 110:Great Swanport 95: 94: 87: 86: 78: 77: 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5431: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5341: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5327: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5286: 5275: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5237: 5234: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5221: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5169: 5166: 5162: 5159: 5155: 5152: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5119: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5072: 5069: 5065: 5062: 5058: 5055: 5054:Mannalargenna 5051: 5048: 5044: 5041: 5040:William Lanne 5037: 5034: 5030: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4989: 4984: 4982: 4977: 4975: 4970: 4969: 4966: 4954: 4953: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4932: 4931: 4928: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4897: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4764: 4763: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4679:Mannalargenna 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4628: 4621: 4618: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4591: 4588: 4585: 4582: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4570: 4567: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4540: 4537: 4534: 4531: 4528: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4512: 4509: 4506: 4503: 4500: 4497: 4494: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4483:(1840s–1860s) 4482: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4440: 4437: 4434: 4431: 4428: 4425: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4410: 4407: 4404: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4383: 4380: 4377: 4374: 4371: 4368: 4365: 4362: 4359: 4356: 4355:Tedbury's War 4353: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4306: 4304: 4299: 4297: 4292: 4291: 4288: 4279: 4277: 4272: 4271: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4252: 4241: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4110:Ryan, Lyndall 4107: 4103: 4101:9780521548373 4097: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4004: 3998: 3994: 3992:9781742234212 3988: 3984: 3979: 3975: 3973:0-330-29892-5 3969: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3949:9781760527075 3945: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3920: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3895:The Black War 3891: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3866:9781760528218 3862: 3858: 3854: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3774: 3770: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3759: 3746: 3741: 3734: 3729: 3723:, p. 14. 3722: 3717: 3710: 3709:Clements 2014 3705: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3664: 3660: 3659:Ryan, Lyndall 3654: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3634:Reynolds 2001 3630: 3624:, p. 29. 3623: 3622:Reynolds 2001 3618: 3611: 3606: 3599: 3594: 3587: 3586:Clements 2013 3582: 3580: 3573:, p. 44. 3572: 3567: 3565: 3557: 3552: 3546:, p. 50. 3545: 3544:Reynolds 2001 3540: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3504:Adhikari 2022 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3453: 3448: 3441: 3436: 3428: 3421: 3414: 3413:Clements 2014 3409: 3401: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386:Manne, Robert 3380: 3373: 3368: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3344: 3342: 3333: 3331:1-876492-05-8 3327: 3323: 3316: 3309: 3304: 3297: 3292: 3285: 3284:Clements 2013 3280: 3274:, p. 71. 3273: 3268: 3261: 3256: 3249: 3244: 3237: 3236:Clements 2013 3232: 3225: 3220: 3213: 3212:Clements 2013 3208: 3201: 3196: 3189: 3188:Clements 2013 3184: 3177: 3172: 3170: 3162: 3161:Clements 2014 3157: 3155: 3147: 3146:Clements 2013 3142: 3135: 3134:Reynolds 2012 3130: 3123: 3118: 3111: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3087: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3068: 3060: 3055: 3048: 3047:Clements 2014 3043: 3036: 3035:Clements 2014 3031: 3024: 3023:Clements 2014 3019: 3012: 3007: 3000: 2995: 2988: 2983: 2976: 2971: 2964: 2963:Clements 2014 2959: 2957: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2908: 2901: 2896: 2889: 2888:Clements 2014 2884: 2877: 2876:Clements 2014 2872: 2865: 2864:Clements 2014 2860: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2840:Clements 2014 2836: 2829: 2824: 2817: 2816:Clements 2014 2812: 2805: 2800: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2722:Clements 2014 2718: 2711: 2710:Clements 2014 2706: 2699: 2698:Clements 2014 2694: 2687: 2682: 2675: 2674:Clements 2014 2670: 2663: 2658: 2651: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2634: 2633:Clements 2014 2629: 2627: 2625: 2617: 2612: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2576: 2574: 2566: 2561: 2554: 2549: 2542: 2537: 2531:, p. 59. 2530: 2529:Reynolds 2001 2525: 2523: 2515: 2510: 2503: 2498: 2491: 2486: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2451:Clements 2014 2447: 2440: 2435: 2428: 2423: 2421: 2413: 2408: 2401: 2396: 2389: 2384: 2377: 2372: 2365: 2360: 2353: 2348: 2341: 2336: 2329: 2324: 2317: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2293: 2288: 2281: 2276: 2269: 2264: 2257: 2252: 2250: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2212: 2207: 2201:, p. 64. 2200: 2199:Reynolds 2001 2195: 2188: 2183: 2177:, p. 54. 2176: 2175:Clements 2014 2171: 2169: 2161: 2156: 2149: 2144: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2101: 2100:Clements 2014 2096: 2089: 2084: 2077: 2072: 2065: 2060: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2018: 2013: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1991: 1984: 1979: 1972: 1967: 1960: 1955: 1948: 1943: 1936: 1935:Clements 2014 1931: 1925:, p. 80. 1924: 1919: 1912: 1907: 1901:, p. 59. 1900: 1899:Reynolds 2012 1895: 1889:, p. 43. 1888: 1887:Clements 2014 1883: 1876: 1871: 1865:, p. 42. 1864: 1863:Clements 2014 1859: 1852: 1851:Clements 2014 1847: 1840: 1839:Clements 2014 1835: 1829:, p. 51. 1828: 1827:Reynolds 2012 1823: 1817:, p. 42. 1816: 1811: 1805:, p. 59. 1804: 1803:Clements 2014 1799: 1792: 1791:Reynolds 2012 1787: 1785: 1777: 1772: 1765: 1764:Clements 2014 1760: 1753: 1748: 1741: 1736: 1730:, p. 36. 1729: 1728:Clements 2014 1724: 1717: 1712: 1706:, p. 35. 1705: 1704:Clements 2014 1700: 1693: 1688: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1652:, p. 48. 1651: 1646: 1639: 1634: 1627: 1622: 1615: 1610: 1602: 1595: 1588: 1583: 1576: 1575:Clements 2014 1571: 1565:, p. 71. 1564: 1563:Reynolds 2001 1559: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1535: 1530: 1523: 1518: 1511: 1510:Clements 2014 1506: 1500:, p. 343 1499: 1498:Clements 2013 1494: 1490: 1480: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1433: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1392: 1391:frontier wars 1388: 1383: 1380: 1379:Lionel Murphy 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1324:Robert Hughes 1321: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1297: 1295: 1290: 1289: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1100: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1024:N.J.B Plomley 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 993: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 971: 967: 964: 961: 958: 957: 953: 950: 947: 945: 941: 940: 936: 933: 930: 927: 926: 922: 919: 916: 913: 912: 908: 906: 902: 900: 896: 893: 892: 879: 875: 866: 864: 860: 859:Hunter Island 856: 852: 847: 838: 834: 830: 828: 821: 817: 813: 811: 805: 803: 799: 798:Great Swansea 794: 792: 788: 784: 783:Montpelliatta 776: 775:Montpelliatta 772: 768: 766: 761: 757: 756:Mannalargenna 753: 748: 740: 736: 732: 729: 713: 709: 705: 703: 699: 694: 687: 677: 673: 671: 665: 662: 658: 648: 644: 642: 637: 635: 630: 620: 618: 612: 608: 604: 602: 601:George Murray 598: 593: 589: 586: 582: 577: 574: 571: 562: 553: 549: 545: 542: 538: 533: 529: 525: 517: 513: 509: 507: 502: 500: 494: 489: 485: 482: 473: 469: 464: 455: 452: 446: 444: 438: 434: 430: 426: 419: 414: 410: 408: 402: 400: 399:40th Regiment 396: 392: 386: 383: 377: 375: 371: 361: 357: 348: 344: 340: 336: 333: 328: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 305: 302: 301:David Collins 294: 290: 286: 282: 280: 276: 275:Derwent River 272: 268: 258: 256: 252: 242: 240: 235: 233: 228: 226: 222: 217: 215: 214:guerrilla war 211: 207: 203: 199: 189: 186: 181: 176: 173: 172: 167: 164: 161: 159: 156: 155: 150: 142: 139: 138: 134: 130: 127: 126: 122: 119: 118: 114: 111: 107: 101: 96: 93: 88: 83: 74: 71: 63: 53: 49: 43: 42: 38: 32: 23: 22: 19: 5254:Bruny Island 5183:Northeastern 5110: 5033:Daniel Geale 4998:anthropology 4950: 4938: 4532:(circa 1845) 4378: 4367:Bathurst War 4333:(1795–1816) 4275: 4259: 4217: 4214:Taylor, Rebe 4206:Kiernan, Ben 4202:Taylor, Rebe 4177: 4171: 4136: 4113: 4087: 4064: 4036: 4030: 4008:I. B. Tauris 4002: 3982: 3961: 3935: 3918: 3897:. Brisbane: 3894: 3875: 3852: 3833: 3830:Boyce, James 3799: 3796:Taylor, Rebe 3788:Kiernan, Ben 3767: 3755:Bibliography 3740: 3728: 3716: 3704: 3692:. Retrieved 3672: 3666: 3653: 3641: 3629: 3617: 3612:, p. 8. 3605: 3593: 3551: 3539: 3532:Shipway 2017 3527: 3522:, p. 51 3483: 3471: 3459: 3447: 3435: 3426: 3420: 3408: 3389: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3321: 3315: 3303: 3291: 3279: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3231: 3219: 3207: 3195: 3183: 3141: 3129: 3117: 3105: 3093: 3081: 3054: 3042: 3030: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2982: 2970: 2943: 2931: 2919: 2907: 2895: 2883: 2871: 2859: 2847: 2835: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2787:. Retrieved 2751: 2741: 2729: 2717: 2705: 2693: 2681: 2669: 2657: 2611: 2599: 2587: 2560: 2548: 2536: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2458: 2446: 2434: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2371: 2359: 2347: 2335: 2323: 2311: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2263: 2236:. Retrieved 2232:the original 2227: 2218: 2206: 2194: 2182: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2119: 2107: 2095: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2047:. 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Retrieved 1671:the original 1666: 1657: 1645: 1633: 1621: 1609: 1600: 1594: 1582: 1577:, p. 4. 1570: 1558: 1529: 1517: 1512:, p. 1. 1505: 1493: 1476: 1463: 1455: 1447:Trugernanner 1427: 1423: 1400: 1384: 1366: 1360: 1352: 1328:Lyndall Ryan 1317: 1235:Bibliography 1193:Risk factors 1166: / 1066: 1062:Lyndall Ryan 1058: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1021: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 988: 983: 978: 973: 943: 904: 898: 876: 872: 855:Arthur River 848: 844: 835: 831: 824: 806: 795: 790: 779: 749: 745: 733: 727: 724: 710: 706: 692: 690: 674: 666: 654: 645: 638: 626: 616: 613: 609: 605: 594: 590: 578: 567: 550: 546: 534: 530: 526: 522: 510: 503: 495: 491: 487: 477: 472:Proclamation 447: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 417: 403: 387: 381: 378: 369: 366: 354: 345: 341: 337: 329: 314: 306: 298: 288: 264: 255:Lyndall Ryan 248: 236: 229: 218: 197: 195: 190:600–900 dead 184: 179: 174: 152:Belligerents 90:Part of the 66: 57: 35: 18: 5274:palawa kani 5265:Constructed 5240:Paredarerme 5158:Port Sorell 5026:Wauba Debar 4860:Committees 4834:Court cases 4729:Windradyne 4709:Tarenorerer 4689:Multuggerah 4654:Cannabaygal 4375:(1827-1828) 3745:Taylor 2023 3733:Lawson 2014 3721:Lawson 2014 3646:Lawson 2014 3610:Lawson 2014 3571:Broome 2019 3556:Hughes 1987 3516:Taylor 2023 3508:Madley 2004 3500:Lawson 2014 3488:Hughes 1987 3476:Taylor 2023 3074:Lawson 2014 2734:Calder 2010 2616:Calder 2010 2592:Calder 2010 2268:Calder 2010 1815:Broome 2019 1638:Hughes 1987 1457:Manganinnie 1430:Rebe Taylor 1336:Rebe Taylor 1218:Utilitarian 1164:Colonialism 752:Swan Island 585:New Zealand 481:martial law 443:James Boyce 425:colonists. 374:Bass Strait 325:bushrangers 293:John Glover 271:Risdon Cove 5368:Categories 5323:Queensland 5289:See also: 5192:Pyemmairre 5151:Tommeginne 4995:Aboriginal 4862:and boards 4674:Kikatapula 4669:Jandamarra 4519:(1843–55) 4116:. Sydney: 4067:. Sydney: 4006:. London: 3925:(Thesis). 3598:Boyce 2010 3520:Barta 2023 3512:Sousa 2004 3492:Boyce 2010 3464:Boyce 2010 3440:Flood 2019 3399:0975076906 3372:Boyce 2010 3296:Boyce 2010 3098:Boyce 2010 3011:Boyce 2010 2828:Boyce 2010 2650:Boyce 2010 2604:Boyce 2010 2553:Boyce 2010 2478:Boyce 2010 2439:Boyce 2010 2280:Boyce 2010 2187:Boyce 2010 2160:Boyce 2010 2136:Boyce 2010 2124:Boyce 2010 1752:Boyce 2010 1716:Boyce 2010 1677:9 December 1626:Boyce 2010 1485:References 1385:Historian 1371:High Court 1183:Psychology 1178:Prevention 1158:Incitement 1083:See also: 1028:Rhys Jones 903:Colonists 853:people at 693:Black Line 670:Brown Bess 570:Archdeacon 321:John Oxley 317:Launceston 106:John Allen 37:neutrality 5165:Peerapper 5111:Black War 5075:Truganini 4622:(1932–34) 4592:(1894–97) 4580:(1870–90) 4405:(1833/34) 4399:(1831–33) 4393:(1830–50) 4379:Black War 4357:(1804–05) 4260:Black War 4194:109131060 4053:145079658 3689:145287373 3496:Ryan 2012 3452:Ryan 2012 3348:Ryan 2012 3272:Ryan 2012 3260:Ryan 2012 3224:Ryan 2012 3176:Ryan 2012 3122:Ryan 2012 3110:Ryan 2012 3086:Ryan 2012 3059:Ryan 2012 2987:Ryan 2012 2975:Ryan 2012 2948:Ryan 2012 2924:Ryan 2012 2912:Ryan 2012 2900:Ryan 2012 2852:Ryan 2012 2804:Ryan 2012 2776:1833-7538 2686:Ryan 2012 2662:Ryan 2012 2580:Ryan 2012 2565:Ryan 2012 2541:Ryan 2012 2502:Ryan 2012 2490:Ryan 2012 2463:Ryan 2012 2427:Ryan 2012 2412:Ryan 2012 2388:Ryan 2012 2364:Ryan 2012 2340:Ryan 2012 2328:Ryan 2012 2316:Ryan 2012 2256:Ryan 2012 2211:Ryan 2012 2148:Ryan 2012 2112:Ryan 2012 2088:Ryan 2012 2076:Ryan 2012 2064:Ryan 2012 2017:Ryan 2012 1983:Ryan 2012 1971:Ryan 2012 1959:Ryan 2012 1947:Ryan 2012 1923:Ryan 2012 1911:Ryan 2012 1875:Ryan 2012 1776:Ryan 2012 1740:Ryan 2012 1692:Ryan 2012 1650:Ryan 2012 1614:Ryan 2012 1587:Ryan 2012 1551:Ryan 2012 1534:Ryan 2012 1522:Ryan 2012 1363:John West 1268:Ethnocide 869:Aftermath 686:Blackline 479:declared 245:Etymology 198:Black War 85:Black War 48:talk page 5344:Victoria 5337:Tasmania 5247:Nuenonne 5206:"Norman" 5138:Northern 5002:Tasmania 4940:Category 4704:Pemulwuy 4699:Nemarluk 4694:Musquito 4664:Eumarrah 4659:Dundalli 4258:(1948), 4216:(eds.). 4112:(2012). 4063:(2001). 3960:(1987). 3832:(2010). 3798:(eds.). 2784:70677943 1436:See also 1377:, judge 1373:case of 1282:Category 1258:Democide 1213:Cultural 1148:Massacre 1103:Genocide 1094:a series 1092:Part of 851:Tarkiner 541:Oatlands 499:Richmond 395:Richmond 310:massacre 239:genocide 210:Tasmania 133:Tasmania 128:Location 60:May 2024 41:disputed 5224:Eastern 5142:Western 4952:Commons 4739:Yilbung 4714:Tedbury 4649:Calyute 4639:Baulie 4586:(1880s) 4477:(1840s) 4069:Penguin 3694:8 March 3388:(ed.). 2789:1 April 1230:Outline 1225:Studies 905:killed 661:muskets 657:waddies 407:Swansea 273:on the 180:Wounded 5172:Toogee 5093:Toogee 4644:Beilba 4616:(1928) 4610:(1926) 4604:(1916) 4598:(1915) 4574:(1868) 4568:(1861) 4562:(1859) 4556:(1857) 4550:(1853) 4544:(1849) 4538:(1848) 4513:(1843) 4507:(1842) 4501:(1842) 4495:(1841) 4489:(1841) 4471:(1840) 4465:(1840) 4459:(1840) 4453:(1840) 4447:(1839) 4441:(1839) 4435:(1839) 4429:(1838) 4423:(1838) 4417:(1836) 4411:(1834) 4387:(1828) 4369:(1824) 4363:(1818) 4351:(1804) 4324:Events 4236: 4192: 4155: 4124: 4098: 4075: 4051: 4014: 3989: 3970: 3946: 3905: 3882: 3863: 3840: 3818: 3775: 3687: 3396: 3328: 2782: 2774: 2764: 2238:7 June 2049:5 June 1419:Turkey 1411:Rwanda 1204:Types 1198:Stages 1143:Denial 1120:Issues 1006:1834. 909:Total 894:Phase 887:Deaths 641:Burnie 295:, 1838 279:Hobart 140:Result 4899:Other 4748:Legal 4734:Yagan 4190:S2CID 4049:S2CID 3923:(PDF) 3685:S2CID 974:Total 581:Māori 537:Clyde 187:: 437 185:Total 182:: 218 177:: 219 4755:Laws 4234:ISBN 4153:ISBN 4122:ISBN 4096:ISBN 4073:ISBN 4012:ISBN 3987:ISBN 3968:ISBN 3944:ISBN 3903:ISBN 3880:ISBN 3861:ISBN 3838:ISBN 3816:ISBN 3773:ISBN 3696:2022 3394:ISBN 3326:ISBN 2791:2015 2780:OCLC 2772:ISSN 2762:ISBN 2240:2024 2051:2024 1679:2023 1449:and 1413:and 1153:Rape 1070:and 989:1079 954:440 948:350 937:469 931:408 923:120 691:The 599:Sir 506:39th 451:57th 204:and 196:The 175:Dead 120:Date 34:The 5000:in 4226:doi 4182:doi 4145:doi 4041:doi 3808:doi 3677:doi 1409:in 1365:'s 1168:War 984:201 979:878 968:50 965:10 962:40 951:90 934:61 920:40 917:80 767:). 470:'s 291:by 208:in 5370:: 4232:. 4208:; 4188:. 4176:. 4170:. 4151:. 4143:. 4120:. 4094:. 4071:. 4047:. 4035:. 4029:. 4010:. 3942:. 3901:. 3859:. 3814:. 3790:; 3683:. 3673:10 3671:. 3665:. 3578:^ 3563:^ 3514:; 3510:; 3340:^ 3168:^ 3153:^ 3066:^ 2955:^ 2778:. 2770:. 2760:. 2750:. 2640:^ 2623:^ 2572:^ 2521:^ 2470:^ 2419:^ 2248:^ 2226:. 2167:^ 2037:. 2024:^ 1998:. 1783:^ 1665:. 1541:^ 1346:, 1096:on 1026:, 539:, 281:. 5140:– 4987:e 4980:t 4973:v 4309:e 4302:t 4295:v 4242:. 4228:: 4196:. 4184:: 4178:6 4161:. 4147:: 4130:. 4104:. 4081:. 4055:. 4043:: 4037:6 4020:. 3995:. 3976:. 3952:. 3929:. 3911:. 3888:. 3869:. 3846:. 3824:. 3810:: 3781:. 3698:. 3679:: 3402:. 3334:. 2793:. 2242:. 2053:. 1681:. 1307:e 1300:t 1293:v 688:. 420:. 73:) 67:( 62:) 58:( 54:. 44:.

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