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1631:, raising the money by selling houses and land. The guilds were encouraged to rebuild their guildhalls with particular care, and any proposal required approval by the Magistracy before it could be carried out. Although the economic and political power of the guilds was in decline, the guilds lavishly decorated their guildhalls, often putting themselves in debt for decades to do so. Keeping a strong resemblance was important, and the guildhalls were rebuilt using a multitude of decorative styles and individualizations, while maintaining a remarkable harmony, despite the ostensibly clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque and Louis XIV styles. Five years after the disaster, Brussels was almost entirely rebuilt, more beautiful than before the fire. The reconstruction was of an exceptional speed, and took place in an atmosphere of hope for sustained peace following the fall of the Citadel of Namur and the
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No financial aid from Spain or the governor could be expected, as their resources were dedicated to the war effort. The solution thus involved frugality and effectiveness, based on tradition, and the re-use of materials and surviving foundations. The residents and the guilds did not look favourably on the imposition of a new, foreign, architectural style. Local architects and artisans, with their better understanding of locally available materials and needs, still made attractive buildings, although they bore no resemblance to the
Baroque style. The weakness of the central government and the governor's absence due to the war during the first stages of reconstruction, in addition to the strength of the local upper classes, resulted in the structure of the city being kept largely the same, a situation similar to that after the
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1521:. Turin in particular was characterized by its logical street layout, with straight avenues offering long, uninterrupted views flanked by buildings of a uniform size. Maximilian II Emanuel advised in the reconstruction plans that buildings and streets be built in uniform proportions so as to improve the aesthetics of the city. He also insisted on this point when dealing with the Magistracy, saying "..we strongly hope that some order and uniformity has been observed in the buildings, and ... for the beauty and convenience of the city, that the streets which were formerly too narrow have now been enlarged."
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1002:, neutral in the conflict, as the King of France had forbidden that she be fired upon. The Prince of Berghes asked for a 24-hour extension to refer the request to stop bombarding the French coastal cities to William of Orange. He also asked Villeroi to consider the injustice of taking vengeance on Brussels, when the bombardments of French cities were entirely the fault of the King of England. Villeroi scoffed at this, saying the king "... has not given me the authority to enter into a treaty with the Prince of Orange."
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978:, was able to achieve anything, by controlling roads leading to Brussels. Having only 15,000 men, however, he was forced to withdraw faced with Villeroi's much larger force. The French army arrived in the vicinity of Brussels on August 11, and installed themselves on the high ground to the west of the city. Brussels was not strongly defended, as
990:, the military governor of Brussels. Because hoping to draw the allied armies away from Namur could not reasonably be used as justification for an attack on the civilian population of a relatively defenseless city, Villeroi used the pretext of the bombardment being a reprisal for the bombardment of French cities along the
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reconstruction for a period of two years, although all workers were forbidden to demand higher wages than they had received before the bombardment. The governor ordered free entry into the city of building supplies, and the prices were to be frozen for two years. By opening
Brussels to the outside commercially, the
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However, it has been suggested the
Bombardment marked a fundamental shift in military tactics, where taking or holding fortifications had become the dominant form of warfare in this period. By demonstrating that fortified towns could no longer resist the massive firepower available in modern warfare,
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The city's authorities believed until the last minute that the worst could be avoided, and as such urged the populace to stay home with buckets of water, so as to be prepared to extinguish any fire and prevent its spread. So feeble a means of stopping the fire quickly proved useless, and the panicked
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After the bombardment, reconstruction efforts over the following years profoundly changed the appearance of the city and left numerous traces still visible today. The French attempt to divert the Grand
Alliance was ultimately unsuccessful, though Louis XIV's reputation suffered for his involvement in
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On the morning of August 14, the barrage stopped for long enough for the French to resupply their batteries. Rumours that the French would be choosing new targets quickly spread, and in the confusion, the residents transported their belongings to the parts of the city which had already been hit. All
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and fuses, and 900 wagons for transport would be necessary. In addition, there would need to be a baggage train capable of supplying arms and provisions to an army of nearly 70,000 men. The supplies and troops were largely taken out of French garrisons and strongholds in the region, and on August 7,
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Although the general layout of the city was conserved, it was not completely identical. Despite the necessity of rapid reconstruction and the lack of financial means, authorities took several measures to improve traffic flow, sanitation and the general aesthetics of the city. Many streets were made
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For the residents of
Brussels, however, the priorities were completely different. A rapid reconstruction was vital to allow economic activities to resume and to prevent an exodus of the population. The city's authorities, who had few resources, did not have the means to finance grandiose proposals.
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A few months following the bombardment, two opposing visions for the city emerged. Maximilian II Emanuel, an ambitious and enlightened prince, envisioned using the reconstruction as an opportunity to modify the layout and architectural style of the city. Unlike the numerous transient
Spanish nobles
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The French themselves seemed surprised at the success of the operation, which was well beyond what they had anticipated. Villeroi wrote: "The disorder that we have caused in this city is incredible, the people menace us with many threats of reprisal, I don't doubt they have the will to do so, but I
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These maneuvers did not pass unnoticed, as
Villeroi let his intentions be known with the goal of worrying the allied armies besieging Namur. On August 3, a truce was declared in the siege in order to treat the wounded and restock the citadel. After six days, the siege resumed, with both William III
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Constantijn
Huygens, William's Secretary for Dutch affairs, visited Brussels and in his diary entry for September 11, he writes that the 'ruin caused...was horrible...and in many places, the houses reduced to rubble.' Cultural and material losses were staggering, according to a number of different
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to send aid, which was done immediately, and convoys of food were hired and sent as soon as possible. The numerous residents without shelter camped in the palace's park. Authorities requisitioned what space they could in waiting for reconstruction, and rent increases were forbidden throughout the
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The rubble in most cases completely covered and obscured even the location of the streets. Residences made out of wood with only the walls and chimneys made of stone had been largely consumed by the fires. The collection of buildings that survived consisted almost entirely of public buildings and
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It took several months to clear the debris. People of all classes were forced to help; they were forced to provide wagons and horses, and some were recruited for labour. To speed reconstruction, restrictions were lifted and foreign workers were allowed to come to the city and freely work in
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The crucial problem of getting supplies to the city was resolved within a few days, thanks to neighbouring cities. Merchants were forbidden to bring commercial goods or beer into
Brussels, thus allowing their transport capacities to be used to supply the city. Brussels appealed to other
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From the days following the bombardment into the following months, the different authorities of the city implemented a series of measures and regulations in order to attend to the most urgent problems and begin the reconstruction. The central government, headed by the governor,
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began to fire just before seven in the evening. The first incendiary bombs and shells hit several houses, which caught fire, starting a fire which spread rapidly amongst the narrow alleys, which were frequently lined by houses and workshops which were partially made of wood.
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The action was widely condemned throughout Europe, as it contravened an accepted convention of siege warfare, i.e. bombardments were used to smash a city's defenses, or destroy military infrastructure, rather than simply targeting the civilian population. Ministers of the
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convent and the Church of St. Nicholas, whose bell fell on and crushed the neighbouring houses. Max
Emmanuel, who had hastily returned from Namur with several troops, tried in vain to organize an effective resistance against the inferno and to maintain order.
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The city's artistic heritage, accumulated over centuries, was severely damaged by the bombardment. It is impossible to estimate the number of artistic works inside the buildings that were destroyed by the bombardment. Among the losses were Brusselois
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of 1658, France began its policy of territorial expansion. This expansion resulted in the gradual annexation of Spanish possessions to France's north. Wars were fought and alliances made and broken, and fortresses continuously changed hands. The
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As the populace had time to take refuge, the bombardment itself caused relatively few casualties, the number of deaths being small relative to other battles. Nevertheless, there are records of a man killed in the first salvo, of two
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offered no defense, despite improvements made by the Spanish in the previous century. Two entrenchments in front of Flanders Gate and Anderlecht Gate were easily taken by the French, who then installed their artillery nearby.
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don't see how they have the means." The French master of artillery wrote "I have been on many tours of duty, but I have never before seen so large a fire or so much desolation as there seems to be in that city." The young
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put it at 30 million. At this time, the annual rent for an ordinary house was between 120 and 150 florins, with a purchase price of around 2000 florins. This compares to a purchase price of about €200,000 today, giving a
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A letter from Mr. de Vigny to Mr. de Barbesieux, on the morning of August 15: "The enemies' cannon treated us harshly, and we have already lost, both from them and the misfortune of the mortar batteries, 35 men from our
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and the Chapel of Mary Magdalene of Brussels were ablaze, and the Recollet convent, already hit the night before, was near completely destroyed. Destruction then came to the Saint John Hospital, and in the night, to the
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in a surprise attack. Villeroi, eager to please the king, instead suggested that bombarding Brussels would have more of an effect in drawing the enemy to a place in which the French could attack them strategically.
852:. During this period, this region went through a succession of wars and destruction, exacerbated by large armies traversing the region at the whim of the great powers. In 1695, nearly forty years after the
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and the Dominican convent, where large quantities of furniture, heirlooms, works of art and family archives had been stored and would soon be lost underneath the rubble. To the east, fear spread that the
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crushed under the ruins of their convent, four patients burned alive in Saint John Hospital, and of both residents trying to save their possessions and looters alike being buried alive under the rubble.
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The reconstruction of the Grand-Place and the adjacent streets, long the political and economic centre of the city, was an object of particular care. The municipal government funded the repair of
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area where every building was destroyed, visible as the white area in the map at the top of the page. There were, of course, numerous islands of destruction from the shells throughout the city.
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Le désordre que nous avons fait dans cette ville est incroyable, le peuple nous menace de beaucoup de représailles, je ne doute pas qu’il en ait la volonté, mais je n’en devine pas les moyens
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architects. He envisioned rebuilding the Grand-Place with a uniform facade, although this would be done on only one of the sides of the square, now the House of the Dukes of Brabant.
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as wide as possible to improve traffic flow. New regulations were put in place, adding to existing ones preventing cellar doors, steps and wares from spilling into the street.
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1455:), which represented local interests and retained much of the autonomy it had gained in the Middle Ages. This caused many jurisdictional conflicts, creating further problems.
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whose own house had been destroyed and who made detailed drawings of the destruction of his hometown. 12 of these drawings were engraved, some with the help of his friend
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and upper floors projecting into the street had all been illegal before the fire, but unenforced. Any building that did not conform to regulations was to be demolished.
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with France in the conflict. No longer governor, his visions for Brussels were not enacted. What he did build was largely dedicated to symbolizing his power. The first
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Namely those of the French Army, Villeroi himself, the city authorities, the governor, religious congregations, religious authorities, the report of the
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A contemporary map and illustration of the 1695 bombardment of Brussels and the subsequent fire. The white areas in the centre are the areas destroyed.
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assessments. According to these, some 4000 to 5000 buildings were destroyed, representing a third of the buildings in the city. Much of this was in a
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by the English fleet. Within six hours, the letter announcing the bombardment affirmed this, in addition to asking the location of Max Emanuel's wife
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who was present, disapproved, writing at the end of his life "A more appalling spectacle has never been seen, and nothing else comes as close to the
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J’ai été employé à faire plusieurs répétitions, mais je n’ai point encore vu un si grand feu, ni tant de désolation qu’il en paraît dans cette ville
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charged with patrolling the disaster-stricken areas. Maximilian II Emanuel posted sentries day and night, before joining in the siege of Namur.
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Véronique Van de Kerckhof, 'Le peintre et l'arpenteur: images de Bruxelles et de l'ancien duché de Brabant', Renaissance Du Livre, 2000, p. 71
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1505:, he dreamt of making the Spanish Netherlands his own hereditary state. His plan was to transform the medieval city into a city of the new
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At the end of July, Villeroi sent the king a request for supplies, compiled by his master of artillery. He evaluated that 12 cannons, 25
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attempted to return fire, but they were short of gunpowder, ammunition and gunners. The few salvos of cannonballs, and later
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Jamais on ne vit un spectacle plus affreux et rien ressemblait mieux à ce que l’on raconte de l’embrassement de Troie
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All the events of this day are explained in detail Villeroi's daily letter to Louis XIV from the night of August 13.
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Family, Culture and Society in the Diary of Constantijn Huygens Jr, Secretary to Stadholder-King William of Orange
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Family, Culture and Society in the Diary of Constantijn Huygens Jr, Secretary to Stadholder-King William of Orange
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When the bombardment resumed, the city was hammered even harder across an even larger area: on the north, towards
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1987:, éditions J.-M. Collet, Braine-l’Alleud, 1992 (réédition augmentée de la première version de 1980), 100 p.
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The 17th century, called the 'Great Century' by the French, was anything but great for the inhabitants of the
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in 1701, Maximilian II Emanuel quit his post as governor. Formerly having been allied with Austria and the
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residents tried to save their most precious belongings and fled to the heights of the city, east of the
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1192:. Much of the history of the city was also lost with the destruction of a large part of the archives.
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The French batteries did not stop firing until the middle of the day, after 48 hours of bombardment.
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Letter from Maximilian II Emanuel to the Magistracy, October 1695, while at the Siege of Namur
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and vowed to avenge Brussels' destruction. The bombardment failed to divert the Allies from
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Perspectives des ruines de la ville de Bruxelles, dessinées au naturel par Augustin Coppens
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The Grand-Place from the corner of the Rue de la Colline towards the Church of St. Nicholas
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Le bombardement de Bruxelles par Louis XIV et la reconstruction qui s'ensuivit, 1695–1700
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it led to a move away from siege warfare and into the direct confrontations advocated by
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The Nine Years' War and the British Army, 1688–1697: The Operations in the Low Countries
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2014:, (6 pages), a detailed account of the bombardment with many contemporary illustrations
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House of the Dukes of Brabant, 1729. Compare its uniformity to the other guildhalls.
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city. To put an end to looting and re-establish order, the city formed middle-class
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would be destroyed, and its riches were evacuated. The area around what is now the
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had been raging since 1688. Opposing France was a large European coalition, the
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in Amsterdam and provide an important record of the impact of the bombardment.
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around the affected area, despite strong opposition by the buildings' owners.
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Map of Brussels from the collection of maps gathered for Louis XIV during the
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style, having been influenced by his numerous trips to the imperial court in
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Letter from him, Mr. de Vigny to Mr. de Barbiesieux, August 15, 1695. Lit.:
817:. The bombardment ultimately proved to be the most destructive event in the
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by King William III at the head of an allied army. After the death of the
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In 1712, seven houses collectively were sold together for 15,000 florins.
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Culot, Maurice; Hennaut, Eric; Demanet, Marie; Mierop, Caroline (1992).
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According to a rental contract from July 6, 1708, cited in Culot et al.
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1383: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1112:. By the morning of August 15, the entire city centre was an enormous
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and the plates published in Brussels later that year under the title
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which had preceded him in the unprestigious post of Governor of the
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1762:, (a letter to the king) August 26, 1695, Spanish General Archives.
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would later deem the bombardment "as barbarous as it was useless".
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Cannonball in the walls of St. Nicholas dating from the bombardment
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on fire on the night of August 13 to 14, 1695 (anonymous painting)
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verifies that the rent/selling price ratio is roughly the same.
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valley. A helpless crowd watched the fire from the park at the
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809:, French forces bombarded the city in an attempt to divert
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1879:(2013 ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 2.
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for Brussels with a baggage train of nearly 1500 carts.
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Letter from ambassador Bernardo de Quiros to Charles II
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Bruxelles, architecture civile et militaire avant 1900
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Bruxelles, architecture civile et militaire avant 1900
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of these were destroyed when the bombardment resumed.
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All alone, three defensive batteries installed on the
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Relacion de lo succedido en el bombardeo de Bruselas
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1140:The material damage was documented by local artist
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
970:standing their ground. Only the small army of the
1862:, t. III, fasc. II, 1958, by C. Terlinden. Lit.:
1168:churches, as those were made of stone and brick.
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1150:Perspectives des Ruines de la Ville de Bruxelles
1212:rough estimate of between 3 and 5 billion
1199:estimated property losses at around 50 million
1754:Letter from the King of Spain's ambassador in
1738:and that of the King of Spain's ambassador in
1611:guildhall, symbol of the city's reconstruction
2487:Woluwe-Saint-Lambert / Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe
2390:Municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region
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1816:Letter to Louis XIV, August 17, 1695. Lit.:
1677:), published 1695 in Paris by Nicolas de Fer
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2467:Saint-Josse-ten-Noode / Sint-Joost-ten-Node
2412:Berchem-Sainte-Agathe / Sint-Agatha-Berchem
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2457:Molenbeek-Saint-Jean / Sint-Jans-Molenbeek
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892:, occupied for three years by the French,
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2492:Woluwe-Saint-Pierre / Sint-Pieters-Woluwe
2482:Watermael-Boitsfort / Watermaal-Bosvoorde
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1548:was commissioned by him, and designed by
1437:Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria
1399:Learn how and when to remove this message
879:Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1220:Ruins of Brussels after the bombardment
986:On August 13 Villeroi sent a letter to
931:François de Neufville, Duke of Villeroy
813:troops from reinforcing the concurrent
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2011:Bombes et boulets rouges sur Bruxelles
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1789:According to average selling price at
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1966:(in French). Brussels: AAM Ă©ditions.
1843:The Duke of Berwick's memoirs. Lit.:
801:from August 13–15, 1695. Led by King
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1381:adding citations to reliable sources
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60:adding citations to reliable sources
31:
1564:Guildhalls on the Grand-Place, 1729
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2146:L'Innovation department store fire
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1667:Map of the Bombardment of Brussels
1203:, while the Spanish Ambassador in
27:1695 battle of the Nine Years' War
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1999:
1675:Plan du bombardement de Bruxelles
1594:Reconstruction of the city centre
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1282:The surroundings of the Town Hall
900:, the French army was led by the
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2017:
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1368:needs additional citations for
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47:needs additional citations for
2597:Bombing operations and battles
2417:Bruxelles-Ville / Stad Brussel
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998:, the daughter of Polish King
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18:Bombardment of Brussels (1695)
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1:
1603:Phoenix rising from its ashes
1534:War of the Spanish Succession
1343:War of the Spanish Succession
843:War of the Spanish Succession
832:
829:the destruction of the city.
2592:Military history of Brussels
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1052:western ramparts of the city
988:Philippe François de Berghes
320:Flanders and the Lower Rhine
7:
1038:Bottom: Diagram of a mortar
10:
2613:
2462:Saint-Gilles / Sint-Gillis
2111:Duchess of Richmond's ball
1796:November 22, 2008, at the
1532:After the outbreak of the
1074:and its surroundings, the
888:In July 1695, the city of
825:(Brussels' main square).
2577:Battles involving Belgium
2504:
2397:
2383:
2333:
2312:
2286:
2238:
2221:Drapery Court of Brussels
2180:
2169:
2071:
2067:
1900:Dekker, Rudolf M (2013).
1706:Dekker, Rudolf M (2013).
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1126:
316:
231:
194:
162:
151:
143:
138:
71:"Bombardment of Brussels"
2582:Battles involving France
2572:17th century in Brussels
2008:Jean-Didier Chastelain,
1864:aussi barbare qu’inutile
1643:
1513:, and in his travels to
2472:Schaerbeek / Schaarbeek
2151:Heysel Stadium disaster
1983:Victor-Gaston Martiny,
1945:Victor-Gaston Martiny,
1016:Grand-Place/Grote Markt
823:Grand-Place/Grote Markt
799:bombardment of Brussels
139:Bombardment of Brussels
2325:Science and technology
2263:North–South connection
1674:
1612:
1607:
1452:
1444:
1431:
1297:
1154:Peter Schenk the Elder
1039:
1019:
934:
845:
232:Commanders and leaders
2116:Covering of the Senne
1904:. Brill. p. 45.
1875:Childs, John (1991).
1802:Global Property Guide
1710:. Brill. p. 50.
1605:on the Grand-Place's
1601:
1546:Theatre of La Monnaie
1421:Maximilian II Emanuel
1419:
1295:
1178:Rogier van der Weyden
1025:
1013:
1006:Effect of bombardment
968:Maximilian II Emanuel
929:
867:William III of Orange
840:
729:Barfleur and La Hogue
2407:Auderghem / Oudergem
2026:at Wikimedia Commons
1639:Notes and references
1527:Great Fire of London
1427:and governor of the
1377:improve this article
1110:Church of the Chapel
949:, a large amount of
850:Southern Netherlands
532:Sant Esteve d'en Bas
184:Southern Netherlands
56:improve this article
2539: /
1499:Spanish Netherlands
1429:Spanish Netherlands
974:, near the city of
972:Prince of Vaudemont
883:Spanish Netherlands
865:, with its head as
854:Battle of the Dunes
819:history of Brussels
685:Cartagena de Indias
631:Invasion of England
268:Philippe de Berghes
2543:50.8467°N 4.3524°E
2515:Belgium portal
2226:Guilds of Brussels
2193:Minister-President
1860:Cahiers bruxellois
1613:
1432:
1425:Elector of Bavaria
1341:and others in the
1298:
1040:
1020:
935:
898:Duke of Luxembourg
881:, governor of the
846:
512:Second Brotherhood
170:August 13–15, 1695
2587:Conflicts in 1695
2522:
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2500:
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2379:
2378:
2371:Parks and gardens
2258:Charleroi Airport
2234:
2233:
2073:Historical events
2022:Media related to
1973:978-2-87143-079-7
1911:978-90-04-25094-9
1717:978-90-04-25094-9
1665:Mentioned in the
1633:Treaty of Ryswick
1538:Holy Roman Empire
1503:Emperor Leopold I
1409:
1408:
1401:
1307:Marshal of France
1246:Rue de la Colline
1234:Marché aux Herbes
1216:in modern terms.
1190:Bernard van Orley
1146:Richard van Orley
1000:John III Sobieski
996:Theresa Kunegunda
875:Holy Roman Empire
795:French Royal Army
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708:Naval battles
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2313:Other topics
2121:Francisation
2010:
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1791:Expatica.com
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1752:(in Spanish)
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1707:
1701:
1692:
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1666:
1661:
1652:
1626:
1614:
1602:
1540:, he allied
1531:
1523:
1495:
1482:
1457:
1433:
1395:
1386:
1375:Please help
1370:verification
1367:
1335:
1315:
1311:sack of Troy
1299:
1252:Heuvelstraat
1209:
1197:Papal nuncio
1194:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1149:
1139:
1134:lay brothers
1130:
1122:
1093:
1089:
1068:ducal palace
1060:
1056:cobblestones
1049:
1041:
1032:Middle: The
985:
964:
936:
922:Preparations
894:was besieged
887:
847:
827:
798:
788:
619:2nd Limerick
599:1st Limerick
438:Philippsburg
326:Kaiserswerth
195:Belligerents
144:Part of the
118:
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
2546: /
2096:1656 treaty
2006:(in French)
1981:(in French)
1943:(in French)
1856:(in French)
1829:(in French)
1814:(in French)
1389:August 2020
1339:Marlborough
1305:, a future
1072:Grand-Place
1042:The French
943:cannonballs
917:Bombardment
789:During the
776:Dogger Bank
719:Beachy Head
690:3rd Guárico
680:2nd Guárico
675:1st Guárico
609:2nd Athlone
589:1st Athlone
448:Frankenthal
432:Upper Rhine
361:Steenkerque
112:August 2016
2561:Categories
2531:50°50′48″N
2452:Koekelberg
2402:Anderlecht
2278:Small Ring
2214:Historical
2200:Parliament
2188:Government
2106:1746 siege
1461:Brabantian
1453:magistraat
1174:tapestries
1162:contiguous
1080:Breadhouse
1034:Breadhouse
833:Background
714:Bantry Bay
702:Pondichéry
507:Barretinas
421:2nd Deinze
401:1st Deinze
366:Dottignies
82:newspapers
2534:4°21′09″E
2437:Ganshoren
2422:Etterbeek
2392:, Belgium
2346:Buildings
2240:Transport
2161:reactions
2141:Expo 1958
2136:Expo 1935
2131:Expo 1910
2126:Expo 1897
1858:Cited in
1756:The Hague
1740:The Hague
1687:regiment.
1620:, wooden
1529:in 1666.
1445:magistrat
1323:The Hague
1288:Aftermath
1257:Town Hall
1243:down the
1240:Grasmarkt
1205:The Hague
1118:firebreak
1076:Town Hall
1044:batteries
1028:Town Hall
1026:Top: The
980:its walls
951:gunpowder
803:Louis XIV
739:Cherbourg
669:Caribbean
648:Loup Hill
636:Wincanton
594:Waterford
537:Barcelona
522:Torroella
501:Catalonia
490:Marsaglia
465:Staffarda
396:2nd Namur
381:Charleroi
356:1st Namur
245:Louis XIV
2205:Governor
2081:Timeline
2061:Brussels
1794:Archived
1622:canopies
1608:La Louve
1550:Venetian
1478:militias
1473:Mechelen
1331:Napoleon
1096:the Mint
1084:Recollet
955:grenades
805:and the
744:La Hogue
734:Barfleur
724:Alicante
663:Cromdale
485:Pinerolo
459:Piedmont
443:Mannheim
406:Brussels
331:Walcourt
180:Brussels
175:Location
2366:Schools
2351:Museums
2294:Symbols
2287:Symbols
1734:to the
1542:Bavaria
1507:Baroque
1469:Antwerp
1321:met in
1255:to the
1201:florins
1114:brazier
1036:burning
1030:burning
945:, 5000
941:, 4000
939:mortars
771:Dunkirk
756:Camaret
658:Dunkeld
641:Reading
614:Aughrim
554:Dromore
543:Ireland
495:Valenza
391:2nd Huy
371:1st Huy
341:Fleurus
96:scholar
1991:
1970:
1908:
1883:
1732:nuncio
1714:
1671:French
1511:Vienna
1486:guilds
1465:Leuven
1441:French
1182:Rubens
1127:Damage
1082:, the
906:Bruges
873:, the
871:Sweden
793:, the
761:Dieppe
549:Bandon
527:Girona
376:Landen
222:
210:France
207:
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
2447:Jette
2427:Evere
2334:Lists
2299:Flags
2268:Trams
2248:Metro
1644:Notes
1519:Turin
1515:Milan
1449:Dutch
1327:Namur
1214:euros
1064:Senne
976:Ghent
910:Ghent
890:Namur
766:Texel
751:Lagos
584:Boyne
579:Cavan
574:Newry
559:Derry
517:Roses
480:Cuneo
453:Mainz
416:Givet
351:Leuze
225:Spain
103:JSTOR
89:books
1989:ISBN
1968:ISBN
1906:ISBN
1881:ISBN
1736:Pope
1712:ISBN
1517:and
1471:and
1210:very
1195:The
1188:and
1014:The
966:and
960:Mons
696:Asia
475:Nice
470:Susa
346:Mons
336:Bonn
167:Date
75:news
1379:by
1313:."
908:or
426:Ath
58:by
2563::
1800:,
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