5731:
5243:
453:, an officer shows a group of photos to a witness and asks the witness to identify the individual who committed the crime. Since the officer is typically aware of who the suspect is, they may (subconsciously or consciously) influence the witness to choose the individual that they believe committed the crime. There is a growing movement in law enforcement to move to a blind procedure in which the officer who shows the photos to the witness does not know who the suspect is.
480:
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5267:
5255:
321:. Success or failure of blinding is rarely reported or measured; it is implicitly assumed that experiments reported as "blind" are truly blind. Critics have pointed out that without assessment and reporting, there is no way to know if a blind succeeded. This shortcoming is especially concerning given that even a small error in blinding can produce a
47:, and other sources. A blind can be imposed on any participant of an experiment, including subjects, researchers, technicians, data analysts, and evaluators. In some cases, while blinding would be useful, it is impossible or unethical. For example, it is not possible to blind a patient to their treatment in a physical therapy intervention. A good
305:
to determine if they have received an active treatment by gathering information on social media and message boards. While researchers counsel patients not to use social media to discuss clinical trials, their accounts are not monitored. This behavior is believed to be a source of unblinding. CONSORT standards and
357:
Studies of blinded pharmacological trials across widely varying domains find evidence of high levels of unblinding. Unblinding has been shown to affect both patients and clinicians. This evidence challenges the common assumption that blinding is highly effective in pharmacological trials. Unblinding
304:
A problem arises in the assessment of blinding because asking subjects to guess masked information may prompt them to try to infer that information. Researchers speculate that this may contribute to premature unblinding. Furthermore, it has been reported that some subjects of clinical trials attempt
204:
guidelines state that these terms should no longer be used because they are ambiguous. For instance, "double-blind" could mean that the data analysts and patients were blinded; or the patients and outcome assessors were blinded; or the patients and people offering the intervention were blinded, etc.
296:
Premature unblinding may also occur when a participant infers from experimental conditions information that has been masked to them. A common cause for unblinding is the presence of side effects (or effects) in the treatment group. In pharmacological trials, premature unblinding can be reduced with
415:
A 2018 study on acupuncture which used needles that did not penetrate the skin as a sham treatment found that 68% of patients and 83% of acupuncturists correctly identified their group allocation. The authors concluded that the blinding had failed, but that more advanced placebos may someday offer
58:
if they deduce or otherwise obtain information that has been masked to them. For example, a patient who experiences a side effect may correctly guess their treatment, becoming unblinded. Unblinding is common in blinded experiments, particularly in pharmacological trials. In particular, trials on
411:
found no fewer than four methods of blinding patients to acupuncture treatment: 1) superficial needling of true acupuncture points, 2) use of acupuncture points which are not indicated for the condition being treated, 3) insertion of needles outside of true acupuncture points, and 4) the use of
370:
found that assessment of blinding was reported in only 23 out of 408 randomized controlled trials for chronic pain (5.6%). The study concluded upon analysis of pooled data that the overall quality of the blinding was poor, and the blinding was "not successful." Additionally, both pharmaceutical
198:, double-blind studies blind both patients and researchers to treatment allocations, and triple-blinded studies blind patients, researcher, and some other third party (such as a monitoring committee) to treatment allocations. However, the meaning of these terms can vary from study to study.
467:
Auditions for symphony orchestras take place behind a curtain so that the judges cannot see the performer. Blinding the judges to the gender of the performers has been shown to increase the hiring of women. Blind tests can also be used to compare the quality of musical instruments.
280:. Removing a blind upon completion of a study is never mandatory, but is typically performed as a courtesy to study participants. Unblinding that occurs after the conclusion of a study is not a source of bias, because data collection and analysis are both complete at this time.
260:. As a result, it is not possible to measure unblinding in a way that is completely objective. Nonetheless, it is still possible to make informed judgments about the quality of a blind. Poorly blinded studies rank above unblinded studies and below well-blinded studies in the
225:"Unblinding" occurs in a blinded experiment when information becomes available to one from whom it has been masked. In clinical studies, unblinding may occur unintentionally when a patient deduces their treatment group. Unblinding that occurs before the conclusion of an
301:, which conceals treatment allocation by ensuring the presence of side effects in both groups. However, side effects are not the only cause of unblinding; any perceptible difference between the treatment and control groups can contribute to premature unblinding.
441:, so it is important in these fields to properly blind the researchers. In some cases, while blind experiments would be useful, they are impractical or unethical. Blinded data analysis can reduce bias, but is rarely used in social science research.
205:
The terms also fail to convey the information that was masked and the amount of unblinding that occurred. It is not sufficient to specify the number of parties that have been blinded. To describe an experiment's blinding, it is necessary to report
424:
It is standard practice in physics to perform blinded data analysis. After data analysis is complete, one is allowed to unblind the data. A prior agreement to publish the data regardless of the results of the analysis may be made to prevent
292:
dictates when a subject should be unblinded prematurely. A code-break procedure should only allow for unblinding in cases of emergency. Unblinding that occurs in compliance with code-break procedure is strictly documented and reported.
1306:
Dinnett EM, Mungall MM, Kent JA, Ronald ES, McIntyre KE, Anderson E, Gaw A (2005). "Unblinding of trial participants to their treatment allocation: lessons from the
Prospective Study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk (PROSPER)".
252:?). In a perfectly blinded experiment, the responses should be consistent with no knowledge of the masked information. However, if unblinding has occurred, the responses will indicate the degree of unblinding. Since unblinding
387:. Researchers concluded that unblinding inflates effect size in antidepressant trials. Some researchers believe that antidepressants are not effective for the treatment of depression and only outperform placebos due to
193:
are commonly used to describe blinding. These terms describe experiments in which (respectively) one, two, or three parties are blinded to some information. Most often, single-blind studies blind patients to their
157:
A number of biases are present when a study is insufficiently blinded. Patient-reported outcomes can be different if the patient is not blinded to their treatment. Likewise, failure to blind researchers results in
106:. In the investigations, the researchers (physically) blindfolded mesmerists and asked them to identify objects that the experimenters had previously filled with "vital fluid". The subjects were unable to do so.
140:-era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well-educated, informed scientist. The first study recorded to have a blinded researcher was conducted in 1907 by
1151:
Bello, Segun; Moustgaard, Helene; Hróbjartsson, Asbjørn (2017). "Unreported formal assessment of unblinding occurred in 4 of 10 randomized clinical trials, unreported loss of blinding in 1 of 10 trials".
876:
Shortly after the start of the Cold War double-blind reviews became the norm for conducting scientific medical research, as well as the means by which peers evaluated scholarship, both in science and in
116:
An early example of a double-blind protocol was the
Nuremberg salt test of 1835 performed by Friedrich Wilhelm von Hoven, Nuremberg's highest-ranking public health official, as well as a close friend of
1678:
346:
Blinding is considered essential in medicine, but is often difficult to achieve. For example, it is difficult to compare surgical and non-surgical interventions in blind trials. In some cases,
412:
placebo needles which are designed not to penetrate the skin. The authors concluded that there was "no clear association between type of sham intervention used and the results of the trials."
383:
trials: at least three-quarters of patients were able to correctly guess their treatment assignment. Unblinding also occurs in clinicians. Better blinding of patients and clinicians reduces
241:(or complete failure of blinding) on one end, perfect blinding on the other, and poor or good blinding between. Thus, the common view of studies as blinded or unblinded is an example of a
136:, which advocated for the blinding of researchers. Bernard's recommendation that an experiment's observer should not know the hypothesis being tested contrasted starkly with the prevalent
554:
Bello, Segun; Moustgaard, Helene; Hróbjartsson, Asbjørn (October 2014). "The risk of unblinding was infrequently and incompletely reported in 300 randomized clinical trial publications".
67:
are poorly blinded. Unblinding that occurs before the conclusion of a study is a source of experimental error, as the bias that was eliminated by blinding is re-introduced. The
1094:
Moher, David; Hopewell, Sally; Schulz, Kenneth F.; Montori, Victor; Gøtzsche, Peter C.; Devereaux, P. J.; Elbourne, Diana; Egger, Matthias; Altman, Douglas G. (23 March 2010).
113:
violin to one with a guitar-like design. A violinist played each instrument while a committee of scientists and musicians listened from another room so as to avoid prejudice.
288:
Premature unblinding is any unblinding that occurs before the conclusion of a study. In contrast with post-study unblinding, premature unblinding is a source of bias. A
1655:
605:
1786:
Perlis, Roy H.; Ostacher, Michael; Fava, Maurizio; Nierenberg, Andrew A.; Sachs, Gary S.; Rosenbaum, Jerrold F. (2010). "Assuring that double-blind is blind".
248:
Success of blinding is assessed by questioning study participants about information that has been masked to them (e.g. did the participant receive the drug or
2348:
166:). These biases are typically the result of subconscious influences, and are present even when study participants believe they are not influenced by them.
2448:
2182:
Vase, L; Baram, S; Takakura, N; Takayama, M; Yajima, H; Kawase, A; Schuster, L; Kaptchuk, TJ; Schou, S; Jensen, TS; Zachariae, R; Svensson, P (2015).
1708:
4364:
1931:
Greenberg, RP; Bornstein, RF; Greenberg, MD; Fisher, S (October 1992). "A meta-analysis of antidepressant outcome under "blinder" conditions".
911:"Bias due to lack of patient blinding in clinical trials. A systematic review of trials randomizing patients to blind and nonblind sub-studies"
1880:
Moncrieff, Joanna; Wessely, Simon; Hardy, Rebecca (2 January 2018). "Meta-analysis of trials comparing antidepressants with active placebos".
5305:
4869:
1837:
White, K.; Kando, J.; Park, T.; Waternaux, C.; Brown, W. A. (December 1992). "Side effects and the "blindability" of clinical drug trials".
5019:
144:
and H. N. Webber to investigate the effects of caffeine. The need to blind researchers became widely recognized in the mid-20th century.
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3284:
333:
may be caused by error in blinding. Some researchers have called for the mandatory assessment of blinding efficacy in clinical trials.
68:
5630:
2250:
4417:
2740:
2736:
2276:"Accuracy and the accused: Psychologists work with law enforcement on research-based improvements to crime-suspect identification"
4856:
2786:
2744:
2732:
109:
In 1817, the first blind experiment recorded to have occurred outside of a scientific setting compared the musical quality of a
2441:
233:. Some degree of premature unblinding is common in blinded experiments. When a blind is imperfect, its success is judged on a
863:
752:
3279:
2979:
2907:
2823:
529:
95:
309:
guidelines recommend the reporting of all premature unblinding. In practice, unintentional unblinding is rarely reported.
5654:
3883:
3031:
2688:
2658:
2184:"Can acupuncture treatment be double-blinded? An evaluation of double-blind acupuncture treatment of postoperative pain"
1647:
597:
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5298:
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4558:
2434:
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1498:
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sponsorship and the presence of side effects were associated with lower rates of reporting assessment of blinding.
71:
reporting guidelines recommend that all studies assess and report unblinding. In practice, very few studies do so.
2147:
Dincer, F; Linde, K. (December 2003). "Sham interventions in randomized clinical trials of acupunctureâa review".
5718:
5426:
5412:
4902:
4563:
4308:
3679:
3269:
2752:
1051:
Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG (February 2002). "The landscape and lexicon of blinding in randomized trials".
5766:
5723:
4953:
4165:
3972:
3861:
3819:
2790:
2512:
1195:
Schulz, Kenneth F.; Grimes, David A. (23 February 2002). "Blinding in randomised trials: hiding who got what".
317:
Bias due to poor blinding tends to favor the experimental group, resulting in inflated effect size and risk of
3893:
5196:
4155:
3058:
2938:
2623:
1460:"Changes in beliefs identify unblinding in randomized controlled trials: a method to meet CONSORT guidelines"
1350:
Quittell, Lynne M. (3 October 2018). "The
Scientific and Social Implications of Unblinding a Study Subject".
1096:"CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials"
1724:"The Blind Leading the Not-So-Blind: A Meta-Analysis of Blinding in Pharmacological Trials for Chronic Pain"
5624:
5589:
5521:
5377:
5291:
4747:
4696:
4681:
4671:
4540:
4412:
4379:
4205:
4160:
3990:
2917:
277:
195:
1403:"Placebo mania. Placebo controlled trials are needed to provide data on effectiveness of active treatment"
329:(i.e. statistical significance is not robust to bias). As such, many statistically significant results in
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is withheld until after the experiment is complete. Good blinding can reduce or eliminate experimental
1583:
1458:
Rees, Judy R.; Wade, Timothy J.; Levy, Deborah A.; Colford, John M.; Hilton, Joan F. (February 2005).
4708:
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4051:
3980:
3900:
3888:
3758:
3746:
3739:
3447:
3168:
2726:
1612:
Siegfried, Tom (2010). "Odds are, it's wrong: Science fails to face the shortcomings of statistics".
82:, it is considered essential. In clinical research, a trial that is not a blinded trial is called an
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3133:
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2664:
2612:
2492:
2033:"Effectiveness of antidepressants: an evidence myth constructed from a thousand randomized trials?"
322:
658:
628:
5648:
5100:
4713:
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4228:
4212:
3950:
3812:
3802:
3652:
3566:
2710:
2580:
2558:
2527:
2502:
2485:
960:"Lack of blinding of outcome assessors in animal model experiments implies risk of observer bias"
79:
5635:
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result in the absence of any real difference between test groups when a study is sufficiently
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4027:
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3708:
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3545:
3520:
3475:
3414:
3374:
3176:
2999:
2702:
2589:
2497:
2461:
1702:
1251:"Towards a proposal for assessment of blinding success in clinical trials: up-to-date review"
261:
2426:
1064:
958:
Bello, S; Krogsbøll, LT; Gruber, J; Zhao, ZJ; Fischer, D; Hróbjartsson, A (September 2014).
51:
ensures that blinding is as effective as possible within ethical and practical constraints.
5600:
5538:
5532:
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4661:
4610:
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3960:
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3851:
3807:
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3525:
3301:
3181:
2668:
2384:
2195:
1528:"CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials"
1015:
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ensures that blinding is as effective as possible within ethical and practical constrains.
289:
256:, but must be inferred from participants' responses, its measured value will depend on the
137:
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8:
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3220:
3138:
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2507:
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652:
519:
388:
2388:
2199:
1584:"E6(R2) Good Clinical Practice: Integrated Addendum to ICH E6(R1) Guidance for Industry"
1019:
909:
HrĂłbjartsson, A; Emanuelsson, F; Skou
Thomsen, AS; Hilden, J; Brorson, S (August 2014).
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2008:
1975:
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1402:
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326:
118:
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1208:
654:
The Violin: Some
Account of That Leading Instrument and its Most Eminent Professors...
162:. Unblinded data analysts may favor an analysis that supports their existing beliefs (
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2013:
1995:
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834:
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163:
75:
48:
44:
1765:
1648:"Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine - Levels of Evidence (March 2009) - CEBM"
1387:
1336:
1232:
1080:
630:
Biographie
Universelle des Musiciens et Bibliographie GĂŠnĂŠrale de la Musique, Tome 1
598:"Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine - Levels of Evidence (March 2009) - CEBM"
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2003:
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Post-study unblinding is the release of masked data upon completion of a study. In
238:
99:
83:
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257:
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141:
64:
60:
4585:
2349:"Violinists can't tell the difference between Stradivarius violins and new ones"
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699:
485:
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392:
380:
298:
129:
1679:"An example of problems that arise from clinical trials and how to avoid them"
1475:
1320:
684:"Inventing the randomized double-blind trial: the Nuremberg salt test of 1835"
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5387:
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1999:
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1901:
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1807:
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1371:
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242:
159:
40:
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2017:
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1037:
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717:
583:
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347:
318:
110:
103:
1960:
1909:
1893:
1866:
1444:
781:
5516:
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524:
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404:
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633:(Second ed.). Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, Fils, et Cie. p. 249
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28:
16:
Experiment in which information about the test is masked to reduce bias
1526:
Moher, David; Altman, Douglas G.; Schulz, Kenneth F. (24 March 2010).
479:
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has also been documented in clinical trials outside of pharmacology.
1028:
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3701:
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2808:
234:
78:, and is used in many fields of research. In some fields, such as
5206:
4907:
2813:
2352:
1930:
858:. Blackwell Companions to History. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 307.
249:
201:
1722:
Colagiuri, Ben; Sharpe, Louise; Scott, Amelia (September 2018).
5128:
4109:
4083:
4063:
3314:
3105:
2251:"'Blind analysis' could reduce bias in social science research"
2957:
2456:
768:
Daston L (2005). "Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief".
1785:
3048:
1150:
553:
276:, post-study unblinding serves to inform subjects of their
230:
32:
1093:
805:"The action of caffeine on the capacity for muscular work"
54:
During the course of an experiment, a participant becomes
27:, information which may influence the participants of the
2181:
657:(Fourth ed.). London: Robert Cocks and Co. pp.
1305:
957:
416:
the possibility of well-blinded studies in acupuncture.
391:. These researchers argue that antidepressants are just
1976:"Active placebos versus antidepressants for depression"
1836:
1677:
379:
Studies have found evidence of extensive unblinding in
174:"Double blind" redirects here. Not to be confused with
102:
as proposed by
Charles d'Eslon, a former associate of
94:
The first known blind experiment was conducted by the
1973:
1879:
4870:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
1721:
1050:
1002:
MacCoun, Robert; Perlmutter, Saul (7 October 2015).
475:
1457:
745:
Introduction Ă l'ĂŠtude de la mĂŠdecine expĂŠrimentale
4332:
350:may be necessary for the blinding process. A good
134:Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine
1525:
1001:
731:Biographie Des Doctor Friedrich Wilhelm Von Hoven
437:Social science research is particularly prone to
5758:
1004:"Blind analysis: Hide results to seek the truth"
4418:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
2377:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
742:
2373:"Player preferences among new and old violins"
2037:Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine
1248:
35:that arise from a participants' expectations,
5299:
2973:
2442:
2024:
1933:Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
1249:Kolahi, J; Bang, H; Park, J (December 2009).
1244:
1242:
2286:(7). American Psychological Association: 74.
1194:
802:
743:Bernard, Claude; Dagognet, François (2008).
121:. This trial contested the effectiveness of
2146:
1980:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1974:Moncrieff, J; Wessely, S; Hardy, R (2004).
1707:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
852:Alder K (2006). Kramer LS, Maza SC (eds.).
796:
549:
547:
545:
403:While the possibility of blinded trials on
96:French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
5306:
5292:
3018:
2980:
2966:
2449:
2435:
2083:
1239:
1044:
677:
675:
5313:
3631:
2406:
2396:
2225:
2207:
2123:
2066:
2048:
2030:
2007:
1739:
1611:
1559:
1434:
1282:
1255:Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology
1127:
1027:
975:
934:
855:A Companion to Western Historical Thought
828:
707:
2741:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
2737:Attributable fraction for the population
2273:
2092:"Antidepressants and the Placebo Effect"
1676:
1349:
997:
995:
688:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
681:
542:
267:
2745:Preventable fraction for the population
2733:Attributable fraction among the exposed
2296:
2248:
1065:10.7326/0003-4819-136-3-200202050-00022
672:
650:
283:
5759:
4944:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
2322:
2089:
1400:
767:
407:is controversial, a 2003 review of 47
5287:
5017:
4584:
4331:
3630:
3400:
3017:
2961:
2430:
2370:
1521:
1519:
992:
915:International Journal of Epidemiology
851:
626:
432:
98:in 1784 to investigate the claims of
74:Blinding is an important tool of the
37:observer's effect on the participants
5254:
4954:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
2908:Correlation does not imply causation
2824:Animal testing on non-human primates
1658:from the original on 26 October 2017
803:Rivers WH, Webber HN (August 1907).
608:from the original on 26 October 2017
530:Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
5655:Generalized randomized block design
5266:
4549:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
3401:
2149:Complementary Therapies in Medicine
1496:
13:
4644:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
3270:Pearson product-moment correlation
2325:"Is Blind Hiring the Best Hiring?"
1839:The American Journal of Psychiatry
1788:The American Journal of Psychiatry
1516:
14:
5798:
5706:Sequential probability ratio test
1401:Double, D. B. (19 October 1996).
1352:The American Journal of Bioethics
5729:
5631:Polynomial and rational modeling
5265:
5253:
5241:
5228:
5227:
5018:
1267:10.1111/j.1600-0528.2009.00494.x
1154:Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
964:Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
556:Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
478:
4903:Least-squares spectral analysis
2364:
2342:
2316:
2297:Koerner BI (JulyâAugust 2002).
2290:
2274:Dittmann M (JulyâAugust 2004).
2267:
2242:
2175:
2140:
1967:
1924:
1873:
1830:
1779:
1715:
1670:
1640:
1605:
1576:
1490:
1451:
1394:
1343:
1299:
1188:
1144:
1087:
951:
902:
845:
444:
336:
312:
181:In medical research, the terms
55:
5398:Replication versus subsampling
3884:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
2987:
2791:Pre- and post-test probability
2513:Patient and public involvement
2323:Miller CC (25 February 2016).
2249:Sanders, Robert (2015-10-08).
1992:10.1002/14651858.CD003012.pub2
1939:(5): 664â9, discussion 670â7.
1800:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09060820
1166:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.08.002
977:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.04.008
821:10.1113/jphysiol.1907.sp001215
761:
736:
724:
682:Stolberg, M. (December 2006).
644:
620:
590:
568:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.05.007
398:
341:
169:
1:
5197:Geographic information system
4413:Simultaneous equations models
2161:10.1016/S0965-2299(03)00124-9
2031:Ioannidis, JP (27 May 2008).
1882:British Journal of Psychiatry
1364:10.1080/15265161.2018.1513589
1209:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07816-9
747:. Champs. Paris: Flammarion.
535:
419:
374:
258:nature of the questions asked
220:
147:
5625:Response surface methodology
5533:Analysis of variance (Anova)
4380:Coefficient of determination
3991:Uniformly most powerful test
2918:Sex as a biological variable
2209:10.1371/journal.pone.0119612
1464:Contemporary Clinical Trials
1407:BMJ: British Medical Journal
409:randomized controlled trials
331:randomized controlled trials
7:
5695:Randomized controlled trial
4949:Proportional hazards models
4893:Spectral density estimation
4875:Vector autoregression (VAR)
4309:Maximum posterior estimator
3541:Randomized controlled trial
2882:Intention-to-treat analysis
2854:Analysis of clinical trials
2783:Specificity and sensitivity
2537:Randomized controlled trial
2096:Zeitschrift fĂźr Psychologie
1741:10.1016/j.jpain.2018.09.002
1100:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)
1053:Annals of Internal Medicine
514:Randomized controlled trial
471:
456:
254:cannot be measured directly
10:
5803:
4709:Multivariate distributions
3129:Average absolute deviation
1945:10.1037/0022-006X.60.5.664
1419:10.1136/bmj.313.7063.1008b
700:10.1177/014107680609901216
460:
173:
89:
5714:
5583:
5478:
5411:
5321:
5223:
5177:
5114:
5067:
5030:
5026:
5013:
4985:
4967:
4934:
4925:
4883:
4830:
4791:
4740:
4731:
4697:Structural equation model
4652:
4609:
4605:
4580:
4539:
4505:
4459:
4426:
4388:
4355:
4351:
4327:
4267:
4176:
4095:
4059:
4050:
4033:Score/Lagrange multiplier
4018:
3971:
3916:
3842:
3833:
3643:
3639:
3626:
3585:
3559:
3511:
3466:
3448:Sample size determination
3413:
3409:
3396:
3300:
3255:
3229:
3211:
3167:
3119:
3039:
3030:
3026:
3013:
2995:
2926:
2891:Interpretation of results
2890:
2852:
2801:
2751:
2725:
2687:
2657:
2648:
2624:Nested caseâcontrol study
2574:
2521:
2468:
2108:10.1027/2151-2604/a000176
1476:10.1016/j.cct.2004.11.020
1321:10.1191/1740774505cn089oa
809:The Journal of Physiology
323:statistically significant
5681:Repeated measures design
5393:Restricted randomization
5192:Environmental statistics
4714:Elliptical distributions
4507:Generalized linear model
4436:Simple linear regression
4206:HodgesâLehmann estimator
3663:Probability distribution
3572:Stochastic approximation
3134:Coefficient of variation
2493:Academic clinical trials
4852:Cross-correlation (XCF)
4460:Non-standard predictors
3894:LehmannâScheffĂŠ theorem
3567:Adaptive clinical trial
2711:Relative risk reduction
2559:Adaptive clinical trial
2503:Evidence-based medicine
2486:Adaptive clinical trial
2398:10.1073/pnas.1114999109
2090:Kirsch, Irving (2014).
1851:10.1176/ajp.149.12.1730
1626:10.1002/scin.5591770721
1499:"A question of Control"
733:(1840), ISBN 1104040891
361:
152:
5736:Mathematics portal
5498:Ordinary least squares
5248:Mathematics portal
5069:Engineering statistics
4977:NelsonâAalen estimator
4554:Analysis of covariance
4441:Ordinary least squares
4365:Pearson product-moment
3769:Statistical functional
3680:Empirical distribution
3513:Controlled experiments
3242:Frequency distribution
3020:Descriptive statistics
2699:Number needed to treat
2299:"Under the Microscope"
2050:10.1186/1747-5341-3-14
1683:Pharmaceutical Journal
494:Allocation concealment
307:good clinical practice
217:each blind succeeded.
5767:Design of experiments
5333:Scientific experiment
5315:Design of experiments
5164:Population statistics
5106:System identification
4840:Autocorrelation (ACF)
4768:Exponential smoothing
4682:Discriminant analysis
4677:Canonical correlation
4541:Partition of variance
4403:Regression validation
4247:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
4146:Likelihood-ratio test
3835:Frequentist inference
3747:Locationâscale family
3668:Sampling distribution
3633:Statistical inference
3600:Cross-sectional study
3587:Observational studies
3546:Randomized experiment
3375:Stem-and-leaf display
3177:Central limit theorem
2703:Number needed to harm
2590:Cross-sectional study
2542:Scientific experiment
2498:Clinical study design
2280:Monitor on Psychology
1894:10.1192/bjp.172.3.227
782:10.1353/sor.2005.0016
268:Post-study unblinding
262:hierarchy of evidence
5607:Fractional factorial
5087:Probabilistic design
4672:Principal components
4515:Exponential families
4467:Nonlinear regression
4446:General linear model
4408:Mixed effects models
4398:Errors and residuals
4375:Confounding variable
4277:Bayesian probability
4255:Van der Waerden test
4245:Ordered alternative
4010:Multiple comparisons
3889:RaoâBlackwellization
3852:Estimating equations
3808:Statistical distance
3526:Factorial experiment
3059:Arithmetic-Geometric
2669:Cumulative incidence
290:code-break procedure
284:Premature unblinding
278:treatment allocation
209:has been blinded to
196:treatment allocation
5741:Statistical outline
5701:Sequential analysis
5666:Graeco-Latin square
5575:Multiple comparison
5522:Hierarchical model:
5159:Official statistics
5082:Methods engineering
4763:Seasonal adjustment
4531:Poisson regressions
4451:Bayesian regression
4390:Regression analysis
4370:Partial correlation
4342:Regression analysis
3941:Prediction interval
3936:Likelihood interval
3926:Confidence interval
3918:Interval estimation
3879:Unbiased estimators
3697:Model specification
3577:Up-and-down designs
3265:Partial correlation
3221:Index of dispersion
3139:Interquartile range
2576:Observational study
2508:Real world evidence
2462:experimental design
2389:2012PNAS..109..760F
2200:2015PLoSO..1019612V
1728:The Journal of Pain
1020:2015Natur.526..187M
520:Observational study
451:police photo lineup
5787:Medical statistics
5746:Statistical topics
5338:Statistical design
5179:Spatial statistics
5059:Medical statistics
4959:First hitting time
4913:Whittle likelihood
4564:Degrees of freedom
4559:Multivariate ANOVA
4492:Heteroscedasticity
4304:Bayesian estimator
4269:Bayesian inference
4118:KolmogorovâSmirnov
4003:Randomization test
3973:Testing hypotheses
3946:Tolerance interval
3857:Maximum likelihood
3752:Exponential family
3685:Density estimation
3645:Statistical theory
3605:Natural experiment
3551:Scientific control
3468:Survey methodology
3154:Standard deviation
2862:Riskâbenefit ratio
2829:First-in-man study
2779:Case fatality rate
2620:Caseâcontrol study
2594:Longitudinal study
2371:Fritz, C. (2012).
2329:The New York Times
927:10.1093/ije/dyu115
651:Dubourg G (1852).
433:In social sciences
119:Friedrich Schiller
25:blinded experiment
5782:French inventions
5777:Scientific method
5772:Clinical research
5754:
5753:
5641:Central composite
5539:Cochran's theorem
5493:Linear regression
5470:Nuisance variable
5383:Random assignment
5360:Experimental unit
5281:
5280:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5154:National accounts
5124:Actuarial science
5116:Social statistics
5009:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5001:
5000:
4936:Survival function
4921:
4920:
4783:Granger causality
4624:Contingency table
4599:Survival analysis
4576:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4428:Linear regression
4323:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4294:Credible interval
4263:
4262:
4046:
4045:
3862:Method of moments
3731:Parametric family
3692:Statistical model
3622:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3536:Random assignment
3458:Statistical power
3392:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3237:Contingency table
3207:
3206:
3074:Generalized/power
2955:
2954:
2903:Survivorship bias
2867:Systematic review
2834:Multicenter trial
2797:
2796:
2787:Likelihood-ratios
2759:Clinical endpoint
2727:Population impact
2681:Period prevalence
2458:Clinical research
2361:, 2 January 2012.
1845:(12): 1730â1731.
1504:. Nature Magazine
1203:(9307): 696â700.
1014:(7572): 187â189.
865:978-1-4051-4961-7
754:978-2-08-121793-5
627:FĂŠtis FJ (1868).
562:(10): 1059â1069.
352:clinical protocol
213:information, and
164:confirmation bias
76:scientific method
49:clinical protocol
45:confirmation bias
5794:
5734:
5733:
5671:Orthogonal array
5308:
5301:
5294:
5285:
5284:
5269:
5268:
5257:
5256:
5246:
5245:
5231:
5230:
5134:Crime statistics
5028:
5027:
5015:
5014:
4932:
4931:
4898:Fourier analysis
4885:Frequency domain
4865:
4812:
4778:Structural break
4738:
4737:
4687:Cluster analysis
4634:Log-linear model
4607:
4606:
4582:
4581:
4523:
4497:Homoscedasticity
4353:
4352:
4329:
4328:
4248:
4240:
4232:
4231:(KruskalâWallis)
4216:
4201:
4156:Cross validation
4141:
4123:AndersonâDarling
4070:
4057:
4056:
4028:Likelihood-ratio
4020:Parametric tests
3998:Permutation test
3981:1- & 2-tails
3872:Minimum distance
3844:Point estimation
3840:
3839:
3791:Optimal decision
3742:
3641:
3640:
3628:
3627:
3610:Quasi-experiment
3560:Adaptive designs
3411:
3410:
3398:
3397:
3275:Rank correlation
3037:
3036:
3028:
3027:
3015:
3014:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2959:
2958:
2802:Trial/test types
2677:Point prevalence
2655:
2654:
2598:Ecological study
2581:EBM II-2 to II-3
2552:Open-label trial
2547:Blind experiment
2523:Controlled study
2451:
2444:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2400:
2368:
2362:
2346:
2340:
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2314:
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2311:
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2240:
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2211:
2179:
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2144:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2070:
2052:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2011:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1783:
1777:
1776:
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1772:
1743:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1706:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1654:. 11 June 2009.
1644:
1638:
1637:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1588:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1563:
1544:10.1136/bmj.c332
1523:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1503:
1497:Ledford, Heidi.
1494:
1488:
1487:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1438:
1413:(7063): 1008â9.
1398:
1392:
1391:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1286:
1246:
1237:
1236:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1131:
1112:10.1136/bmj.c869
1091:
1085:
1084:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1031:
999:
990:
989:
979:
955:
949:
948:
938:
906:
900:
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893:
889:
887:
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872:
849:
843:
842:
832:
800:
794:
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765:
759:
758:
740:
734:
728:
722:
721:
711:
679:
670:
669:
667:
666:
648:
642:
641:
639:
638:
624:
618:
617:
615:
613:
604:. 11 June 2009.
594:
588:
587:
551:
504:Blind taste test
488:
483:
482:
427:publication bias
389:systematic error
274:clinical studies
5802:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5795:
5793:
5792:
5791:
5757:
5756:
5755:
5750:
5728:
5710:
5687:Crossover study
5678:
5676:Latin hypercube
5612:PlackettâBurman
5591:
5588:
5587:
5579:
5482:
5474:
5415:
5407:
5324:
5317:
5312:
5282:
5277:
5240:
5211:
5173:
5110:
5096:quality control
5063:
5045:Clinical trials
5022:
4997:
4981:
4969:Hazard function
4963:
4917:
4879:
4863:
4826:
4822:BreuschâGodfrey
4810:
4787:
4727:
4702:Factor analysis
4648:
4629:Graphical model
4601:
4568:
4535:
4521:
4501:
4455:
4422:
4384:
4347:
4346:
4315:
4259:
4246:
4238:
4230:
4214:
4199:
4178:Rank statistics
4172:
4151:Model selection
4139:
4097:Goodness of fit
4091:
4068:
4042:
4014:
3967:
3912:
3901:Median unbiased
3829:
3740:
3673:Order statistic
3635:
3614:
3581:
3555:
3507:
3462:
3405:
3403:Data collection
3384:
3296:
3251:
3225:
3203:
3163:
3115:
3032:Continuous data
3022:
3009:
2991:
2986:
2956:
2951:
2922:
2886:
2848:
2793:
2747:
2721:
2695:Risk difference
2683:
2644:
2578:
2570:
2525:
2517:
2481:Trial protocols
2464:
2455:
2425:
2424:
2369:
2365:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2331:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2305:
2295:
2291:
2272:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2247:
2243:
2194:(3): e0119612.
2180:
2176:
2145:
2141:
2088:
2084:
2029:
2025:
1986:(1): CD003012.
1972:
1968:
1929:
1925:
1878:
1874:
1835:
1831:
1784:
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1768:
1720:
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1300:
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1193:
1189:
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1145:
1092:
1088:
1049:
1045:
1029:10.1038/526187a
1000:
993:
956:
952:
907:
903:
891:
890:
881:
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870:
868:
866:
850:
846:
801:
797:
770:Social Research
766:
762:
755:
741:
737:
729:
725:
694:(12): 642â643.
680:
673:
664:
662:
649:
645:
636:
634:
625:
621:
611:
609:
596:
595:
591:
552:
543:
538:
484:
477:
474:
465:
459:
447:
435:
422:
401:
393:active placebos
377:
364:
344:
339:
319:false positives
315:
286:
270:
243:false dichotomy
229:is a source of
223:
179:
172:
155:
150:
142:W. H. R. Rivers
92:
65:antidepressants
61:pain medication
17:
12:
11:
5:
5800:
5790:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5752:
5751:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5726:
5721:
5715:
5712:
5711:
5709:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5690:
5689:
5684:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5652:
5644:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5620:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5596:
5594:
5581:
5580:
5578:
5577:
5572:
5566:
5565:
5553:
5541:
5536:
5528:
5527:
5519:
5514:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5489:
5487:
5476:
5475:
5473:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5422:
5420:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5373:Optimal design
5368:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5329:
5327:
5319:
5318:
5311:
5310:
5303:
5296:
5288:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5263:
5251:
5237:
5224:
5221:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5213:
5212:
5210:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5183:
5181:
5175:
5174:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5120:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5073:
5071:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5042:
5040:Bioinformatics
5036:
5034:
5024:
5023:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4995:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4979:
4973:
4971:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4940:
4938:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4889:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4845:partial (PACF)
4836:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4806:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4792:Specific tests
4789:
4788:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4735:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4694:
4692:Classification
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4658:
4656:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4641:
4639:McNemar's test
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4615:
4613:
4603:
4602:
4578:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4545:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4517:
4511:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4500:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4477:Semiparametric
4474:
4469:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4432:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4361:
4359:
4349:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4339:
4333:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4311:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4284:
4273:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4251:
4250:
4242:
4234:
4218:
4215:(MannâWhitney)
4210:
4209:
4208:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4182:
4180:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4148:
4143:
4140:(ShapiroâWilk)
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4107:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4081:
4072:
4060:
4054:
4052:Specific tests
4048:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4007:
4006:
4005:
3995:
3994:
3993:
3983:
3977:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3963:
3958:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3922:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3891:
3876:
3875:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3848:
3846:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3805:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3637:
3636:
3624:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3591:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3517:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3503:Standard error
3500:
3495:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3472:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3433:Optimal design
3430:
3425:
3419:
3417:
3407:
3406:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3306:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3272:
3267:
3261:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3233:
3231:
3230:Summary tables
3227:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3125:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3064:Contraharmonic
3061:
3056:
3045:
3043:
3034:
3024:
3023:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2962:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2946:List of topics
2942:
2935:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2898:Selection bias
2894:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2858:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2819:Animal testing
2816:
2811:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2771:Mortality rate
2757:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2731:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2693:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2663:
2661:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2600:
2586:
2584:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2564:Platform trial
2556:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2533:
2531:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2476:Clinical trial
2472:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2454:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2431:
2423:
2422:
2363:
2341:
2315:
2289:
2266:
2241:
2174:
2155:(4): 235â242.
2139:
2102:(3): 128â134.
2082:
2023:
1966:
1923:
1888:(3): 227â231.
1872:
1829:
1794:(3): 250â252.
1778:
1734:(5): 489â500.
1714:
1669:
1639:
1604:
1575:
1515:
1489:
1450:
1393:
1342:
1315:(3): 254â259.
1298:
1238:
1187:
1143:
1086:
1043:
991:
950:
921:(4): 1272â83.
901:
864:
844:
795:
760:
753:
735:
723:
671:
643:
619:
589:
540:
539:
537:
534:
533:
532:
527:
522:
517:
511:
506:
501:
496:
490:
489:
486:Science portal
473:
470:
463:Blind audition
461:Main article:
458:
455:
446:
443:
434:
431:
421:
418:
400:
397:
381:antidepressant
376:
373:
363:
360:
343:
340:
338:
335:
314:
311:
299:active placebo
297:the use of an
285:
282:
269:
266:
222:
219:
171:
168:
154:
151:
149:
146:
132:published his
130:Claude Bernard
91:
88:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5799:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5713:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5696:
5692:
5691:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5650:
5646:
5645:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5602:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5593:
5586:
5582:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5570:Compare means
5568:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5552:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5534:
5530:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5512:
5511:Random effect
5508:
5507:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5486:
5481:
5477:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5456:
5454:
5453:Orthogonality
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5428:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5419:
5414:
5410:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5388:Randomization
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5375:
5374:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5320:
5316:
5309:
5304:
5302:
5297:
5295:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5274:
5273:
5264:
5262:
5261:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5238:
5236:
5235:
5226:
5225:
5222:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5202:Geostatistics
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5170:
5169:Psychometrics
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5117:
5113:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5032:Biostatistics
5029:
5025:
5021:
5016:
5012:
4994:
4993:Log-rank test
4991:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4978:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4966:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4890:
4888:
4886:
4882:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4864:(BoxâJenkins)
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4817:DurbinâWatson
4815:
4813:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4799:DickeyâFuller
4797:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4773:Cointegration
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4748:Decomposition
4746:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4730:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4619:Cohen's kappa
4617:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4583:
4579:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4472:Nonparametric
4470:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4425:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4310:
4307:
4306:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4270:
4266:
4256:
4253:
4249:
4243:
4241:
4235:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4222:
4221:Nonparametric
4219:
4217:
4211:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4202:
4196:
4192:
4191:Sample median
4189:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4175:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4080:
4078:
4073:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4061:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4021:
4017:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3796:loss function
3794:
3793:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3690:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3498:Questionnaire
3496:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3399:
3395:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3325:Control chart
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2983:
2978:
2976:
2971:
2969:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2877:Meta-analysis
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2844:Vaccine trial
2842:
2840:
2839:Seeding trial
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2608:Retrospective
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2577:
2573:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:EBM I to II-1
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2429:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2383:(3): 760â63.
2382:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2304:
2303:Legal Affairs
2300:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2256:
2255:Berkeley News
2252:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1710:
1704:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1592:
1585:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1520:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1358:(10): 71â73.
1357:
1353:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1261:(6): 477â84.
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1243:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
996:
987:
983:
978:
973:
970:(9): 973â83.
969:
965:
961:
954:
946:
942:
937:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
905:
897:
885:
878:
867:
861:
857:
856:
848:
840:
836:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
799:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
764:
756:
750:
746:
739:
732:
727:
719:
715:
710:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
678:
676:
660:
656:
655:
647:
632:
631:
623:
607:
603:
599:
593:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
550:
548:
546:
541:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
491:
487:
481:
476:
469:
464:
454:
452:
442:
440:
439:observer bias
430:
428:
417:
413:
410:
406:
396:
394:
390:
386:
382:
372:
369:
368:meta-analysis
359:
355:
353:
349:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
310:
308:
302:
300:
294:
291:
281:
279:
275:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
218:
216:
212:
208:
203:
199:
197:
192:
188:
184:
177:
167:
165:
161:
160:observer bias
145:
143:
139:
138:Enlightenment
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
114:
112:
107:
105:
101:
97:
87:
85:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
62:
57:
52:
50:
46:
42:
41:observer bias
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
5693:
5679:
5661:Latin square
5647:
5623:
5599:
5560:
5556:
5549:multivariate
5548:
5544:
5531:
5509:
5457:
5425:
5371:
5270:
5258:
5239:
5232:
5144:Econometrics
5094: /
5077:Chemometrics
5054:Epidemiology
5047: /
5020:Applications
4862:ARIMA model
4809:Q-statistic
4758:Stationarity
4654:Multivariate
4597: /
4593: /
4591:Multivariate
4589: /
4529: /
4525: /
4299:Bayes factor
4198:Signed rank
4110:
4084:
4076:
4064:
3759:Completeness
3595:Cohort study
3493:Opinion poll
3428:Missing data
3415:Study design
3370:Scatter plot
3292:Scatter plot
3285:Spearman's Ď
3247:Grouped data
2944:
2937:
2930:
2719:Hazard ratio
2603:Cohort study
2380:
2376:
2366:
2356:
2344:
2332:. Retrieved
2328:
2318:
2306:. Retrieved
2302:
2292:
2283:
2279:
2269:
2258:. Retrieved
2254:
2244:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2099:
2095:
2085:
2040:
2036:
2026:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1769:. Retrieved
1731:
1727:
1717:
1703:cite journal
1691:. Retrieved
1686:
1682:
1672:
1660:. Retrieved
1651:
1642:
1620:(7): 26â29.
1617:
1614:Science News
1613:
1607:
1595:. Retrieved
1593:. 2019-04-05
1590:
1578:
1535:
1531:
1506:. Retrieved
1492:
1470:(1): 25â37.
1467:
1463:
1453:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1258:
1254:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1103:
1099:
1089:
1059:(3): 254â9.
1056:
1052:
1046:
1011:
1007:
967:
963:
953:
918:
914:
904:
875:
869:. Retrieved
854:
847:
815:(1): 33â47.
812:
808:
798:
773:
769:
763:
744:
738:
730:
726:
691:
687:
663:. Retrieved
653:
646:
635:. Retrieved
629:
622:
610:. Retrieved
601:
592:
559:
555:
499:Black boxing
466:
448:
445:In forensics
436:
423:
414:
402:
378:
365:
356:
348:sham surgery
345:
337:Applications
316:
313:Significance
303:
295:
287:
271:
247:
224:
214:
210:
206:
200:
191:triple-blind
190:
187:double-blind
186:
183:single-blind
182:
180:
156:
133:
127:
115:
111:Stradivarius
108:
104:Franz Mesmer
93:
73:
53:
24:
20:
18:
5636:BoxâBehnken
5517:Mixed model
5448:Confounding
5443:Interaction
5433:Effect size
5403:Sample size
5272:WikiProject
5187:Cartography
5149:Jurimetrics
5101:Reliability
4832:Time domain
4811:(LjungâBox)
4733:Time-series
4611:Categorical
4595:Time-series
4587:Categorical
4522:(Bernoulli)
4357:Correlation
4337:Correlation
4133:JarqueâBera
4105:Chi-squared
3867:M-estimator
3820:Asymptotics
3764:Sufficiency
3531:Interaction
3443:Replication
3423:Effect size
3380:Violin plot
3360:Radar chart
3340:Forest plot
3330:Correlogram
3280:Kendall's Ď
2913:Null result
2872:Replication
2767:Infectivity
2689:Association
2640:Case report
2630:Case series
2613:Prospective
1309:Clin Trials
892:|work=
525:Metascience
509:Jadad scale
405:acupuncture
399:Acupuncture
385:effect size
342:In medicine
176:Double bind
170:Terminology
123:homeopathic
5761:Categories
5592:randomized
5590:Completely
5561:covariance
5323:Scientific
5139:Demography
4857:ARMA model
4662:Regression
4239:(Friedman)
4200:(Wilcoxon)
4138:Normality
4128:Lilliefors
4075:Student's
3951:Resampling
3825:Robustness
3813:divergence
3803:Efficiency
3741:(monotone)
3736:Likelihood
3653:Population
3486:Stratified
3438:Population
3257:Dependence
3213:Count data
3144:Percentile
3121:Dispersion
3054:Arithmetic
2989:Statistics
2715:Odds ratio
2707:Risk ratio
2673:Prevalence
2659:Occurrence
2635:Case study
2260:2019-08-29
871:2012-02-11
665:2011-07-21
637:2011-07-21
536:References
420:In physics
375:Depression
227:experiment
221:Unblinding
148:Background
125:dilution.
84:open trial
29:experiment
5601:Factorial
5485:inference
5465:Covariate
5427:Treatment
5413:Treatment
4520:Logistic
4287:posterior
4213:Rank sum
3961:Jackknife
3956:Bootstrap
3774:Bootstrap
3709:Parameter
3658:Statistic
3453:Statistic
3365:Run chart
3350:Pie chart
3345:Histogram
3335:Fan chart
3310:Bar chart
3192:L-moments
3079:Geometric
2775:Morbidity
2763:Virulence
2665:Incidence
2218:1932-6203
2116:2190-8370
2059:1747-5341
2000:1469-493X
1953:0022-006X
1902:0007-1250
1859:0002-953X
1824:207628021
1808:1535-7228
1750:1526-5900
1689:: 129â130
1634:1943-0930
1552:0959-8138
1427:0959-8138
1372:1526-5161
1275:1600-0528
1217:0140-6736
1174:1878-5921
1160:: 42â50.
1120:1756-1833
894:ignored (
884:cite book
790:141036212
776:(1): 18.
576:1878-5921
128:In 1865,
100:mesmerism
56:unblinded
5724:Category
5719:Glossary
5525:Bayesian
5503:Bayesian
5459:Blocking
5438:Contrast
5418:blocking
5378:Bayesian
5365:Blinding
5355:validity
5352:external
5348:Internal
5234:Category
4927:Survival
4804:Johansen
4527:Binomial
4482:Isotonic
4069:(normal)
3714:location
3521:Blocking
3476:Sampling
3355:QâQ plot
3320:Box plot
3302:Graphics
3197:Skewness
3187:Kurtosis
3159:Variance
3089:Heronian
3084:Harmonic
2939:Glossary
2932:Category
2809:In vitro
2650:Measures
2469:Overview
2417:22215592
2358:Discover
2334:26 April
2236:25747157
2188:PLOS ONE
2169:15022656
2134:25279271
2077:18505564
2018:14974002
1816:20194487
1771:22 April
1766:52813251
1758:30248448
1693:24 April
1656:Archived
1652:cebm.net
1597:21 April
1570:20332509
1538:: c332.
1508:24 April
1484:15837450
1388:53014880
1380:30339067
1337:36252366
1329:16279148
1293:19758415
1233:11578262
1225:11879884
1182:27555081
1138:20332511
1106:: c869.
1081:34932997
1073:11827510
1038:26450040
986:24972762
945:24881045
877:history.
839:16992882
718:17139070
606:Archived
602:cebm.net
584:24973822
472:See also
457:In music
239:no blind
235:spectrum
215:how well
80:medicine
5617:Taguchi
5585:Designs
5343:Control
5260:Commons
5207:Kriging
5092:Process
5049:studies
4908:Wavelet
4741:General
3908:Plug-in
3702:L space
3481:Cluster
3182:Moments
3000:Outline
2814:In vivo
2408:3271912
2385:Bibcode
2353:Ed Yong
2227:4352029
2196:Bibcode
2125:4172306
2068:2412901
2009:8407353
1961:1401382
1918:4975797
1910:9614471
1867:1443253
1591:fda.gov
1561:2844940
1445:8892442
1436:2352320
1284:3044082
1129:2844943
1016:Bibcode
936:4258786
830:1533733
709:1676327
366:A 2018
327:powered
250:placebo
202:CONSORT
90:History
69:CONSORT
5657:(GRBD)
5557:Ancova
5545:Manova
5480:Models
5325:method
5129:Census
4719:Normal
4667:Manova
4487:Robust
4237:2-way
4229:1-way
4067:-test
3738:
3315:Biplot
3106:Median
3099:Lehmer
3041:Center
2415:
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