404:, a conventional space launch system. Rolls-Royce withdrew from the project, judging the eventual market for the engine was unlikely to be large enough to repay the development costs. The British government declined to offer further funding for HOTOL. The project was almost at the end of its design phase while much of the plans remained in a speculative state; the craft was reportedly still dogged with aerodynamic problems and operational disadvantages at this point.
483:(SSTO) winged spaceplane. The unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around 7 to 8 tonnes in orbit, at 300 km altitude. It was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to "working speed". The engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26–32 km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at
173:(ESA), and the British government was not prepared to depart from ESA cooperation. Additionally, technical issues were encountered, and there were allegations that comparisons with alternative launch systems such as conventional rocket vehicle using similar construction techniques failed to show much advantage to HOTOL. In 1989, funding for the project ended. The termination of development work on HOTOL led to the formation of
754:
153:; however, it was to employ a new means of dramatically reducing the amount of oxidizer needed to be carried on board by utilising atmospheric oxygen as the spacecraft climbed through the lower atmosphere. Since the oxidizer typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, HOTOL was to be considerably smaller than normal pure-rocket designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the
366:
also a belief that if
Britain chose to pair up with the United States, it would find itself frozen out of work on future European launchers. However, Rolls-Royce viewed transatlantic cooperation as necessary. BAe's head of future business, Peter Conchie, stated that, if possible, HOTOL should become a part of the European space framework. In early 1986, the British government formally approved the two-year study.
735:-like engine cycle — the heated hydrogen driving a turbine to compress and feed the cooled air into the rocket engine, where it was combusted with some of the hydrogen used to cool the air. The majority of the remaining hot hydrogen was released from the back of the engine, with a small amount drawn off to reheat the air in the spill ducts in a ramjet arrangement to produce "negative intake momentum drag".
314:'s (RAE) propulsion group, and that Rolls-Royce was not prepared to invest its own funds into engine development for HOTOL. By the second half of 1985, work had commenced on the two-year concept-of-proof study. Early on, there was considerable pressure to demonstrate the project's feasibility and credibility in advance of final decisions being taken by ESA on the Hermes and what would become the
514:(ISS), a feat that the company claimed would have required manned operation as automated systems were not capable of performing such docking manoeuvres at that time. HOTOL was designed to conduct fully automated unmanned flights; however, it had been intended at a later stage to potentially re-introduce a pilot. Manned operations would have required the installation of a dedicated
1199:
38:
237:. Early on, there was an ambition to 'Europeanise' the project and to involve other nations in its development and manufacture as it was recognised that an estimated £4 billion would be needed to fund full-scale development. In August 1984, BAe unveiled a public display of the HOTOL satellite launcher project and released details on its proposed operations.
383:'s research and development department deputy controller James Barnes claimed that HOTOL lacked a justification, and that there was no defence requirement for such vehicles. He also noted that the "engineering problems are considerable" and that it was unlikely to enter service until the 2020s; Barnes also observed the HOTOL engine to be "ingenious".
491:(LEO), HOTOL was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway (approx 1,500 metres minimum). Only a single payload would have been carried at a time as BAe had judged this to be more economic as it removed any need for satellite interfacing and allowed for missions to be tailored to individual requirements.
391:
the vehicle to do this required a large mass of hydraulic systems, which cost a significant proportion of the payload, and made the economics unclear. In particular, some of the analysis seemed to indicate that similar technology applied to a pure rocket approach would give approximately the same performance at less cost.
449:
vehicle intended to solve the problems of HOTOL. They first published these engine and spacecraft concepts in 1993, and have since been developing the core technologies, particularly the engine and its frost-controlled pre-cooler; initially supported by private funding, but latterly with support from
399:
By 1989, the outlook for HOTOL had become bleak; from the onset of the project, support between the
British government and industrial partners had been uneven, while the United States had emerged as the only foreign nation that showed willingness to contribute to the programme, in part because of the
386:
In
November 1985, the RAE issued an assessment of HOTOL's study proposal; the organisation believed that HOTOL would take up to 20 years to develop, rather than the 12-year timetable that had been envisioned by industry. The RAE also projected that the project would have an estimated total cost of £5
292:
arrangement, consisting of £1 million provided by the UK government and the remainder being financed by Rolls-Royce and BAe themselves. Pattie reasoned that the project would serve
Britain's "strategic capability", and that tests of key technologies could foster international collaboration. According
738:
To prevent the pre-coolers from icing up, the first pre-cooler cooled the air to around 10 degrees above freezing point, to liquefy the water vapour in the air. Then liquid oxygen (LOX) would have been injected into the airflow to drop the temperature to −50 °C (−58 °F) flash freezing the
390:
During development, it was found that the comparatively heavy rear-mounted engine moved the centre of mass of the vehicle rearwards. This meant that the vehicle had to be designed to push the centre of drag as far rearward as possible to ensure stability during the entire flight regime. Redesign of
365:
According to
British government files, neither BAe nor the MoD were enthusiastic for the prospects of American involvement in the programme, expressing reluctance out of a belief that the outcome of such a move could result in the UK becoming a junior member in a project that it once led. There was
804:
Due to the split in responsibilities of the HOTOL project, Rolls-Royce were responsible for the engine, and BAe were responsible for the aerodynamics. When BAe wanted to add the ramjet it could not provide thrust, because that was the responsibility of the engine, so instead it was a mechanism for
168:
design study was being carried out, attempts were made by both industry and the
British government to establish international cooperation to develop, produce, and deploy the spacecraft. In spite of American interest in the programme, there was little appetite amongst the members of the
719:
of the United
Kingdom; consequently, there is relatively little public information about its development and on its operation. However, material was later declassified when government policy changed to prevent the keeping of secret patents without an attributed justification.
739:
water into microscopic ice crystals, sufficiently cold that they wouldn't melt due to kinetic heating if they struck the second pre-cooler elements. A water trap could have been added after the first pre-cooler if operating conditions resulted in an excess of moisture.
145:(SSTO) reusable winged launch vehicle, HOTOL was to be fitted with a unique air-breathing engine, the RB545 or Swallow, that was under development by British engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce. The propellant for the engine technically consisted of a combination of liquid
430:, specifically was promoted by BAe in 1991; however, this proposal was rejected as well. The design for Interim HOTOL was to have dispensed with an air-breathing engine cycle and was designed to use a more conventional mix of LOX and liquid hydrogen as fuel instead.
699:
The RB545, which was given the name "Swallow" by its manufacturer, British engine maker Rolls-Royce, was an air-breathing rocket engine. It would have functioned as an integrated dual-role powerplant, having been capable of air-breathing while operating within the
374:
In
December 1984, project management consultant David Andrews issued an eight-page critique of the programme, noting that the design was optimised for the ascent while exposing itself to extended thermal loads during descent due to a low level of
248:
was interested in the programme, while France had adopted a critical attitude towards HOTOL, which the ministry viewed as potentially due to it being seen as a competitor to French-led projects. According to
Minister of Trade and Industry
261:(ESA) members in the HOTOL project. Despite this climate of tentative interest and possible European support, there was a general attitude of reluctance within the British government to take the lead on a new space launcher.
521:
As designed, HOTOL would have been 62 metres long, 12.8 metres high, a fuselage diameter of 5.7 metres and a wingspan of 19.7 metres. It featured a wing design that had been derived from that of
742:
When it was no longer possible to use the atmosphere for combustion, the RB545 would switch to using on-board LOX to burn with the hydrogen as a high-efficiency hydrogen/oxygen rocket.
1287:
533:. The internally stowed landing gear would have been too small to carry the weight of the fully fuelled rocket, so emergency landings would have required the fuel to be dumped.
387:
billion (as of its value in 1985), £750 million of which would be required in a six-year definition phase and an estimated £25 million in a pre-definition feasibility study.
466:. As of 2017 REL plan to demonstrate a flight-ready pre-cooler operating under simulated flight conditions in 2018, and statically test a demonstration engine core in 2020.
510:
or LOE, HOTOL was also projected as being able to also perform the retrieval of satellites and hardware from LOE. BAe promotional material depicts HOTOL docking with the
727:, then the flow would be split, passing the correct amount to the pre-coolers, and the excess to spill ducts. Hydrogen from the fuel tanks would be passed through two
379:. He also claimed that the vehicle offered no capability that was not already available; BAe responded that the criticisms made had been answered. In April 1985, the
525:; its large area resulted in relatively low wing loading, which would have resulted in lower reentry temperatures (never rising above 1,400 °C). Built out of
1197:, "Prevention of icing in the intakes of aerospace propulsors", published 4 September 1991, issued 12 August 1992, assigned to Rolls-Royce Plc
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198:
in the field of pre-cooled jet engines. Bond had specifically performed this research with the intention of producing a viable engine for powering a space
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241:
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secrecy surrounding it. There was little prospect for
European involvement, ESA having elected to pursue development of what would become the
1704:
927:
341:
1324:
210:-builder, began studying a prospective new launch system with the aim of providing launch costs that were 20 per cent of the American
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speeds. It was a crucial element of the programme, having been publicly attributed as "the heart of Hotol's very low launch costs".
530:
1739:
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380:
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were interested in the technology used in the Swallow engine for its own purposes. In November 1985, discussions between
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when having attained close to and within LEO. This engine would have also been capable of powering the spacecraft to
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would have been used during the take-off and landing phases. In addition to the placing of satellites into
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materials, there would have been no need for the use of insulating tiles akin to those that comprised the
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By November 1985, DTI and RAE discussions noted that Rolls-Royce were seeking American data on
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launch system, thus the work concentrated on the validation of critical technologies involved.
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Thus, the project had soon become a joint venture between BAe and Rolls-Royce, led by
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In March 1985, there were claims that Rolls-Royce was in the process of conducting
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technology to support their work on the engine, which it referred to by the name
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vehicles such as HOTOL, and that a prototype could be flying as early as 1990.
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1058:(May 1993). "SKYLON: a Key Element of a Future Space Transportation System".
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303:(MoD) was critical as the design of HOTOL's engine had been classified.
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on a suitable engine, and soon conceived of an unmanned, fully reusable
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In 1989, HOTOL co-creator Alan Bond and engineers John Scott-Scott and
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274:
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space vehicle had inadvertently generated support and interest amongst
123:
56:
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723:
Within the atmosphere, air is taken in through two vertically mounted
207:
194:
The ideas behind HOTOL originated from work done by British engineer
253:, French diplomatic pressure to gather support for its own proposed
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1572:
1490:
1032:. 3rd International Aerospace Planes Conference. Orlando, Florida.
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talks for HOTOL engine technology with American propulsion company
146:
441:(REL) which has since been working on a new air-breathing engine,
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322:
150:
19:
For the generic concept of horizontal takeoff and landing, see
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1473:
1430:
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498:
would have been linked to ground stations and to space-based
1086:"BAE Takes Stake In Reaction Engines Hypersonic Development"
681:
2,500 kilograms (5,500 lb) (excluding intake and spill)
215:
20:
218:. BAe became aware of work by British engine manufacturer
837:
770:– a scramjet vehicle with which HOTOL would have competed
130:. Development was being conducted by a consortium led by
928:"Secret files reveal US interest in UK HOTOL spaceplane"
37:
1135:
358:
noted American interest in collaboration on developing
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The exact details of this engine were covered by the
264:
1298:
HOTOL-related patent on jetisonable control surfaces
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HOTOL was envisioned as an unmanned, fully reusable
1471:
310:stated that the firm sought the involvement of the
1106:
1084:
851:
1228:. Vol. 129, no. 4000. pp. 38, 40.
1696:
1259:. Vol. 135, no. 4157. pp. 34–38.
731:prior to entering a high overall pressure-ratio
1000:(May 1993). "HOTOL's Secret Engines Revealed".
782:– a related engine cycle that liquifies the air
704:and operating in a similar manner to that of a
306:In July 1985, Rolls-Royce's technical director
1064:. Vol. 35, no. 5. pp. 162–166.
1006:. Vol. 35, no. 5. pp. 168–172.
776:– a design for a hypersonic antipodal airliner
420:, which was to be launched from the back of a
226:(SSTO) winged spaceplane as a launch vehicle.
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1318:
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1720:Former proposed space launch system concepts
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1167:(Interview). Interviewed by Thomas Lean
1030:The An-225/Interim Hotol Launch Vehicle
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971:(Interview). Interviewed by Thomas Lean
531:Space Shuttle thermal protection system
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1730:Space programme of the United Kingdom
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1306:
1249:Postlethwaite, Alan (25 March 1989).
1217:
1141:
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874:
1705:Rocket engines of the United Kingdom
1092:Aviation Week & Space Technology
494:During its high-altitude phase, its
206:(BAe), which was Europe's principal
1669:Liquid Fly-back Booster Derivatives
926:Coppinger, Rob (23 February 2009).
729:heat exchangers to pre-cool the air
623:≈ 735 kN (165,000 lb
118:, was a 1980s British design for a
13:
671:14,780 N‑s/kg (1,507 s)
635:≈ 340 kN (76,000 lb
265:American interest and design study
14:
1751:
1281:
284:to propose a two-year £3 million
277:. In April 1985, Pattie wrote to
16:UK spaceplane design of the 1980s
1159:"Parkinson, Bob (Part 10 of 15)"
963:"Parkinson, Bob (Part 12 of 15)"
752:
242:Department of Trade and Industry
36:
1294: (archived 30 January 2013)
1271:on 3 December 2013 – via
1240:on 22 October 2012 – via
1210:
1179:
1164:Oral History of British Science
1147:
1083:Norris, Guy (1 November 2015).
968:Oral History of British Science
798:
660:4,500 N‑s/kg (460 s)
518:module within the payload bay.
116:Horizontal Take-Off and Landing
1218:Moxon, Julian (1 March 1986).
1076:
1044:
1018:
951:
833:BBC Four: The Three Rocketeers
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279:Secretary of State for Defence
184:
42:An artist's depiction of HOTOL
1:
812:
464:Air Force Research Laboratory
456:British National Space Centre
407:
177:(REL) to develop and produce
126:that was to be powered by an
1740:Tailless delta-wing aircraft
1288:Cutaway drawing of the HOTOL
817:
312:Royal Aircraft Establishment
244:(DTI) memorandum noted that
7:
745:
542:Rolls-Royce RB545 "Swallow"
512:International Space Station
474:
460:United Kingdom Space Agency
394:
288:study be performed under a
10:
1756:
1710:British Aerospace aircraft
1193:; Bryan Belcher &
774:Reaction Engines LAPCAT A2
342:Minister without portfolio
290:public-private partnership
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1334:Reaction Engines Limited
791:
500:global navigation system
439:Reaction Engines Limited
175:Reaction Engines Limited
1251:"Hotol fights for life"
780:Liquid air cycle engine
487:5 to 7. After reaching
331:United States Air Force
128:airbreathing jet engine
649:Up to 14 (atmospheric)
645:Thrust-to-weight ratio
370:Problems and criticism
354:'s scientific advisor
155:McDonnell Douglas DC-9
1725:Single-stage-to-orbit
1187:GB patent 2241537
569:Single-stage-to-orbit
496:flight control system
481:single-stage-to-orbit
452:European Space Agency
299:, the support of the
259:European Space Agency
224:single-stage-to-orbit
171:European Space Agency
143:single-stage-to-orbit
120:single-stage-to-orbit
1715:Cancelled spacecraft
1256:Flight International
1225:Flight International
1220:"Hotol: where next?"
933:Flight International
786:Saenger (spacecraft)
717:Official Secrets Act
508:geosynchronous orbit
412:A cheaper redesign,
296:Flight International
240:In December 1984, a
1388:Aircraft/spacecraft
1265:1989FlInt.135...34P
1234:1986FlInt.129...38M
1157:(8 November 2010).
1070:1993SpFl...35..162V
1038:10.2514/6.1991-5006
1012:1993SpFl...35..168H
961:(8 November 2010).
543:
381:Ministry of Defence
301:Ministry of Defense
48:General information
1144:, pp. 38, 40.
760:Spaceflight portal
541:
502:navigation, while
428:transport aircraft
329:. Reportedly, the
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1028:(December 1991).
697:
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632:Thrust, sea-level
547:Country of origin
338:Margaret Thatcher
282:Michael Heseltine
204:British Aerospace
136:British Aerospace
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80:British Aerospace
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1353:John Scott-Scott
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1267:. Archived from
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1236:. Archived from
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1191:John Scott-Scott
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666:Specific impulse
655:Specific impulse
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286:proof of concept
231:John Scott-Scott
166:proof-of-concept
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335:Prime Minister
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164:While HOTOL's
141:Designed as a
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768:Rockwell X-30
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414:Interim HOTOL
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352:Ronald Reagan
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235:Bob Parkinson
232:
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212:Space Shuttle
209:
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200:launch system
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22:
1273:FlightGlobal
1269:the original
1254:
1242:FlightGlobal
1238:the original
1223:
1211:Bibliography
1181:
1169:. Retrieved
1162:
1149:
1137:
1096:. Retrieved
1090:
1078:
1059:
1046:
1029:
1020:
1001:
973:. Retrieved
966:
953:
945:FlightGlobal
943:– via
937:. Retrieved
931:
843:14 September
841:. Retrieved
832:
826:
800:
741:
737:
725:intake ramps
722:
714:
698:
607:Nozzle ratio
520:
493:
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432:
417:
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398:
389:
385:
373:
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349:US President
326:
320:
308:Gordon Lewis
305:
294:
268:
246:West Germany
239:
228:
214:operated by
193:
163:
140:
115:
111:
110:
25:
1735:Spaceplanes
1674:BAC Mustard
1639:Capricornio
1631:Ariane 5 ME
1600:Black Arrow
1512:Ariane Next
1061:Spaceflight
1003:Spaceflight
668:, sea-level
615:Performance
586:Predecessor
575:Associated
565:Application
559:Rolls-Royce
516:pressurised
345:David Young
220:Rolls-Royce
202:. In 1982,
185:Development
132:Rolls-Royce
76:Rolls-Royce
1699:Categories
1537:North Star
1171:3 November
1142:Moxon 1986
1130:Moxon 1986
1098:1 November
1056:Bond, Alan
939:3 November
875:Moxon 1986
813:References
710:hypersonic
702:atmosphere
691:References
686:References
676:Dimensions
408:Successors
360:hypersonic
275:Rocketdyne
124:spaceplane
57:Spaceplane
1626:Aldebaran
1619:Cancelled
1472:European
1348:Alan Bond
1195:Alan Bond
818:Citations
597:Cancelled
271:licensing
208:satellite
196:Alan Bond
90:Cancelled
1635:Ariane M
1552:Spectrum
1527:Haas 2CA
1517:Bloostar
1491:Ariane 6
1379:Scimitar
1341:Founders
746:See also
733:turbojet
657:, vacuum
555:Designer
523:Concorde
475:Overview
422:modified
402:Ariane 5
395:Shutdown
316:Ariane 5
149:/liquid
147:hydrogen
71:Designer
1664:Liberty
1605:Diamant
1561:Retired
1542:RFA One
1532:Miura 5
1522:Haas 2b
1474:orbital
1409:Related
1367:Engines
1290:at the
1261:Bibcode
1230:Bibcode
1066:Bibcode
1008:Bibcode
975:19 July
437:formed
418:HOTOL 2
327:Swallow
190:Origins
138:(BAe).
122:(SSTO)
95:History
1649:Hopper
1610:Europa
1568:Ariane
1547:Skylon
1484:Active
1416:LAPCAT
1395:Skylon
1201:
1189:,
706:rocket
594:Status
537:Engine
470:Design
458:, the
454:, the
447:Skylon
323:ramjet
255:Hermes
179:Skylon
151:oxygen
114:, for
104:Skylon
87:Status
1679:OTRAG
1654:HOTOL
1431:HOTOL
1426:RB545
1421:SATAN
1374:SABRE
792:Notes
610:100:1
589:SATAN
581:HOTOL
504:radar
443:SABRE
159:MD-80
112:HOTOL
31:HOTOL
1684:SOAR
1644:Haas
1496:Vega
1173:2023
1100:2015
977:2016
941:2023
845:2012
485:Mach
450:the
377:drag
347:and
233:and
216:NASA
134:and
53:Type
21:CTOL
1034:doi
838:BBC
416:or
1701::
1400:A2
1253:.
1222:.
1161:.
1108:^
1089:.
1054:;
985:^
965:.
930:.
882:^
853:^
836:.
577:LV
340:,
161:.
1593:5
1588:4
1583:3
1578:2
1573:1
1465:e
1458:t
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1326:e
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1010::
979:.
947:.
847:.
639:)
637:f
627:)
625:f
157:/
23:.
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