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Borel set

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For subsets of Polish spaces, Borel sets can be characterized as those sets that are the ranges of continuous injective maps defined on Polish spaces. Note however, that the range of a continuous noninjective map may fail to be Borel. See
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defined a Borel space somewhat differently, writing that it is "a set together with a distinguished σ-field of subsets called its Borel sets." However, modern usage is to call the distinguished sub-algebra the
759: 304: 1748: 103:, since any measure defined on the open sets of a space, or on the closed sets of a space, must also be defined on all Borel sets of that space. Any measure defined on the Borel sets is called a 507: 2198: 1513: 565: 442: 1444: 806: 1133: 920: 1640: 1618: 240: 208: 2028: 975: 1815: 1682: 1368: 1337: 354: 1883: 1859: 1839: 1795: 1596: 1576: 1537: 1392: 1078:. A standard Borel space is characterized up to isomorphism by its cardinality, and any uncountable standard Borel space has the cardinality of the continuum. 4163: 693: 4241: 570:
To prove this claim, any open set in a metric space is the union of an increasing sequence of closed sets. In particular, complementation of sets maps
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In fact, the cardinality of the collection of Borel sets is equal to that of the continuum (compare to the number of
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will vary over all the countable ordinals, and thus the first ordinal at which all the Borel sets are obtained is
4324: 4010: 3919: 3683: 3539: 657: 4248: 4195: 4089: 3995: 2183: 17: 4114: 4094: 4058: 3982: 3702: 3418: 1302:{\displaystyle x=a_{0}+{\cfrac {1}{a_{1}+{\cfrac {1}{a_{2}+{\cfrac {1}{a_{3}+{\cfrac {1}{\ddots \,}}}}}}}}} 687: 1397: 4236: 4015: 3977: 3929: 2178: 1555: 770: 4141: 4109: 4099: 4020: 3987: 3618: 3527: 2243: 1094: 134: 893: 4158: 4063: 3839: 3767: 2964: 2895: 2399: 1543:(all Borel sets are also analytic), and complete in the class of analytic sets. For more details see 521: 58: 4148: 4231: 3677: 3608: 2953: 1685: 665: 3544: 1909: 1623: 1601: 4000: 3758: 3718: 3411: 2033: 218: 186: 122:
of the topological space, rather than the open sets. The two definitions are equivalent for many
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sets (of a topological space), whereas Mackey's definition refers to a set equipped with an
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cannot be exhibited, although the existence of such a set is implied, for example, by the
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is the smallest σ-algebra containing all open sets (or, equivalently, all closed sets).
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In the construction by transfinite induction, it can be shown that, in each step, the
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or if every compact saturated subset is closed (which is the case in particular if
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Jochen Wengenroth, Is every sigma-algebra the Borel algebra of a topology?
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Tommy Norberg and Wim Vervaat, Capacities on non-Hausdorff spaces, in:
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Norberg and Vervaat redefine the Borel algebra of a topological space
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be the set of all irrational numbers that correspond to sequences
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In some contexts, Borel sets are defined to be generated by the
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is a countable union of countable sets, so that any subset of
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An example of a subset of the reals that is non-Borel, due to
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is not Hausdorff. It coincides with the usual definition if
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The Borel algebra on the reals is the smallest σ-algebra on
2162:, Springer-Verlag, 1995 (Graduate texts in Math., vol. 156) 299:{\displaystyle T_{\delta \sigma }=(T_{\delta })_{\sigma }.} 1753: 153:, the Borel algebra in the first sense may be described 1817:-algebra generated by its open subsets and its compact 1270: 1258: 1237: 1225: 1204: 1192: 1171: 1159: 767:
sets that exist, which is strictly larger and equal to
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from the class of open sets by iterating the operation
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with the following property: there exists an infinite
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is by definition also a measure on the Borel algebra.
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is non-Borel. In fact, it is consistent with ZF that
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See especially Sect. 51 "Borel sets and Baire sets".
1743:{\displaystyle f\colon \{0,1\}^{\omega }\to \{0,1\}} 995:, that is, a topological space such that there is a 1109:, is described below. In contrast, an example of a 2211: 1877: 1853: 1833: 1809: 1789: 1742: 1676: 1634: 1612: 1590: 1570: 1531: 1507: 1438: 1386: 1362: 1331: 1301: 969: 914: 800: 753: 559: 501: 436: 348: 298: 234: 202: 4311: 604:can be obtained by iterating the operation over 930:measurable sets, i.e., for all measurable sets 140: 242:be all countable intersections of elements of 3419: 2244: 1944:(1966), "Ergodic Theory and Virtual Groups", 812:Standard Borel spaces and Kuratowski theorems 632:The resulting sequence of sets is termed the 502:{\displaystyle G^{i}=\bigcup _{j<i}G^{j}.} 4164:Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem 1737: 1725: 1713: 1700: 1508:{\displaystyle (a_{k_{0}},a_{k_{1}},\dots )} 560:{\displaystyle G\mapsto G_{\delta \sigma }.} 1124:has a unique representation by an infinite 4259:Vitale's random Brunn–Minkowski inequality 3426: 3412: 2251: 2237: 1998: 1645:Another non-Borel set is an inverse image 1093:on a standard Borel space turns it into a 1053:Considered as Borel spaces, the real line 2046: 1628: 1606: 1278: 727: 329:For the base case of the definition, let 2208:that have been formally proved about it. 1766:Hausdorff topological space is called a 644:An important example, especially in the 437:{\displaystyle G^{i}=_{\delta \sigma }.} 1578:, it cannot be proven in ZF alone that 512:The claim is that the Borel algebra is 210:be all countable unions of elements of 14: 4312: 2132: 2079: 1940: 1917: – Subfield of mathematical logic 1754:Alternative non-equivalent definitions 890:between measurable spaces. A function 76:, the collection of all Borel sets on 3407: 2212: 2026: 648:, is the Borel algebra on the set of 375:has an immediately preceding ordinal 356:be the collection of open subsets of 4272:Applications & related 2060: 1439:{\displaystyle (a_{0},a_{1},\dots )} 524:. That is, the Borel algebra can be 2068:. Courier Corporation. p. 142. 1554:It's important to note, that while 1074:is the Borel space associated to a 801:{\displaystyle 2^{2^{\aleph _{0}}}} 574:into itself for any limit ordinal 24: 3433: 2129:. Wadsworth, Brooks and Cole, 1989 846:is the σ-algebra of Borel sets of 785: 737: 716: 698: 593:, there is some countable ordinal 586:is closed under countable unions. 567:to the first uncountable ordinal. 25: 4336: 2166: 1100: 652:. It is the algebra on which the 629:, the first uncountable ordinal. 582:is an uncountable limit ordinal, 107:. Borel sets and the associated 4201:Lebesgue differentiation theorem 4082:Carathéodory's extension theorem 2160:Classical Descriptive Set Theory 915:{\displaystyle f:X\rightarrow Y} 522:first uncountable ordinal number 168:(that is, for any subset of the 111:also play a fundamental role in 2029:"Sur les ensembles analytiques" 1046:(This result is reminiscent of 133:, but can be different in more 2085: 2072: 2054: 2020: 1992: 1981: 1934: 1770:if it belongs to the smallest 1722: 1671: 1665: 1519:of the next element. This set 1502: 1456: 1433: 1401: 964: 958: 906: 538: 419: 399: 284: 270: 65:. Borel sets are named after 13: 1: 2127:Real Analysis and Probability 2102: 1774:containing all compact sets. 1539:is not Borel. However, it is 1006:that defines the topology of 2413:= co-recursively enumerable 2113:An Invitation to C*-algebras 1635:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } 1613:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } 1515:such that each element is a 826:be a topological space. The 688:cardinality of the continuum 615:varies over all Borel sets, 141:Generating the Borel algebra 99:Borel sets are important in 50:) through the operations of 7: 4254:Prékopa–Leindler inequality 2179:Encyclopedia of Mathematics 1923: – Concept in topology 1888: 325:, in the following manner: 235:{\displaystyle T_{\delta }} 203:{\displaystyle T_{\sigma }} 10: 4341: 4196:Lebesgue's density theorem 1343:and all the other numbers 1095:standard probability space 1061:with a countable set, and 815: 639: 27:Class of mathematical sets 4271: 4249:Minkowski–Steiner formula 4219: 4179: 4172: 4072: 4064:Projection-valued measure 3965: 3858: 3627: 3500: 3441: 3397: 3394: 3311: 3251: 3246: 3243: 3176: 3165: 3098: 3087: 2957: 2889: 2884: 2881: 2811: 2795: 2790: 2787: 2711: 2651: 2646: 2643: 2564: 2553: 2470: 2459: 2369: 2354: 2314: 2275: 2268: 2261: 2041:: Sect. 62, pages 76–78, 1999:Srivastava, S.M. (1991), 970:{\displaystyle f^{-1}(B)} 878:Measurable spaces form a 686:of sets is, at most, the 4232:Isoperimetric inequality 4211:Vitali–Hahn–Saks theorem 3540:Carathéodory's criterion 2783:= boldface arithmetical 2303:(sometimes the same as Δ 2093:Probability and Lattices 1927: 1686:infinite parity function 666:probability distribution 450:is a limit ordinal, set 92:. The Borel algebra on 72:For a topological space 46:(or, equivalently, from 42:that can be formed from 4237:Brunn–Minkowski theorem 4106:Decomposition theorems 3049:= lightface coanalytic 2034:Fundamenta Mathematicae 2027:Lusin, Nicolas (1927), 1810:{\displaystyle \sigma } 1556:Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms 4325:Descriptive set theory 4284:Descriptive set theory 4184:Disintegration theorem 3619:Universally measurable 2400:recursively enumerable 2001:A Course on Borel Sets 1915:Descriptive set theory 1879: 1855: 1835: 1811: 1791: 1744: 1678: 1677:{\displaystyle f^{-1}} 1636: 1614: 1592: 1572: 1545:descriptive set theory 1533: 1509: 1440: 1388: 1364: 1333: 1303: 971: 916: 802: 755: 675:that contains all the 561: 503: 438: 350: 300: 236: 204: 126:spaces, including all 113:descriptive set theory 4086:Convergence theorems 3545:Cylindrical σ-algebra 3037:= lightface analytic 2193:of Borel Sets in the 2152:, Prentice Hall, 1988 2140:. D. van Nostrand Co. 1910:Cylindrical σ-algebra 1880: 1856: 1836: 1812: 1792: 1745: 1679: 1637: 1615: 1593: 1573: 1534: 1510: 1441: 1389: 1365: 1363:{\displaystyle a_{k}} 1334: 1332:{\displaystyle a_{0}} 1304: 1022:as a Borel space is 972: 917: 803: 756: 656:is defined. Given a 646:theory of probability 562: 504: 439: 351: 349:{\displaystyle G^{0}} 311:transfinite induction 301: 237: 205: 4154:Minkowski inequality 4028:Cylinder set measure 3913:Infinite-dimensional 3528:equivalence relation 3458:Lebesgue integration 2156:Alexander S. Kechris 2048:10.4064/fm-10-1-1-95 1869: 1845: 1825: 1801: 1781: 1691: 1649: 1624: 1602: 1582: 1562: 1523: 1453: 1398: 1378: 1347: 1316: 1134: 1071:standard Borel space 1018:metric space. Then 942: 894: 888:measurable functions 818:Standard Borel space 771: 694: 658:real random variable 532: 454: 383: 333: 251: 219: 187: 90:Borel σ-algebra 4149:Hölder's inequality 4011:of random variables 3973:Measurable function 3860:Particular measures 3449:Absolute continuity 2066:The Axiom of Choice 1272: 1260: 1239: 1227: 1206: 1194: 1173: 1161: 1091:probability measure 765:Lebesgue measurable 589:For each Borel set 63:relative complement 4289:Probability theory 3614:Transverse measure 3592:Non-measurable set 3574:Locally measurable 2214:Weisstein, Eric W. 2204:2020-06-01 at the 1960:10.1007/BF01361167 1875: 1851: 1831: 1807: 1787: 1740: 1674: 1632: 1610: 1588: 1568: 1529: 1505: 1436: 1384: 1360: 1329: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1267: 1234: 1201: 1168: 1126:continued fraction 1111:non-measurable set 967: 912: 798: 751: 557: 499: 485: 434: 346: 296: 232: 200: 4307: 4306: 4267: 4266: 3996:almost everywhere 3942:Spherical measure 3840:Strictly positive 3768:Projection-valued 3508:Almost everywhere 3481:Probability space 3402: 3401: 2954:hyperarithmetical 2191:Formal definition 2014:978-0-387-98412-4 1900:Borel isomorphism 1878:{\displaystyle X} 1854:{\displaystyle X} 1834:{\displaystyle X} 1819:saturated subsets 1790:{\displaystyle X} 1591:{\displaystyle A} 1571:{\displaystyle A} 1532:{\displaystyle A} 1387:{\displaystyle A} 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1271: 1259: 1238: 1226: 1205: 1193: 1172: 1160: 1122:irrational number 1048:Maharam's theorem 977:is measurable in 864:measurable spaces 662:probability space 470: 160:For a collection 145:In the case that 40:topological space 16:(Redirected from 4332: 4242:Milman's reverse 4225: 4223:Lebesgue measure 4177: 4176: 3581: 3567:infimum/supremum 3488:Measurable space 3428: 3421: 3414: 3405: 3404: 3381: 3380: 3369: 3368: 3357: 3356: 3345: 3344: 3333: 3332: 3321: 3320: 3305: 3304: 3296: 3295: 3287: 3286: 3278: 3277: 3269: 3268: 3260: 3259: 3237: 3236: 3223: 3222: 3211: 3210: 3200: 3199: 3186: 3185: 3174: 3173: 3159: 3158: 3145: 3144: 3133: 3132: 3122: 3121: 3108: 3107: 3096: 3095: 3078: 3077: 3061: 3060: 3048: 3047: 3036: 3035: 3014: 3013: 3002: 3001: 2987: 2986: 2972: 2971: 2951: 2950: 2942: 2941: 2939: 2938: 2925: 2924: 2922: 2921: 2908: 2907: 2904: 2903: 2876: 2875: 2863: 2862: 2851: 2850: 2840: 2839: 2821: 2820: 2804: 2803: 2781: 2780: 2769: 2768: 2757: 2756: 2745: 2744: 2733: 2732: 2721: 2720: 2705: 2704: 2696: 2695: 2687: 2686: 2678: 2677: 2669: 2668: 2660: 2659: 2631: 2630: 2611: 2610: 2599: 2598: 2588: 2587: 2574: 2573: 2562: 2561: 2539: 2538: 2517: 2516: 2505: 2504: 2494: 2493: 2480: 2479: 2468: 2467: 2446: 2445: 2425: 2424: 2412: 2411: 2397: 2396: 2379: 2378: 2363: 2362: 2348: 2347: 2336: 2335: 2324: 2323: 2311: 2310: 2302: 2301: 2293: 2292: 2284: 2283: 2266: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2239: 2233: 2227: 2226: 2199:list of theorems 2187: 2141: 2096: 2089: 2083: 2076: 2070: 2069: 2058: 2052: 2051: 2050: 2024: 2018: 2017: 1996: 1990: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1938: 1884: 1882: 1881: 1876: 1863:second countable 1860: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1840: 1838: 1837: 1832: 1816: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1796: 1794: 1793: 1788: 1762:, a subset of a 1749: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1721: 1720: 1683: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1664: 1663: 1642:is a Borel set. 1641: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1619: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1609: 1597: 1595: 1594: 1589: 1577: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1547:and the book by 1538: 1536: 1535: 1530: 1514: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1495: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1472: 1445: 1443: 1442: 1437: 1426: 1425: 1413: 1412: 1393: 1391: 1390: 1385: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1358: 1338: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1308: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1291: 1289: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1268: 1266: 1256: 1251: 1250: 1235: 1233: 1223: 1218: 1217: 1202: 1200: 1190: 1185: 1184: 1169: 1167: 1157: 1152: 1151: 1065:are isomorphic. 976: 974: 973: 968: 957: 956: 921: 919: 918: 913: 861:and such spaces 807: 805: 804: 799: 797: 796: 795: 794: 793: 792: 760: 758: 757: 752: 747: 746: 745: 744: 726: 725: 724: 723: 706: 705: 566: 564: 563: 558: 553: 552: 508: 506: 505: 500: 495: 494: 484: 466: 465: 443: 441: 440: 435: 430: 429: 417: 416: 395: 394: 355: 353: 352: 347: 345: 344: 305: 303: 302: 297: 292: 291: 282: 281: 266: 265: 241: 239: 238: 233: 231: 230: 209: 207: 206: 201: 199: 198: 131:σ-compact spaces 38:is any set in a 21: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4330: 4329: 4310: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4299:Spectral theory 4279:Convex analysis 4263: 4220: 4215: 4168: 4068: 4016:in distribution 3961: 3854: 3684:Logarithmically 3623: 3579: 3562:Essential range 3496: 3437: 3432: 3379: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3367: 3364: 3363: 3362: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3350: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3280: 3276: 3273: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3254: 3253: 3235: 3232: 3231: 3230: 3221: 3218: 3217: 3216: 3209: 3206: 3205: 3204: 3198: 3195: 3194: 3193: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3168: 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2609: 2606: 2605: 2604: 2597: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2572: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2548: 2537: 2534: 2533: 2532: 2526: 2515: 2512: 2511: 2510: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2498: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2487: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2473: 2466: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2439: 2423: 2420: 2419: 2418: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2405: 2395: 2392: 2391: 2390: 2377: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2356: 2346: 2343: 2342: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2322: 2319: 2318: 2317: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2300: 2297: 2296: 2295: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2262: 2257: 2231: 2206:Wayback Machine 2172: 2169: 2134:Halmos, Paul R. 2117:Polish topology 2109:William Arveson 2105: 2100: 2099: 2090: 2086: 2077: 2073: 2059: 2055: 2025: 2021: 2015: 2005:Springer Verlag 1997: 1993: 1986: 1982: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1895:Borel hierarchy 1891: 1885:is Hausdorff). 1870: 1867: 1866: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1826: 1823: 1822: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1782: 1779: 1778: 1764:locally compact 1756: 1716: 1712: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1656: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1488: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1468: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1421: 1417: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1354: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1323: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1274: 1269: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1229: 1224: 1222: 1213: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1196: 1191: 1189: 1180: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1147: 1143: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1115:axiom of choice 1103: 1057:, the union of 1042:a finite space. 1010:and that makes 949: 945: 943: 940: 939: 895: 892: 891: 859:measurable sets 820: 814: 788: 784: 783: 779: 778: 774: 772: 769: 768: 740: 736: 735: 731: 719: 715: 714: 710: 701: 697: 695: 692: 691: 642: 634:Borel hierarchy 628: 620: 609: 598: 545: 541: 533: 530: 529: 519: 490: 486: 474: 461: 457: 455: 452: 451: 422: 418: 406: 402: 390: 386: 384: 381: 380: 340: 336: 334: 331: 330: 287: 283: 277: 273: 258: 254: 252: 249: 248: 226: 222: 220: 217: 216: 194: 190: 188: 185: 184: 143: 109:Borel hierarchy 84:, known as the 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4338: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4245: 4244: 4234: 4228: 4226: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4208: 4206:Sard's theorem 4203: 4198: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4189:Lifting theory 4180: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4145: 4144: 4142:Fubini–Tonelli 4134: 4129: 4124: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4104: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4084: 4078: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4030: 4025: 4024: 4023: 4021:in probability 4018: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3922: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3864: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3801: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3728:Locally finite 3725: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3634: 3632: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3600: 3599: 3589: 3584: 3576: 3571: 3570: 3569: 3559: 3554: 3553: 3552: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3531: 3530: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3485: 3484: 3483: 3473: 3468: 3460: 3455: 3445: 3443: 3442:Basic concepts 3439: 3438: 3435:Measure theory 3431: 3430: 3423: 3416: 3408: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3377: 3365: 3353: 3341: 3329: 3317: 3310: 3301: 3292: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3249: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3240: 3233: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3201: 3196: 3189: 3188: 3182: 3175: 3170: 3163: 3162: 3155: 3148: 3141: 3134: 3129: 3123: 3118: 3111: 3110: 3104: 3097: 3092: 3085: 3084: 3074: 3067: 3057: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3032: 3025: 3024: 3010: 2997: 2995: 2982: 2980: 2966: 2963: 2956: 2947: 2935: 2930: 2918: 2913: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2859: 2852: 2847: 2841: 2836: 2829: 2828: 2817: 2810: 2800: 2793: 2792: 2789: 2785: 2784: 2777: 2765: 2753: 2741: 2729: 2717: 2710: 2701: 2692: 2683: 2674: 2665: 2656: 2649: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2640: 2637: 2627: 2620: 2617: 2607: 2600: 2595: 2589: 2584: 2577: 2576: 2570: 2563: 2558: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2535: 2528: 2524: 2513: 2506: 2501: 2495: 2490: 2483: 2482: 2476: 2469: 2464: 2457: 2456: 2442: 2435: 2421: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2393: 2386: 2385: 2375: 2368: 2359: 2352: 2351: 2344: 2332: 2320: 2313: 2307: 2298: 2289: 2280: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2256: 2255: 2248: 2241: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2209: 2188: 2168: 2167:External links 2165: 2164: 2163: 2153: 2143: 2138:Measure theory 2130: 2123:Richard Dudley 2120: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2084: 2071: 2053: 2019: 2013: 1991: 1980: 1954:(3): 187–207, 1932: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1874: 1850: 1830: 1806: 1786: 1755: 1752: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1630: 1608: 1587: 1567: 1528: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1458: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1383: 1374:integers. Let 1357: 1353: 1326: 1322: 1310: 1309: 1277: 1265: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1232: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1199: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1166: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1102: 1101:Non-Borel sets 1099: 1044: 1043: 1040: 1034: 966: 963: 960: 955: 952: 948: 911: 908: 905: 902: 899: 830:associated to 813: 810: 791: 787: 782: 777: 750: 743: 739: 734: 730: 722: 718: 713: 709: 704: 700: 641: 638: 626: 618: 611:. However, as 607: 596: 578:; moreover if 556: 551: 548: 544: 540: 537: 517: 510: 509: 498: 493: 489: 483: 480: 477: 473: 469: 464: 460: 444: 433: 428: 425: 421: 415: 412: 409: 405: 401: 398: 393: 389: 361: 343: 339: 323:ordinal number 309:Now define by 307: 306: 295: 290: 286: 280: 276: 272: 269: 264: 261: 257: 246: 229: 225: 214: 197: 193: 164:of subsets of 142: 139: 101:measure theory 82:σ-algebra 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4337: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4294:Real analysis 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4178: 4175: 4173:Other results 4171: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4159:Radon–Nikodym 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4132:Fatou's lemma 4130: 4128: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994:Convergence: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3910: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3798:Outer regular 3796: 3794: 3793:Inner regular 3791: 3789: 3788:Borel regular 3786: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3564: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3526: 3525: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3477: 3476:Measure space 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3424: 3422: 3417: 3415: 3410: 3409: 3406: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3370: 3358: 3346: 3334: 3322: 3309: 3250: 3242: 3238: 3227: 3224: 3213: 3202: 3191: 3190: 3187: 3164: 3160: 3149: 3146: 3135: 3124: 3113: 3112: 3109: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3068: 3066: 3062: 3051: 3039: 3027: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3003: 2988: 2973: 2969: 2955: 2905: 2888: 2880: 2877: 2866: 2864: 2853: 2842: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2808: 2794: 2786: 2782: 2770: 2758: 2746: 2734: 2722: 2709: 2650: 2642: 2636: 2632: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2601: 2590: 2579: 2578: 2575: 2552: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2507: 2496: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2436: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2415: 2403: 2401: 2388: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2367: 2353: 2350:(if defined) 2349: 2337: 2325: 2274: 2271: 2265: 2260: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2242: 2240: 2235: 2234: 2224: 2223: 2218: 2215: 2210: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2170: 2161: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2150:Real Analysis 2147: 2146:Halsey Royden 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2094: 2088: 2081: 2075: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2037:(in French), 2036: 2035: 2030: 2023: 2016: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1995: 1989: 1984: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1937: 1933: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1892: 1886: 1872: 1864: 1848: 1828: 1820: 1804: 1784: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1758:According to 1751: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1717: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1687: 1668: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1643: 1585: 1565: 1557: 1552: 1550: 1549:A. S. Kechris 1546: 1542: 1526: 1518: 1499: 1496: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1449: 1430: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1381: 1373: 1355: 1351: 1342: 1324: 1320: 1275: 1263: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1230: 1219: 1214: 1210: 1197: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1164: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1137: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1085: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1072: 1066: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 980: 961: 953: 950: 946: 937: 933: 929: 925: 909: 903: 900: 897: 889: 885: 882:in which the 881: 876: 874: 870: 866: 865: 860: 855: 854:George Mackey 851: 849: 845: 841: 837: 834:is the pair ( 833: 829: 825: 819: 809: 789: 780: 775: 766: 761: 748: 741: 732: 728: 720: 711: 707: 702: 689: 685: 680: 678: 674: 669: 667: 663: 660:defined on a 659: 655: 654:Borel measure 651: 647: 637: 635: 630: 625: 621: 614: 610: 603: 599: 592: 587: 585: 581: 577: 573: 568: 554: 549: 546: 542: 535: 527: 523: 515: 496: 491: 487: 481: 478: 475: 471: 467: 462: 458: 449: 445: 431: 426: 423: 413: 410: 407: 403: 396: 391: 387: 378: 374: 370: 369:limit ordinal 366: 362: 359: 341: 337: 328: 327: 326: 324: 320: 316: 312: 293: 288: 278: 274: 267: 262: 259: 255: 247: 245: 227: 223: 215: 213: 195: 191: 183: 182: 181: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 158: 156: 152: 148: 138: 136: 132: 129: 125: 121: 116: 114: 110: 106: 105:Borel measure 102: 97: 95: 91: 87: 86:Borel algebra 83: 79: 75: 70: 68: 64: 60: 56: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Borel algebra 4074:Main results 3810:Set function 3738:Metric outer 3693:Decomposable 3550:Cylinder set 3522: 3463: 3384: 3372: 3360: 3348: 3336: 3324: 3312: 3228: 3214: 3177: 3150: 3136: 3099: 3069: 3052: 3021: 3017: 3005: 2990: 2975: 2958: 2867: 2854: 2812: 2772: 2760: 2748: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2708:arithmetical 2634: 2622: 2614: 2602: 2565: 2543: 2530: 2521: 2508: 2471: 2449: 2437: 2428: 2416: 2370: 2339: 2327: 2315: 2220: 2195:Mizar system 2177: 2159: 2149: 2137: 2126: 2116: 2112: 2092: 2087: 2074: 2065: 2062:Jech, Thomas 2056: 2038: 2032: 2022: 2000: 1994: 1983: 1951: 1945: 1942:Mackey, G.W. 1936: 1921:Polish space 1776: 1767: 1757: 1644: 1553: 1371: 1311: 1119: 1104: 1088: 1084:analytic set 1080: 1076:Polish space 1069: 1067: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1052: 1045: 1036: 1030: 1019: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 993:Polish space 988: 984: 983: 978: 935: 931: 877: 872: 868: 863: 858: 852: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 821: 762: 681: 672: 670: 650:real numbers 643: 631: 623: 616: 612: 605: 601: 594: 590: 588: 583: 579: 575: 571: 569: 525: 513: 511: 447: 376: 372: 364: 357: 318: 314: 308: 243: 211: 177: 173: 165: 161: 159: 157:as follows. 155:generatively 154: 151:metric space 146: 144: 135:pathological 124:well-behaved 120:compact sets 117: 98: 93: 89: 85: 77: 73: 71: 59:intersection 57:, countable 35: 29: 4034:compact set 4001:of measures 3937:Pushforward 3930:Projections 3920:Logarithmic 3763:Probability 3753:Pre-measure 3535:Borel space 3453:of measures 2232:This box: 2217:"Borel Set" 2174:"Borel set" 2082:, page 219) 2080:Halmos 1950 1760:Paul Halmos 1448:subsequence 1014:a complete 828:Borel space 313:a sequence 67:Émile Borel 48:closed sets 32:mathematics 4314:Categories 4006:in measure 3733:Maximising 3703:Equivalent 3597:Vitali set 3389:projective 3308:analytical 3082:coanalytic 2197:, and the 2103:References 1947:Math. Ann. 1026:to one of 1024:isomorphic 938:, the set 928:pulls back 924:measurable 816:See also: 600:such that 4120:Maharam's 4090:Dominated 3903:Intensity 3898:Hausdorff 3805:Saturated 3723:Invariant 3628:Types of 3587:σ-algebra 3557:𝜆-system 3523:Borel set 3518:Baire set 3239:= CPCPCA 2825:countable 2807:recursive 2366:recursive 2264:Lightface 2222:MathWorld 2184:EMS Press 1976:119738592 1968:0025-5831 1905:Baire set 1805:σ 1768:Borel set 1723:→ 1718:ω 1698:: 1658:− 1500:… 1431:… 1276:⋱ 1016:separable 951:− 907:→ 884:morphisms 873:arbitrary 842:), where 786:ℵ 738:ℵ 717:ℵ 708:⋅ 699:ℵ 677:intervals 550:σ 547:δ 539:↦ 526:generated 516:, where ω 472:⋃ 427:σ 424:δ 411:− 379:− 1. Let 367:is not a 289:σ 279:δ 263:σ 260:δ 228:δ 196:σ 170:power set 128:Hausdorff 52:countable 44:open sets 36:Borel set 4320:Topology 4137:Fubini's 4127:Egorov's 4095:Monotone 4054:variable 4032:Random: 3983:Strongly 3908:Lebesgue 3893:Harmonic 3883:Gaussian 3868:Counting 3835:Spectral 3830:Singular 3820:s-finite 3815:σ-finite 3698:Discrete 3673:Complete 3630:Measures 3604:Null set 3492:function 3225:= PCPCA 3065:analytic 2270:Boldface 2202:Archived 2136:(1950). 2064:(2008). 1889:See also 1541:analytic 1372:positive 1339:is some 880:category 317:, where 137:spaces. 80:forms a 4049:process 4044:measure 4039:element 3978:Bochner 3952:Trivial 3947:Tangent 3925:Product 3783:Regular 3761:)  3748:Perfect 3721:)  3686:)  3678:Content 3668:Complex 3609:Support 3582:-system 3471:Measure 3161:= CPCA 3080:= CA = 2186:, 2001 1797:as the 1517:divisor 1341:integer 987:. Let 985:Theorem 664:, its 640:Example 520:is the 371:, then 180:), let 4115:Jordan 4100:Vitali 4059:vector 3988:Weakly 3850:Vector 3825:Signed 3778:Random 3719:Quasi- 3708:Finite 3688:Convex 3648:Banach 3638:Atomic 3466:spaces 3451:  3147:= PCA 3063:= A = 2454:closed 2383:clopen 2011:  1974:  1966:  1772:σ-ring 1684:of an 1312:where 1120:Every 1089:Every 997:metric 926:if it 684:number 321:is an 61:, and 3957:Young 3878:Euler 3873:Dirac 3845:Tight 3773:Radon 3743:Outer 3713:Inner 3663:Brown 3658:Borel 3653:Besov 3643:Baire 3342:<ω 3330:<ω 3318:<ω 3275:<ω 3266:<ω 3257:<ω 3022:Borel 2742:<ω 2730:<ω 2718:<ω 2675:<ω 2666:<ω 2657:<ω 1972:S2CID 1928:Notes 1107:Lusin 991:be a 176:) of 149:is a 55:union 4221:For 4110:Hahn 3966:Maps 3888:Haar 3759:Sub- 3513:Atom 3501:Sets 3279:= Σ 2433:open 2252:edit 2245:talk 2238:view 2009:ISBN 1964:ISSN 1370:are 886:are 869:open 822:Let 479:< 34:, a 3347:= 3297:= Δ 3288:= Π 3270:= Δ 3261:= Π 2943:= Δ 2926:= Δ 2909:= Π 2823:(α 2805:(α 2697:= Δ 2688:= Π 2679:= Σ 2670:= Δ 2661:= Π 2294:= Δ 2285:= Π 2043:doi 1956:doi 1952:166 1861:is 1050:.) 1002:on 934:in 922:is 808:). 446:If 363:If 88:or 30:In 4316:: 3398:⋮ 3395:⋮ 3387:= 3383:= 3371:= 3359:= 3335:= 3323:= 3306:= 3247:⋮ 3244:⋮ 3020:= 3016:= 3004:= 2989:= 2974:= 2952:= 2885:⋮ 2882:⋮ 2827:) 2809:) 2791:⋮ 2788:⋮ 2771:= 2759:= 2747:= 2735:= 2723:= 2706:= 2647:⋮ 2644:⋮ 2638:σδ 2633:= 2618:δσ 2613:= 2541:= 2519:= 2452:= 2448:= 2431:= 2427:= 2398:= 2381:= 2364:= 2338:= 2326:= 2312:) 2219:. 2182:, 2176:, 2158:, 2148:, 2125:, 2111:, 2039:10 2031:, 2007:, 2003:, 1970:, 1962:, 1950:, 1117:. 1097:. 1086:. 1068:A 981:. 850:. 679:. 636:. 172:P( 115:. 69:. 3757:( 3717:( 3682:( 3580:π 3490:/ 3464:L 3427:e 3420:t 3413:v 3385:P 3378:0 3373:Δ 3366:0 3361:Π 3354:0 3349:Σ 3337:Δ 3325:Π 3313:Σ 3302:0 3293:0 3284:0 3252:Σ 3234:3 3229:Π 3220:3 3215:Σ 3208:3 3203:Π 3197:3 3192:Σ 3183:3 3178:Δ 3171:3 3166:Δ 3156:2 3151:Π 3142:2 3137:Σ 3130:2 3125:Π 3119:2 3114:Σ 3105:2 3100:Δ 3093:2 3088:Δ 3075:1 3070:Π 3058:1 3053:Σ 3045:1 3040:Π 3033:1 3028:Σ 3018:B 3011:1 3006:Δ 2998:1 2996:ω 2991:Δ 2983:1 2981:ω 2976:Π 2967:1 2965:ω 2959:Σ 2948:1 2936:1 2931:ω 2919:1 2914:ω 2901:1 2896:ω 2890:Σ 2873:α 2868:Π 2860:α 2855:Σ 2848:α 2843:Π 2837:α 2832:Σ 2818:α 2813:Δ 2801:α 2796:Δ 2778:0 2773:Δ 2766:0 2761:Π 2754:0 2749:Σ 2737:Δ 2725:Π 2713:Σ 2702:0 2693:0 2684:0 2652:Σ 2635:F 2628:3 2623:Π 2615:G 2608:3 2603:Σ 2596:3 2591:Π 2585:3 2580:Σ 2571:3 2566:Δ 2559:3 2554:Δ 2547:δ 2544:G 2536:2 2531:Π 2525:σ 2522:F 2514:2 2509:Σ 2502:2 2497:Π 2491:2 2486:Σ 2477:2 2472:Δ 2465:2 2460:Δ 2450:F 2443:1 2438:Π 2429:G 2422:1 2417:Σ 2409:1 2404:Π 2394:1 2389:Σ 2376:1 2371:Δ 2360:1 2355:Δ 2345:0 2340:Δ 2333:0 2328:Π 2321:0 2316:Σ 2308:1 2299:0 2290:0 2281:0 2276:Σ 2225:. 2119:) 2078:( 2045:: 1958:: 1873:X 1849:X 1829:X 1785:X 1738:} 1735:1 1732:, 1729:0 1726:{ 1714:} 1710:1 1707:, 1704:0 1701:{ 1695:f 1672:] 1669:0 1666:[ 1661:1 1654:f 1629:R 1607:R 1586:A 1566:A 1527:A 1503:) 1497:, 1490:1 1486:k 1481:a 1477:, 1470:0 1466:k 1461:a 1457:( 1434:) 1428:, 1423:1 1419:a 1415:, 1410:0 1406:a 1402:( 1382:A 1356:k 1352:a 1325:0 1321:a 1264:1 1253:+ 1248:3 1244:a 1231:1 1220:+ 1215:2 1211:a 1198:1 1187:+ 1182:1 1178:a 1165:1 1154:+ 1149:0 1145:a 1141:= 1138:x 1063:R 1059:R 1055:R 1039:, 1037:Z 1033:, 1031:R 1020:X 1012:X 1008:X 1004:X 1000:d 989:X 979:X 965:) 962:B 959:( 954:1 947:f 936:Y 932:B 910:Y 904:X 901:: 898:f 848:X 844:B 840:B 838:, 836:X 832:X 824:X 790:0 781:2 776:2 749:. 742:0 733:2 729:= 721:0 712:2 703:1 673:R 627:1 624:ω 619:B 617:α 613:B 608:B 606:α 602:B 597:B 595:α 591:B 584:G 580:m 576:m 572:G 555:. 543:G 536:G 518:1 514:G 497:. 492:j 488:G 482:i 476:j 468:= 463:i 459:G 448:i 432:. 420:] 414:1 408:i 404:G 400:[ 397:= 392:i 388:G 377:i 373:i 365:i 360:. 358:X 342:0 338:G 319:m 315:G 294:. 285:) 275:T 271:( 268:= 256:T 244:T 224:T 212:T 192:T 178:X 174:X 166:X 162:T 147:X 94:X 78:X 74:X 20:)

Index

Borel algebra
mathematics
topological space
open sets
closed sets
countable
union
intersection
relative complement
Émile Borel
σ-algebra
measure theory
Borel measure
Borel hierarchy
descriptive set theory
compact sets
well-behaved
Hausdorff
σ-compact spaces
pathological
metric space
power set
transfinite induction
ordinal number
limit ordinal
first uncountable ordinal number
Borel hierarchy
theory of probability
real numbers
Borel measure

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