1199:, by a pair of retractor muscles that are anchored at the far end of the cystid. Sensors at the tips of the tentacles may check for signs of danger before the invert and lophophore are fully extended. Extension is driven by an increase in internal fluid pressure, which species with flexible exoskeletons produce by contracting circular muscles that lie just inside the body wall, while species with a membranous sac use circular muscles to squeeze this. Some species with rigid exoskeletons have a flexible membrane that replaces part of the exoskeleton, and transverse muscles anchored on the far side of the exoskeleton increase the fluid pressure by pulling the membrane inwards. In others there is no gap in the protective skeleton, and the transverse muscles pull on a flexible sac which is connected to the water outside by a small pore; the expansion of the sac increases the pressure inside the body and pushes the invert and lophophore out. In some species the retracted invert and lophophore are protected by an operculum ("lid"), which is closed by muscles and opened by fluid pressure. In one
1501:
encrusting, dome-shaped, palmate, foliose, fenestrate, robust branching, delicate branching, articulated and free-living. Most of these sediments come from two distinct groups of colonies: domal, delicate branching, robust branching and palmate; and fenestrate. Fenestrate colonies generate rough particles both as sediment and components of stromatoporoids coral reefs. The delicate colonies however, create both coarse sediment and form the cores of deep-water, subphotic biogenic mounds. Nearly all post- bryozoan sediments are made up of growth forms, with the addition to free-living colonies which include significant numbers of various colonies. "In contrast to the
Palaeozoic, post-Palaeozoic bryozoans generated sediment varying more widely with the size of their grains; they grow as they moved from mud, to sand, to gravel."
1535:
3240:. Typically, sessile bryozoans live on hard substrates including rocks, sand or shells. Encrusting forms are much the commonest of these in shallow seas, but erect forms become more common as the depth increases. An example of incrustation on pebbles and cobbles is found in the diverse Pleistocene bryozoans found in northern Japan, where fossils have been found of single stones covered with more than 20 bryozoan species. Sediments with smaller particles, like sand or silt, are usually unsuitable habitat for bryozoans, but tiny colonies have been found encrusting grains of coarse sand. Some bryozoan species specialize in colonizing marine algae, seagrasses, and even mangrove roots; the genus
3258:
3469:
1272:
are snapped shut "like a mousetrap" by similar muscles, while the beak-shaped upper jaw is the inverted body wall. In other species the avicularia are stationary box-like zooids laid the normal way up, so that the modified operculum snaps down against the body wall. In both types the modified operculum is opened by other muscles that attach to it, or by internal muscles that raise the fluid pressure by pulling on a flexible membrane. The actions of these snapping zooids are controlled by small, highly modified polypides that are located inside the "mouth" and bear tufts of short sensory
2604:. "Total evidence" analyses, which used both morphological features and a relatively small set of genes, came to various conclusions, mostly favoring a close relationship between lophophorates and Lophotrochozoa. A study in 2008, using a larger set of genes, concluded that the lophophorates were closer to the Lophotrochozoa than to deuterostomes, but also that the lophophorates were not monophyletic. Instead, it concluded that brachiopods and phoronids formed a monophyletic group, but bryozoans (ectoprocts) were closest to entoprocts, supporting the original definition of "Bryozoa".
2800:
1294:'empty') consist only of the body wall and funicular strands crossing the interior, and no polypide. The functions of these zooids include forming the stems of branching structures, acting as spacers that enable colonies to grow quickly in a new direction, strengthening the colony's branches, and elevating the colony slightly above its substrate for competitive advantages against other organisms. Some kenozooids are hypothesized to be capable of storing nutrients for the colony. Because kenozooids' function is generally structural, they are called "structural polymorphs."
2409:
3254:
evolved similarly shaped colonies capable of movement. When observed in an aquarium, Selenaria maculata colonies were recorded to crawl at a speed of one meter per hour, climb over each other, move toward light, and right themselves when turned upside-down. Later study of this genus showed that neuroelectrical activity in the colonies increased in correlation with movement toward light sources. It is theorized that the capacity for movement arose as a side effect when colonies evolved longer setae for unburying themselves from sediment.
1485:
lifespans. This "last minute" approach to defense is feasible because the loss of zooids to a single attack is unlikely to be significant. Colonies of some encrusting species also produce special heterozooids to limit the expansion of other encrusting organisms, especially other bryozoans. In some cases this response is more belligerent if the opposition is smaller, which suggests that zooids on the edge of a colony can somehow sense the size of the opponent. Some species consistently prevail against certain others, but most
937:, since they are not fully independent animals. All colonies contain feeding zooids, known as autozooids. Those of some groups also contain non-feeding heterozooids, also known as polymorphic zooids, which serve a variety of functions other than feeding; colony members are genetically identical and co-operate, rather like the organs of larger animals. What type of zooid grows where in a colony is determined by chemical signals from the colony as a whole or sometimes in response to the scent of predators or rival colonies.
2111:
from the
Ordovician onward. However, unlike corals and other colonial animals found in the fossil record, Bryozoan colonies did not reach large sizes. Fossil bryozoan colonies are typically found highly fragmented and scattered; the preservation of complete zoaria is uncommon in the fossil record, and relatively little study has been devoted to reassembling fragmented zoaria. The largest known fossil colonies are branching trepostome bryozoans from Ordovician rocks in the United States, reaching 66 centimeters in height.
2752:
2634:
2731:
1365:
2822:
165:
2068:
2309:
2033:
3325:
1606:
avoid ambiguity, if applied consistently to all classifications, would have necessitated renaming of several other phyla and many lower-level groups. In practice, zoological naming of split or merged groups of animals is complex and not completely consistent. Works since 2000 have used various names to resolve the ambiguity, including: "Bryozoa", "Ectoprocta", "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta)", and "Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)". Some have used more than one approach in the same work.
1945:
2655:
1602:, while entoprocts have solid tentacles and no coelom. Hence the two groups are now widely regarded as separate phyla, and the name "Bryozoa" is now synonymous with "Ectoprocta". This has remained the majority view ever since, although most publications have preferred the name "Bryozoa" rather than "Ectoprocta". Nevertheless, some notable scientists have continued to regard the "Ectoprocta" and Entoprocta as close relatives and group them under "Bryozoa".
3310:
colonies can be formed through sexual reproduction and the generation of free swimming larvae. When colonies grow too large, however, they can split in two. This is the only case where asexual reproduction results in a new colony separate from its predecessor. Most colonies are stationary. Indeed, these colonies tend to be settled on immobile substances such as sediment and coarse substances. There are some colonies of freshwater species such as
2394:, has produced no enduring consensus about the position of ectoprocts. Attempts to reconstruct the family tree of animals have largely ignored ectoprocts and other "minor phyla", which have received little scientific study because they are generally tiny, have relatively simple body plans, and have little impact on human economies – despite the fact that the "minor phyla" include most of the variety in the evolutionary history of animals.
2683:
1516:
1353:
135:
2219:
3065:
2424:
2088:
2081:
2046:
2011:
1985:
3281:, which is disc-shaped and similarly free-living, inhabit muddy seabeds in the Arctic and can sequester sand grains they have engulfed, potentially using the sand as ballast to turn themselves right-side-up after they have been overturned. Some bryozoan species can form bryoliths, sphere-shaped free-living colonies that grow outward in all directions as they roll about on the seabed.
1452:", gaps in the canopy of lophophores, through which they swiftly expel water that has been sieved, and thus avoid re-filtering water that is already exhausted. They are formed by patches of non-feeding heterozooids. New chimneys appear near the edges of expanding colonies, at points where the speed of the outflow is already high, and do not change position if the water flow changes.
3187:. When they mature, some statoblasts stick to the parent colony, some fall to the bottom ("sessoblasts"), some contain air spaces that enable them to float ("floatoblasts"), and some remain in the parent's cystid to re-build the colony if it dies. Statoblasts can remain dormant for considerable periods, and while dormant can survive harsh conditions such as freezing and
3277:, consists of floating colonies. The pelagic species is between 5.0 and 23.0 mm (0.20 and 0.91 in) in diameter, has the shape of a hollow sphere and consists of a single layer of autozooids. It is still not known if these colonies are pelagic their whole life or only represents a temporarily and previously undescribed juvenile stage. Colonies of the species
397:", which holds the organs. Zooids have no special excretory organs, and autozooids' polypides are scrapped when they become overloaded with waste products; usually the body wall then grows a replacement polypide. Their gut is U-shaped, with the mouth inside the crown of tentacles and the anus outside it. Zooids of all the freshwater species are simultaneous
3023:, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a "brown body". When the degeneration is complete, the cystid (outer part of the animal) produces a new polypide, and the brown body remains in the
3633:. However, no participants had been recruited by the end of December 2008, when the study was scheduled for completion. More recent work shows it has positive effects on cognition in patients with Alzheimer's disease with few side effects. About 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) of bryozoans must be processed to extract 1 gram (
2498:, caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla, and "Bryozoa" became just an alternative name for ectoprocts, in which the anus is outside the feeding organ. A series of molecular phylogeny studies from 1996 to 2006 have also concluded that bryozoans (ectoprocts) and entoprocts are not sister groups.
572: in) long. Phoronids resemble bryozoan zooids but are 2 to 20 cm (1 to 8 in) long and, although they often grow in clumps, do not form colonies consisting of clones. Brachiopods, generally thought to be closely related to bryozoans and phoronids, are distinguished by having shells rather like those of
1176:, and further cilia on the inner surfaces of the tentacles move the particles towards the mouth in the center. The method used by ectoprocts is called "upstream collecting", as food particles are captured before they pass through the field of cilia that creates the feeding current. This method is also used by
3301:
The phylactolaemates live in all types of freshwater environment – lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, and estuaries – and are among the most abundant sessile freshwater animals. Some ctenostomes are exclusively freshwater while others prefer brackish water but can survive in freshwater. Scientists'
2886:
The phylogenetic position of the ectoproct bryozoans remains uncertain, but it remains certain that they belong to the
Protostomia and more specifically to the Lophotrochozoa. This implies that the ectoproct larva is a trochophore with the corona being a homologue of the prototroch; this is supported
2575:
The traditional view was that lophophorates were a mix of protostome and deuterostome features. Research from the 1970s onwards suggested they were deuterostomes, because of some features that were thought characteristic of deuterostomes: a three-part coelom; radial rather than spiral cleavage in the
1343:
Spinozooids are hollow, movable spines, like very slender, small tubes, present on the surface of colonies, which probably are for defense. Some species have miniature nanozooids with small single-tentacled polypides, and these may grow on other zooids or within the body walls of autozooids that have
1214:
called "funiculi" ("little ropes") connects the mesothelium covering the gut with that lining the body wall. The wall of each strand is made of mesothelium, and surrounds a space filled with fluid, thought to be blood. A colony's zooids are connected, enabling autozooids to share food with each other
3599:
on ships' hulls, on docks and marinas, and on offshore structures. They are among the first colonizers of new or recently cleaned structures. Freshwater species are occasional nuisances in water pipes, drinking water purification equipment, sewage treatment facilities, and the cooling pipes of power
3557:
has also invaded the northwest coast of the US. A few freshwater species have been also found thousands of kilometers from their native ranges. Some may have been transported naturally as statoblasts. Others more probably were spread by humans, for example on imported water plants or as stowaways on
3309:
colonies. A larval
Bryozoan settles on a hard substance and produces a colony asexually through budding. These colonies can grow thousands of individual zooids in a relatively short period of time. Even though colonies of zooids grow through asexual reproduction, Bryozoans are hermaphrodites and new
2110:
Fossils of about 15,000 bryozoan species have been found. Bryozoans are among the three dominant groups of
Paleozoic fossils. Bryozoans with calcitic skeletons were a major source of the carbonate minerals that make up limestones, and their fossils are incredibly common in marine sediments worldwide
1484:
Species that produce defensive zooids do so only when threats have already appeared, and may do so within 48 hours. The theory of "induced defenses" suggests that production of defenses is expensive and that colonies which defend themselves too early or too heavily will have reduced growth rates and
1455:
Some freshwater species secrete a mass of gelatinous material, up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter, to which the zooids stick. Other freshwater species have plant-like shapes with "trunks" and "branches", which may stand erect or spread over the surface. A few species can creep at about
1271:
described these as like "the head and beak of a vulture in miniature, seated on a neck and capable of movement". Stalked avicularia are placed upside-down on their stalks. The "lower jaws" are modified versions of the opercula that protect the retracted lophophores in autozooids of some species, and
3100:
on the funiculus connecting the stomach to the body wall. Eggs and sperm are released into the coelom, and sperm exit into the water through pores in the tips of some of the tentacles, and then are captured by the feeding currents of zooids that are producing eggs. Some species' eggs are fertilized
2607:
They are the only major phylum of exclusively clonal animals, composed of modular units known as zooids. Because they thrive in colonies, colonial growth allows them to develop unrestricted variations in form. Despite this, only a small number of basic growth forms have been found and have commonly
3253:
can move. Lunulitiform cheilostomes are one group of free-living bryozoans with mobile colonies. They form small round colonies un-attached to any substrate; colonies of the genus
Selenaria have been observed to "walk" around using setae. Another cheilostome family, the Cupuladriidae, convergently
3174:
Phylactolaemates can also reproduce asexually by a method that enables a colony's lineage to survive the variable and uncertain conditions of freshwater environments. Throughout summer and autumn they produce disc-shaped statoblasts, masses of cells that function as "survival pods" rather like the
3147:, with one corner at the top and the base open, forming a hood round the downward-facing mouth. In 2006 it was reported that the cilia of cyphonautes larvae use the same range of techniques as those of adults to capture food. Species that brood their embryos form larvae that are nourished by large
1417:
The most common marine form, however, is encrusting, in which a one-layer sheet of zooids spreads over a hard surface or over seaweed. Some encrusting colonies may grow to over 50 cm (1 ft 8 in) and contain about 2,000,000 zooids. These species generally have exoskeletons reinforced
1334:
and lives on their shells. These zooids are smaller than the others and have four short tentacles and four long tentacles, unlike the autozooids which have 15–16 tentacles. Androzooids are also found in species with mobile colonies that can crawl around. It is possible that androzooids are used to
1297:
Some heterozooids found in extinct trepostome bryozoans, called mesozooids, are thought to have functioned to space the feeding autozooids an appropriate distance apart. In thin sections of trepostome fossils, mesozooids can be seen in between the tubes that held autozooids; they are smaller tubes
355:
The terms
Polyzoa and Bryozoa were introduced in 1830 and 1831, respectively. Soon after it was named, another group of animals was discovered whose filtering mechanism looked similar, so it was included in Bryozoa until 1869, when the two groups were noted to be very different internally. The new
4277:
Occasionally, the impact of an invertebrate invader can be substantial; such has been documented for
Membranipora membranacea, a fast-growing invasive bryozoan species which has reduced kelp forests off the northeast and northwest coasts of the USA to an extent that it has affected local fish and
1624:
Until 2008 there were "inadequately known and misunderstood type species belonging to the
Cyclostome Bryozoan family Oncousoeciidae." Modern research and experiments have been done using low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy of uncoated type material to critically examine and perhaps revise the
1605:
The ambiguity about the scope of the name "Bryozoa" led to proposals in the 1960s and 1970s that it should be avoided and the unambiguous term "Ectoprocta" should be used. However, the change would have made it harder to find older works in which the phylum was called "Bryozoa", and the desire to
1306:
Gonozooids act as brood chambers for fertilized eggs. Almost all modern cyclostome bryozoans have them, but they can be hard to locate on a colony because there are so few gonozooids in one colony. The aperture in gonozooids, which is called an ooeciopore, acts as a point for larvae to exit. Some
1279:
In vibracula, regarded by some as a type of avicularia, the operculum is modified to form a long bristle that has a wide range of motion. They may function as defenses against predators and invaders, or as cleaners. In some species that form mobile colonies, vibracula around the edges are used as
1191:
The lophophore and mouth are mounted on a flexible tube called the "invert", which can be turned inside-out and withdrawn into the polypide, rather like the finger of a rubber glove; in this position the lophophore lies inside the invert and is folded like the spokes of an umbrella. The invert is
3207:
Cupuladriid
Bryozoa are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sexually reproducing colonies (aclonal) are the result of a larval cupuladriid growing into an adult stage whereas the asexual colonies(clonal) are a result of a fragment of a colony of cupuladriids growing into its own
3163:, and the internal tissues are converted to a food reserve that nourishes the developing zooid until it is ready to feed. The larvae of phylactolaemates produce multiple polypides, so that each new colony starts with several zooids. In all species the founder zooids then grow the new colonies by
1597:
Ectoprocta and Entoprocta. However, in 1869 Hinrich Nitsche regarded the two groups as quite distinct for a variety of reasons, and coined the name "Ectoprocta" for Ehrenberg's "Bryozoa". Despite their apparently similar methods of feeding, they differed markedly anatomically; in addition to the
3104:
All phylactolaemates and stenolaemates, and most gymnolaemates, exhibit placentation, and has therefore lecithotrophic (non-feeding) larvae. Except for Cyclostomata and the small gymnolaemate family Epistomiidae, which are viviparous, all are brooders. Phylactolaemata brood their embryos in an
2455:. In most bilaterian embryos the blastopore, a dent in the outer wall, deepens to become the larva's gut, but in ectoprocts the blastopore disappears and a new dent becomes the point from which the gut grows. The ectoproct coelom is formed by neither of the processes used by other bilaterians,
2536:
The majority of scientists accept this, but Claus Nielsen thinks these similarities are superficial. The Lophophorata are usually defined as animals with a lophophore, a three-part coelom and a U-shaped gut. In Nielsen's opinion, phoronids' and brachiopods' lophophores are more like those of
1500:
Bryozoans have contributed to carbonate sedimentation in marine life since the Ordovician period. Bryozoans take responsibility for many of the colony forms, which have evolved in different taxonomic groups and vary in sediment producing ability. The nine basic bryozoan colony-forms include:
3138:
Bryozoan larvae vary in form, but all have a band of cilia round the body which enables them to swim, a tuft of cilia at the top, and an adhesive sac that everts and anchors them when they settle on a surface. Some gymnolaemate species produce cyphonautes larvae which have little yolk but a
3115:
Planktotrophic (feeding) larvae are only found in class Gymnolaemata: In the cheilostomatan suborder Malacostegina they are found in the two families Membraniporidae and Electridae, and in the three ctenostome families Alcyonidiidae, Farrellidae, and Hislopiidae. In addition there are a few
2183:
to the present. Evidence compiled from the last 100 million years show that cheilostomatids consistently grew over cyclostomatids in territorial struggles, which may help to explain how cheilostomatids replaced cyclostomatids as the dominant marine bryozoans. Marine fossils from the
1382: in) to over 1 m (3 ft 3 in). However, the majority are under 10 cm (4 in) across. The shapes of colonies vary widely, depend on the pattern of budding by which they grow, the variety of zooids present and the type and amount of skeletal material they
3101:
externally after being released through a pore between two tentacles, which in some cases is at the tip of a small projection called the "intertentacular organ" in the base of a pair of tentacles. Others' are fertilized internally, in the intertentacular organ or in the coelom.
329:
living species are known. Originally all of the crown group Bryozoa were colonial, but as an adaptation to a mesopsammal (interstitial spaces in marine sand) life or to deep-sea habitats, secondarily solitary forms have since evolved. Solitary species has been described in four
2305:, and especially to the only phoronid species that is colonial, than they are to the other ectoproct classes. That implies that the Entoprocta are not monophyletic, as the Phoronida are a sub-group of ectoprocts but the standard definition of Entoprocta excludes the Phoronida.
595:
look very like small corals. However, bryozoan colonies are founded by an ancestrula, which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid of that species. On the other hand, the founding polyp of a coral has a shape like that of its daughter polyps, and coral zooids have no
3191:. They can be transported across long distances by animals, floating vegetation, currents and winds, and even in the guts of larger animals. When conditions improve, the valves of the shell separate and the cells inside develop into a zooid that tries to form a new colony.
485:
period, making it the last major phylum to appear in the fossil record. This has led researchers to suspect that bryozoans arose earlier but were initially unmineralized, and may have differed significantly from fossilized and modern forms. In 2021, some research suggested
3507:
resulting in egg-size structures known as bryoliths. Nucleating on an empty gastropod shell, the bryozoan colonies form multilamellar skeletal crusts that produce spherical encrustations and extend the living chamber of the hermit crab through helicospiral tubular growth.
2505:, maintain on anatomical and developmental grounds that bryozoans and entoprocts are member of the same phylum, Bryozoa. A molecular phylogeny study in 2007 also supported this old idea, while its conclusions about other phyla agreed with those of several other analyses.
988:(main body cavity) – except that in one class, the mesothelium is split into two separate layers, the inner one forming a membranous sac that floats freely and contains the coelom, and the outer one attached to the body wall and enclosing the membranous sac in a
3302:
knowledge of freshwater bryozoan populations in many parts of the world is incomplete, even in some parts of Europe. It was long thought that some freshwater species occurred worldwide, but since 2002 all of these have been split into more localized species.
1263:) to refer to any type of zooid in which the lophophore is replaced by an extension that serves some protective function, while others restrict the term to those that defend the colony by snapping at invaders and small predators, killing some and biting the
1238:, and therefore must be able to detect light. In colonies of some species, signals are transmitted between zooids through nerves that pass through pores in the body walls, and coordinate activities such as feeding and the retraction of lophophores.
1318:
Cheilostome bryozoans also brood their embryos; one of the common methods is through ovicells, capsules attached to autozooids. The autozooids possessing ovicells are normally still able to feed, however, so these are not considered heterozooids.
1476:
from a single zooid known as the ancestrula, which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid. This occurs at the tips of "trunks" or "branches" in forms that have this structure. Encrusting colonies grow round their edges. In species with
2969:
dissolved in the water. Unwanted particles may be flicked away by tentacles or shut out by closing the mouth. A study in 2008 showed that both encrusting and erect colonies fed more quickly and grew faster in gentle than in strong currents.
3051:
and some polyzoa) or through pseudopores located on the outer dermis of the zooid. The different bryozoan groups use various methods to share nutrients and oxygen between zooids: some have quite large gaps in the body walls, allowing the
2957:. While the currents that bryozoans generate to draw food towards the mouth are well understood, the exact method of capture is still debated. All species also flick larger particles towards the mouth with a tentacle, and a few capture
2245:
group (whether they include all and only a single ancestor species and all its descendants), about what are the phylum's closest relatives in the family tree of animals, and even about whether they should be regarded as members of the
2160:. The Early Ordovician fossils may also represent forms that had already become significantly different from the original members of the phylum. Ctenostomes with phosphatized soft tissue are known from the Devonian. Other types of
8035:
6454:
Jackson, Patrick N. Wyse; Key, Marcus M. Key Jr. (2019). "Epizoan and endoskeletozoan distribution across reassembled ramose stenolaemate bryozoan zoaria from the Upper Ordovician (Katian) of the Cincinnati Arch region, USA".
1215:
and with any non-feeding heterozooids. The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans, ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi.
3105:
internal brood sac, but Gymnolaemata both external membranous sacs, skeletal chambers (ovicells) and internal brooding sacs exist. The developing embryo relies on egg's yolk, extraembryonic nutrition (matrotrophy) or both.
3092:. Although those of many marine species are protandric, in other words function first as males and then as females, their colonies contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages. In all species the
1725:
Counts of formally described species range between 4,000 and 4,500. The Gymnolaemata and especially Cheilostomata have the greatest numbers of species, possibly because of their wide range of specialist zooids. Under the
2549:, while the corresponding cells of phoronids', brachiopods' and pterobranchs' lophophores have one cilium per cell; and bryozoan tentacles have no hemal canal ("blood vessel"), which those of the other three phyla have.
996:
and situated almost entirely within the cystid, contains the nervous system, digestive system, some specialized muscles and the feeding apparatus or other specialized organs that take the place of the feeding apparatus.
1307:
gonozooids have very complex shapes with autozooidal tubes passing through chambers within them. All larvae released from a gonozooid are clones created by division of a single egg; this is called monozygotic
3203:
produce mainly "sessoblasts" while mature ones switch to "floatoblasts". A study estimated that one group of colonies in a patch measuring 1 square meter (11 sq ft) produced 800,000 statoblasts.
371:, and supplying nutrients to the colony through diverse channels. Some classes have specialist zooids like hatcheries for fertilized eggs, colonial defence structures, and root-like attachment structures.
8480:
Wender, P.A.; Baryza, JL; Bennett, CE; Bi, FC; Brenner, SE; Clarke, MO; Horan, JC; Kan, C; et al. (20 November 2002). "The Practical Synthesis of a Novel and Highly Potent Analogue of Bryostatin".
1549:
The phylum was originally called "Polyzoa", but this name was eventually replaced by Ehrenberg's term "Bryozoa". The name "Bryozoa" was originally applied only to the animals also known as Ectoprocta (
1481:
exoskeletons, these do not mineralize until the zooids are fully grown. Colony lifespans range from one to about 12 years, and the short-lived species pass through several generations in one season.
401:. Although those of many marine species function first as males and then as females, their colonies always contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages. All species emit
6161:
1245:
are autozooids with pear-shaped bodies. The wider ends have up to 15 short, muscular projections by which the animals anchor themselves to sand or gravel and pull themselves through the sediments.
1138:
1010:
3621:
for commercial development as a treatment for cancer. GPC Biotech canceled development in 2003, saying that bryostatin 1 showed little effectiveness and some toxic side effects. In January 2008 a
1168:) the crown appears U-shaped, but this impression is created by a deep dent in the rim of the crown, which has no gap in the fringe of tentacles. The sides of the tentacles bear fine hairs called
3197:
produces both "sessoblasts", which enable the lineage to control a good territory even if hard times decimate the parent colonies, and "floatoblasts", which spread to new sites. New colonies of
1157:, which captures food particles from the water. In all colonies a large percentage of zooids are autozooids, and some consist entirely of autozooids, some of which also engage in reproduction.
5967:
Yokobori, S.; Iseto, T; Asakawa, S; Sasaki, T; Shimizu, N; Yamagishi, A; Oshima, T; Hirose, E (May 2008). "Complete nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial genomes of two solitary entoprocts,
2122:. It is likely that the first bryozoans appeared much earlier and were entirely soft-bodied, and the Ordovician fossils record the appearance of mineralized skeletons in this phylum. By the
5308:
3465:. While whelk shells encrusted by the bryozoans are stronger than those without this reinforcement, chemical defenses produced by the bryozoans are probably the more significant deterrent.
1389:
Some marine species are bush-like or fan-like, supported by "trunks" and "branches" formed by kenozooids, with feeding autozooids growing from these. Colonies of these types are generally
1276:. These zooids appear in various positions: some take the place of autozooids, some fit into small gaps between autozooids, and small avicularia may occur on the surfaces of other zooids.
8017:
4253:
Lauer, Antje (2016). "Watersipora subtorquata and the Possible Role of Its Associated Microbes: An Attempt to Explain the Extraordinary Invasion Success of This Marine Bryozoan Species".
417:, go to feed, and quickly settle on a surface. Others produce larvae that have little yolk but swim and feed for a few days before settling. After settling, all larvae undergo a radical
502:. Bryozoans' evolutionary relationships to other phyla are also unclear, partly because scientists' view of the family tree of animals is mainly influenced by better-known phyla. Both
367:, live throughout the colony and are not fully independent. These individuals can have unique and diverse functions. All colonies have "autozooids", which are responsible for feeding,
1322:"Female" polymorphs are more common than "male" polymorphs, but specialized zooids that produce sperm are also known. These are called androzooids, and some are found in colonies of
2405:
is a construct resulting from over 100 years of attempts to synthesize a single framework for all invertebrates," and takes little account of some peculiar features of ectoprocts.
6400:
3911:
Fuchs, J.; Obst, M.; Sundberg, P (July 2009). "The first comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) based on combined analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial genes".
2887:
from the similarity between the coronate larvae and the Type 1 pericalymma larvae of some molluscs and sipunculans, where the prototroch zone is expanded to cover the hyposphere.
2592:
Molecular phylogeny analyses from 1995 onwards, using a variety of biochemical evidence and analytical techniques, placed the lophophorates as protostomes and closely related to
1422:, and the openings through which the lophophores protrude are on the top or outer surface. The moss-like appearance of encrusting colonies is responsible for the phylum's name (
6780:
1222:
that serves as a brain to one side of this. Nerves run from the ring and ganglion to the tentacles and to the rest of the body. Bryozoans have no specialized sense organs, but
360:", while the original Bryozoa were called "Ectoprocta". Disagreements about terminology persisted well into the 20th century, but "Bryozoa" is now the generally accepted term.
6541:
3135:, an opening in the surface of the early embryo, tunnels through to form the gut. However, in bryozoans the blastopore closes, and a new opening develops to create the mouth.
3345:. In temperate waters, the skeletons of dead colonies form a significant component of shell gravels, and live ones are abundant in these areas. The marine lace-like bryozoan
8133:
Gray, C.A.; McQuaid, CD; Davies-Coleman, MT (December 2005). "A symbiotic shell-encrusting bryozoan provides subtidal whelks with chemical defence against rock lobsters".
7553:
6640:
1673:, using this modern method of low vacuum scanning, with which it has been inaccurately synonymized with in the past. A new genus has also been recently discovered called
7939:
6223:
3047:. Instead, zooids absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide through diffusion. Bryozoa accomplish diffusion through the use of either a thin membrane (in the case of
3491:
3474:
1172:, whose beating drives a water current from the tips of the tentacles to their bases, where it exits. Food particles that collide with the tentacles are trapped by
3208:
colony. The different forms of reproduction in cupuladriids are achieved through a variety of methods depending on the morphology and classification of the zooid.
1489:
are indecisive and the combatants soon turn to growing in uncontested areas. Bryozoans competing for territory do not use the sophisticated techniques employed by
2471:
When entoprocts were discovered in the 19th century, they and bryozoans (ectoprocts) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa, because both groups were
4883:
3193:
2917:
5525:
5093:
2439:
In ectoprocts, all of the larva's internal organs are destroyed during the metamorphosis to the adult form and the adult's organs are built from the larva's
5267:
5226:
11185:
6142:
3543:
reduced the kelp population by breaking their fronds, so that its place as the dominant "vegetation" in some areas was taken by another invader, the large
2521:
larva of some gymnolaete bryozoans produced suggestions that the bryozoans, most of which are colonial, evolved from a semi-colonial species of phoronid.
386:
exoskeletons and form single-layered sheets which encrust over surfaces, and some colonies can creep very slowly by using spiny defensive zooids as legs.
3199:
8178:"Bryoliths constructed by bryozoans in symbiotic associations with hermit crabs in a tropical heterozoan carbonate system, Golfe d'Arguin, Mauritania"
4209:
2580:. However the coelom of ectoproct larvae shows no sign of division into three sections, and that of adult ectoprocts is different from that of other
6333:
Jablonski, D.; Lidgard, S.; Taylor, P.D. (1997). "Comparative Ecology of Bryozoan Radiations: Origin of novelties in cyclostomes and Cheilostomes".
10421:
3441:. Modifications appear in the shapes of some these hydroids, for example smaller tentacles or encrustation of the roots by bryozoans. The bryozoan
1405:, producing heavy lime skeletons. Many species form colonies which consist of sheets of autozooids. These sheets may form leaves, tufts or, in the
3643: oz) of bryostatin, As a result, synthetic equivalents have been developed that are simpler to produce and apparently at least as effective.
11052:
7030:
6565:"Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in boring ctenostome bryozoans and associated "fungal" borings from the Early Devonian of Podolia, Ukraine"
3221:
Most marine species live in tropical waters at depths less than 100 meters (330 ft; 55 fathoms). However, a few have been found in deep-sea
3112:. Stenolaemates produce specialized zooids to serve as brood chambers, and their eggs divide within this to produce up to 100 identical embryos.
3116:
unconfirmed records, like the solitary form Aethozoid where larvae has never been observed, but which is assumed to have planktotrophic larvae.
8667:
4316:
Zhang, Zhiliang; Zhang, Zhifei; Ma, J.; Taylor, P. D.; Strotz, L. C.; Jacquet, S. M.; Skovsted, C. B.; Chen, F.; Han, J.; Brock, G. A. (2021).
425:
that lie dormant until conditions are favorable, which enables a colony's lineage to survive even if severe conditions kill the mother colony.
11078:
8073:
2199:
are fairly equally divided by erect and encrusting forms, and more recent ones are predominantly encrusting. Fossils of the soft, freshwater
8814:
8321:
4079:"Aethozooides uraniae, a new deep-sea genus and species of solitary bryozoan from the Mediterranean Sea, with a revision of the Aethozoidae"
11180:
3151:, have no gut and do not feed, and such larvae quickly settle on a surface. In all marine species the larvae produce cocoons in which they
1298:
that are divided along their length by diaphragms, making them look like rows of box-like chambers sandwiched between autozooidal tubes.
11175:
6596:
McKinney, F.K. (1994). "One hundred million years of competitive interactions between bryozoan clades: asymmetrical but not escalating".
3123:
of bryozoan eggs is biradial, in other words the early stages are bilaterally symmetrical. It is unknown how the coelom forms, since the
3108:
In ctenostomes the mother provides a brood chamber for the fertilized eggs, and her polypide disintegrates, providing nourishment to the
2552:
If the grouping of bryozoans with phoronids and brachiopods into Lophophorata is correct, the next issue is whether the Lophophorata are
2343:
phylum, in other words includes all the descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a bryozoan. The analysis also concluded that the
6382:
1267:
of others. In some species the snapping zooids are mounted on a peduncle (stalk), their bird-like appearance responsible for the term –
8111:
7898:
5820:
8805:
8275:
7291:
3179:. Statoblasts form on the funiculus connected to the parent's gut, which nourishes them. As they grow, statoblasts develop protective
6802:
6762:
5463:
Eckman, J.E.; Okamura, B (December 1998). "A Model of Particle Capture by Bryozoans in Turbulent Flow: Significance of Colony Form".
1857:
1637:. This method permits data to be obtained that would be difficult to recognize with an optical microscope. The valid type species of
498:
alga. Early fossils are mainly of erect forms, but encrusting forms gradually became dominant. It is uncertain whether the phylum is
8679:
8407:
8240:"Molecular data implicate bryozoans as hosts for PKX (Phylum Myxozoa) and identify a clade of bryozoan parasites within the Myxozoa"
7766:
6523:
3056:
to circulate freely; in others, the funiculi (internal "little ropes") of adjacent zooids connect via small pores in the body wall.
11026:
5290:
5149:
1206:
The gut is U-shaped, running from the mouth, in the center of the lophophore, down into the animal's interior and then back to the
7723:
2164:
appeared around the same time, which suggests that some change made the environment more favorable for this lifestyle. Fossils of
11065:
10127:
7535:
7486:
7169:"The placental analogue and the pattern of sexual reproduction in the cheilostome bryozoan Bicellariella ciliata (Gymnolaemata)"
6929:(Bryozoa: Cheilostomatida) determined with next-generation sequencing: The first representative of the suborder Malacostegina".
6704:
Pohowsky, R.A. (1978). "The boring ctenostomate bryozoa: taxonomy and paleobiology based on cavities in calcareous substrata".
6624:
5548:
8546:
Hall, S.R.; Taylor, P.D.; Davis, SA; Mann, S (2002). "Electron diffraction studies of the calcareous skeletons of bryozoans".
5185:
3426:
also preys on a common freshwater gymnolaemate, but with less devastating effect. Indigenous snails do not feed on bryozoans.
1335:
exchange sperm between colonies when two mobile colonies or bryozoan-encrusted hermit crabs happen to encounter one another.
8618:
8029:
7933:
7921:
7844:
7547:
7504:
7301:
6774:
6634:
6535:
6394:
6317:
6203:
6155:
6081:
5765:
5740:
5519:
5447:
5415:
5302:
5261:
5220:
5087:
4990:
4965:
4877:
4848:
4817:
4726:
4690:
4647:
4593:
4555:
4517:
4270:
3652:
3244:
lives on the leaves of mangrove trees and is called "amphibious" because it can survive regular exposure to air at low tide.
11070:
7797:
6219:
4294:
8213:
7577:
1153:
The most common type of zooid is the feeding autozooid, in which the polypide bears a "crown" of hollow tentacles called a
8377:
5856:
Hausdorf, B.; Helmkampf, M.; Meyer, A.; Witek, A.; Herlyn, H.; Bruchhaus, I.; Hankeln, T.; Struck, T.H.; Lieb, B. (2007).
6679:
3657:
7362:
Strathmann, R.R. (March 2006). "Versatile ciliary behaviour in capture of particles by the bryozoan cyphonautes larva".
6925:
Shen, X.; Tian, M.; Meng, X.; Liu, H.; Cheng, H.; Zhu, C.; Zhao, F. (September 2012). "Complete mitochondrial genome of
5403:
2210:) and consist entirely of their durable statoblasts. There are no known fossils of freshwater members of other classes.
1534:
8841:
5043:
8346:
Wood, T.S.; Marsh, Terrence G (February 1999). "Biofouling of wastewater treatment plants by the freshwater bryozoan,
4865:
3807:
2961:(planktonic animals) by using their tentacles as cages. In addition the tentacles, whose surface area is increased by
409:
into the water, while others capture sperm via their tentacles to fertilize their ova internally. In some species the
8529:
8404:"Safety, Efficacy, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics Study of bryostatin 1 in Patients With Alzheimer's Disease"
5507:
5075:
3969:
1145:
474:
and fishermen. Chemicals extracted from a marine bryozoan species have been investigated for treatment of cancer and
7575:
Kuklinski, P.; Bader, Beate (2007). "Comparison of bryozoan assemblages from two contrasting Arctic shelf regions".
11137:
11005:
8878:
6882:
Nielsen, C.; Worsaae, K. (September 2010). "Structure and occurrence of cyphonautes larvae (Bryozoa, Ectoprocta)".
1510:
11083:
7826:
6835:"Phylogenomic analyses of lophophorates (brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans) confirm the Lophotrochozoa concept"
4257:. Advances in Environmental Microbiology. Vol. 2. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 239–268.
11018:
8873:
6969:
Callaghan, T.P.; R., Karlson (June 2002). "Summer dormancy as a refuge from mortality in the freshwater bryozoan
5249:
5208:
3756:(Cryptostomata) from the lower Tremadocian (Lower Ordovician) of Liujiachang, south-western Hubei, central China"
494:, could be an example of an early bryozoan, but later research suggested that this taxon may instead represent a
510:
analyses disagree over bryozoans' relationships with entoprocts, about whether bryozoans should be grouped with
8431:"Bryostatin Effects on Cognitive Function and PKCɛ in Alzheimer's Disease Phase IIA and Expanded Access Trials"
6499:
6475:
8299:"Professional photosensitive eczema of fishermen by contact with bryozoans: disabling occupational dermatosis"
4629:
3728:
3531:, whose colonies feed and grow exceptionally fast in a wide range of current speeds, was first noticed in the
8957:
8947:
8930:
3626:
3019:
out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the
2989:
contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with
2257:
Molecular phylogeny, which attempts to work out the evolutionary family tree of organisms by comparing their
214:
6106:
Taylor, Paul D (October 2008). "Taxonomy of the bryozoan genera Oncousoecia, Microeciella and Eurystrotos".
6260:
Massard, J.A.; Geimer, Gaby (2008). "Global diversity of bryozoans (Bryozoa or Ectoprocta) in freshwater".
4030:"Key novelties in the evolution of the aquatic colonial phylum Bryozoa: evidence from soft body morphology"
3570:
3516:
3437:
have symbiotic relationships with bryozoans, some of which are beneficial to the hydroids while others are
2584:
phyla as it is built anew from epidermis and mesoderm after metamorphosis has destroyed the larval coelom.
2397:
In the opinion of Ruth Dewel, Judith Winston, and Frank McKinney, "Our standard interpretation of bryozoan
2386:
Bryozoans' relationships with other phyla are uncertain and controversial. Traditional phylogeny, based on
1009:
4228:
10974:
10961:
10120:
3247:
There are a variety of "free-living" bryozoans that live un-attached to a substrate. A few forms such as
1497:, possibly because the shortness of bryozoan lifespans makes heavy investment in turf wars unprofitable.
4167:
470:
so much that it has affected local fish and invertebrate populations. Bryozoans have spread diseases to
4133:
Zoological researches and illustrations; or Natural history of nondescript or imperfectly known animals
1649:
by establishing a type species that corresponds to the general usage of the genus. Fellow Oncousoeciid
8628:
7259:"Morphology and life cycle of an epiphytic pherusellid ctenostome bryozoan from the Mediterranean Sea"
11170:
11142:
11093:
10264:
7118:"Three in one: Evolution of viviparity, coenocytic placenta and polyembryony in cyclostome bryozoans"
10979:
3383:
eat masses of zooids by gouging pieces of colonies, breaking their mineralized "houses", while most
1210:, which is located on the invert, outside and usually below the lophophore. A network of strands of
164:
8058:
7116:
Nekliudova, U. A.; Schwaha, T. F.; Kotenko, O. N.; Gruber, D.; Cyran, N.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2021).
5858:"Spiralian Phylogenomics Supports the Resurrection of Bryozoa Comprising Ectoprocta and Entoprocta"
4189:
4127:
3618:
3527:
3347:
3330:
2301:
study that focused on phylactolaemates concluded that these are more closely related to the phylum
462:
17:
8298:
4149:"Pars zoologica. Animalia evertebrata exclusis insectis [Invertebrata other than Insecta]"
10349:
8962:
7219:
3257:
2517:
in a super-phylum called "Tentaculata". In the 1970s comparisons between phoronid larvae and the
466:, a fast-growing invasive bryozoan off the northeast and northwest coasts of the US, has reduced
7836:
7830:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4740:
4738:
382:
of bryozoan, possibly because its members have the widest range of specialist zooids. They have
11119:
10901:
10113:
8834:
4153:
Symbolae physicae, seu lcones et descriptiones corporum naturalium novorum aut minus cognitorum
3630:
2486:
From 1869 onwards increasing awareness of differences, including the position of the entoproct
475:
8723:"The earliest bryozoan parasite: Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) of Osmussaar Island, Estonia"
7496:
7490:
4077:
Schwaha, Thomas; Bernhard, Joan M.; Edgcomb, Virginia P.; Todaro, M. Antonio (1 August 2019).
1730:, which is still used as a convenient way to label groups of organisms, living members of the
1657:, as previously suggested, but shows enough similarities to be considered a junior synonym of
972:. The latter is always absent in freshwater species. The body wall consists of the epidermis,
11114:
10577:
10227:
8925:
6669:"The higher phylogeny of phylactolaemate bryozoans inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences"
6309:
6301:
5816:
5797:
5616:"Secular changes in colony-forms and bryozoan carbonate sediments through geological history"
4735:
4639:
4633:
2502:
2102:
149:
11129:
11106:
8429:
Nelson, T. J.; Sun, M. K.; Lim, C.; Sen, A.; Khan, T.; Chirila, F. V.; Alkon, D. L. (2017).
8099:
7868:
3402:. Freshwater bryozoans are attacked by many predators, including snails, insects, and fish.
1589:), in which the anus lies within a "crown" of tentacles, the name "Bryozoa" was promoted to
421:
that destroys and rebuilds almost all the internal tissues. Freshwater species also produce
363:
Colonies take a variety of forms, including fans, bushes and sheets. Single animals, called
10948:
10242:
8734:
8694:
8239:
8189:
8142:
7974:
7880:
7699:
7586:
7446:
7334:
7231:
7082:
6982:
6487:
6344:
6031:
6018:
Reynolds, K.T. (2000). "Taxonomically Important Features on the Surface of Floatoblasts in
5984:
5131:
4329:
4090:
3920:
3870:
3819:
3767:
3704:
3414:
2398:
1470:
503:
11057:
8710:
8403:
7758:
6806:
4840:
4834:
4809:
4801:
4718:
4710:
4682:
4674:
4585:
4577:
4547:
4539:
4509:
4501:
3068:
Encrusting cyclostome bryozoans (B), the one on the right showing swollen gonozooids; T =
2890:
A study of the mitochondrial DNA sequence suggests that the Bryozoa may be related to the
2408:
1677:
in the family Stomachetosellidae, along with 10 relatively new species of bryozoa such as
892:
Some sessile annelids build mineralized tubes; most molluscs have shells, but most modern
8:
7317:
Schwaha, Thomas; Zeppilli, Daniela; González-Casarrubios, Alberto; Cepeda, Diego (2024).
5116:
3468:
3452:
3443:
3286:
3237:
3016:
2799:
2472:
2463:, in which the tissue between the gut and the body wall splits, forming paired cavities.
2328:
2298:
953:
841:
507:
10105:
8738:
8698:
8193:
8146:
7978:
7884:
7869:"Specificity of cues inducing defensive spines in the bryozoan Membranipora membranacea"
7703:
7612:
Brusca, R; Brusca, G. "Invertebrates (2nd Edition)". Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
7590:
7450:
7338:
7235:
7086:
6986:
6828:
6826:
6824:
6491:
6348:
6195:
6187:
6035:
5988:
5135:
4333:
4094:
3924:
3874:
3823:
3771:
3708:
3553:. These changes reduced the area of habitat available for local fish and invertebrates.
3269:
Other free-living bryozoans are moved freely by waves, currents, or other phenomena. An
11165:
10572:
10254:
9390:
8942:
8920:
8908:
8883:
8457:
8430:
8267:
8205:
8158:
7998:
7715:
7687:
7464:
7415:
7195:
7168:
7144:
7117:
7098:
7006:
6907:
6859:
6834:
6609:
6360:
6279:
6123:
6068:
5949:
5914:
5713:
5675:
5637:
5576:
5488:
4363:
4350:
4317:
4054:
4029:
3886:
3843:
3785:
3720:
3410:
2269:
phyla. However, the shortage of genetic data about "minor phyla" such as bryozoans and
457:
238:
159:
31:
8706:
8559:
8363:
6528:
Bryozoan studies 2001: proceedings of the Twelfth International Bryozoology Conference
4148:
3861:
Ernst, A. (2007). "A cystoporate bryozoan species from the Zechstein (Late Permian)".
2281:
The traditional view is that the Bryozoa are a monophyletic group, in which the class
1913:
Pulling inwards of a flexible section of body wall, or making an internal sac expand.
11101:
10939:
10364:
9812:
9732:
9082:
8952:
8915:
8903:
8893:
8827:
8809:
8799:
8722:
8659:
8605:
8563:
8525:
8498:
8462:
8313:
8259:
8025:
7990:
7929:
7840:
7543:
7500:
7459:
7434:
7375:
7297:
7200:
7149:
7055:
6998:
6946:
6899:
6864:
6821:
6770:
6630:
6531:
6390:
6313:
6199:
6151:
6077:
6047:
6000:
5879:
5761:
5736:
5641:
5584:
5568:
5515:
5480:
5443:
5411:
5298:
5257:
5216:
5083:
5039:
4986:
4961:
4873:
4844:
4813:
4782:
4722:
4686:
4643:
4589:
4551:
4513:
4367:
4355:
4266:
4131:
4059:
3994:
3975:
3965:
3956:
3936:
3890:
3847:
3835:
3789:
3724:
3430:
3230:
3120:
2491:
2375:
Cheilostomata, but the 2009 analysis considered it more likely that neither of these
2372:
2115:
1727:
1419:
1390:
977:
969:
869:
589:
383:
376:
8209:
8162:
8002:
7719:
7468:
7010:
6911:
6676:
Bryozoan Studies 2004: Proceedings of the 13th International Bryozoology Association
6283:
6127:
5851:
5849:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5841:
5592:
10640:
10519:
10411:
10354:
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10217:
10202:
8867:
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8702:
8651:
8643:
8595:
8555:
8490:
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8442:
8359:
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8150:
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7492:
Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, & the Evolution of Life & the Environment
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6271:
6115:
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3540:
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3156:
3009:
2966:
2440:
2127:
491:
280:
9086:
4128:"Memoir V: On Polyzoa, a new animal discovered as an inhabitant of some Zoophites"
3523:
fish, and has severely reduced wild fish populations in Europe and North America.
2459:, in which pouches that form on the wall of the gut become separate cavities, nor
10813:
10718:
10680:
10635:
10567:
10324:
10284:
10269:
10162:
10093:
9999:
9850:
9753:
9610:
9143:
8789:
8746:
8233:
8231:
7789:
7482:
6425:
McKinney; Frank K; Jeremy. "Bryozoan Evolution". Boston: Unwin & Hyman, 1989.
6150:. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. p. 34.
5897:
Cuffey, R. J. (1969). "Bryozoa versus Ectoprocta – The Necessity for Precision".
5838:
4761:"The Phylogenetic Position of Entoprocta, Ectoprocta, Phoronida, and Brachiopoda"
4290:
3964:(revised & expanded, 2nd ed.). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
3609:
3495:, which is generally growing attached to gravel and hard-substrate, has formed a
2751:
2633:
2376:
2360:
2344:
2294:
2282:
2200:
2138:
1762:
1745:
1740:
1594:
1200:
1165:
1161:
1095:
389:
Each zooid consists of a "cystid", which provides the body wall and produces the
379:
314:
10953:
8794:
8177:
5996:
4262:
3932:
3143:
for a considerable time before settling. These larvae have triangular shells of
2821:
2168:, an order of gymnolaemates with mineralized skeletons, first appear in the Mid
1364:
352:). The latter having a statocyst-like organ with a supposed excretory function.
11013:
11000:
10966:
10873:
10818:
10808:
10650:
10464:
10416:
10329:
10304:
10299:
10279:
10274:
10177:
10167:
9758:
9736:
9554:
9466:
9444:
9407:
8898:
8381:
7598:
7433:
O'Dea, Aaron; Jackson, Jeremy B. C.; Taylor, Paul D.; Rodríguez, Felix (2008).
7347:
7318:
7275:
7258:
7167:
Moosbrugger, M.; Schwaha, T.; Walzl, M. G.; Obst, M.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2012).
7134:
6668:
4341:
4102:
4014:
3831:
3622:
3548:
3461:
3291:
3222:
2938:
2934:
2615:
2601:
2368:
2290:
2146:
2067:
2032:
1777:
1772:
1609:
The common name "moss animals" is the literal meaning of "Bryozoa", from Greek
1410:
1268:
961:
644:
551:
322:
306:
302:
273:
122:
8255:
8228:
8201:
8154:
7411:
7243:
6994:
6942:
6725:"The Essential Role of "Minor" Phyla in Molecular Studies of Animal Evolution"
6275:
6119:
6043:
5215:. Synopses of the British fauna. Linnean Society of London. pp. 106–107.
3979:
3592:", caused by contact with bryozoans that have stuck to nets and lobster pots.
3167:
clones of themselves. In phylactolaemates, zooids die after producing several
3053:
11159:
10924:
10597:
10582:
10544:
10469:
10405:
10391:
10339:
10334:
10248:
10237:
10232:
10212:
10207:
10182:
9903:
9807:
9306:
7822:
7398:
6262:
5572:
5117:"Downstream collecting in ciliary suspension feeders: the catch-up principle"
4078:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3532:
3472:
Mauritanian bryolith formed by circumrotatory growth of the bryozoan species
3391:
3180:
3152:
3124:
3089:
3027:, or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal
2930:
2912:
2908:
2730:
2476:
2227:
2165:
2161:
1782:
1423:
719:
418:
398:
372:
298:
143:
77:
5874:
5857:
5438:
Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1959). "Bryozoa".
5035:
3629:
to measure the safety and effectiveness of Bryostatin 1 in the treatment of
2993:(minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the
1486:
10793:
10788:
10763:
10738:
10728:
10655:
10524:
10398:
10359:
10344:
10319:
10314:
10259:
10192:
10009:
10004:
9892:
9748:
9634:
9520:
9423:
9402:
9272:
9223:
9179:
9160:
8663:
8609:
8567:
8502:
8466:
8317:
8263:
7994:
7817:
7815:
7204:
7185:
7153:
7059:
7002:
6950:
6903:
6868:
6850:
6741:
6724:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6247:
6245:
6243:
6241:
6051:
6004:
5883:
5588:
5484:
4786:
4777:
4760:
4359:
4063:
3940:
3839:
3750:
Ma, Junye; Taylor, Paul D.; Xia, Fengsheng; Zhan, Renbin (September 2015).
3500:
3457:
3324:
3131:
to adult destroys all of the larva's internal tissues. In many animals the
3044:
2891:
2703:
2565:
2557:
2542:
2526:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2316:
2308:
2286:
2266:
2258:
2251:
2242:
2150:
2142:
1885:
1767:
1755:
1750:
1308:
1235:
1137:
989:
973:
919:
815:
638:
527:
519:
499:
495:
348:
318:
310:
276:
199:
8784:
7926:
Cyclostome bryozoans: keys and notes for the identification of the species
6581:
6564:
5756:
Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Ento-".
4028:
Schwaha, Thomas F.; Ostrovsky, Andrew N.; Wanninger, Andreas (June 2020).
3897:
11039:
10933:
10848:
10823:
10768:
10743:
10665:
10660:
10625:
10615:
10309:
10222:
9970:
9941:
9927:
9917:
9502:
9318:
9231:
9013:
8623:(revised). Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press.
8600:
8583:
7316:
7050:
6517:
6515:
6513:
6511:
6509:
5755:
5731:
Little, W.; Fowler, H.W; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Ecto-".
5437:
4981:
Little, W.; Fowler, H.W; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Zooid".
4111:
3614:
3376:
3312:
3249:
3188:
2986:
2958:
2926:
2726:
2628:
2577:
2538:
2518:
2460:
2456:
1944:
1394:
1331:
1259:
1211:
1196:
1185:
981:
945:
872:
730:
725:
659:
618:
lies inside rather than outside the base of the "crown" and they have no
610:, another phylum of filter-feeders, look rather like bryozoans but their
592:
585:
548:
467:
390:
52:
8494:
7812:
6524:"Deconstructing byozoans: origin and consequences of a unique body plan"
6238:
5730:
4980:
3806:
Yang, Jie; Lan, Tian; Zhang, Xi-guang; Smith, Martin R. (8 March 2023).
3298:, and this species is particularly adept at recolonizing scoured areas.
2915:(microscopic floating plants), out of the water. The freshwater species
2254:, the two major groups that account for all moderately complex animals.
2059:
2024:
1998:
1972:
1598:
different positions of the anus, ectoprocts have hollow tentacles and a
1372:
Although zooids are microscopic, colonies range in size from 1 cm (
481:
Mineralized skeletons of bryozoans first appear in rocks from the Early
10881:
10843:
10773:
10753:
10748:
10733:
10703:
10675:
10630:
10620:
10592:
10587:
10529:
10504:
10197:
10172:
10067:
10052:
10047:
10028:
10023:
9951:
9898:
9868:
9860:
9802:
9676:
9668:
9651:
9431:
9343:
9296:
9236:
9198:
9172:
9018:
9003:
8447:
7986:
7893:
7711:
7031:"Living where the flow is right: How flow affects feeding in bryozoans"
6931:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics
6895:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6364:
5953:
5918:
5717:
5679:
5580:
5144:
3882:
3780:
3751:
3604:
3596:
3566:
3486:
3434:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3338:
3176:
3132:
3069:
2962:
2954:
2816:
2794:
2778:
2713:
2569:
2553:
2530:
2522:
2402:
2320:
2270:
2247:
2223:
2203:
are very rare, appear in and after the Late Permian (which began about
2180:
2179:, and these have been the most abundant and diverse bryozoans from the
2119:
1949:
1904:
1792:
1570:
1523:
1478:
1181:
1154:
893:
821:
806:
780:
740:
673:
611:
607:
601:
558:, a "crown" of hollow tentacles. Bryozoans form colonies consisting of
555:
523:
511:
482:
456:, many populations of one freshwater species have been wiped out by an
441:
437:
433:
429:
422:
357:
294:
97:
62:
8819:
8176:
Klicpera, André; Taylor, Paul D.; Westphal, Hildegard (30 July 2013).
7094:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6506:
5632:
5615:
4045:
3808:"Protomelission is an early dasyclad alga and not a Cambrian bryozoan"
3422:, has wiped out phylactolaemate populations wherever it has appeared.
2265:, has done much to clarify the relationships between the better-known
452:. Freshwater bryozoans are preyed on by snails, insects, and fish. In
11044:
10987:
10798:
10778:
10670:
10549:
10484:
10474:
10459:
10454:
10435:
10187:
10033:
9980:
9975:
9946:
9935:
9884:
9879:
9831:
9743:
9530:
9525:
9487:
9336:
9328:
9257:
9209:
9130:
9117:
9098:
9093:
9052:
8655:
8647:
8584:"Life in the Colonies: Learning the Alien Ways of Colonial Organisms"
6964:
6962:
6960:
6526:. In Wyse Jacksdon, P.E.; Buttler, C.E.; Spencer Jones, M.E. (eds.).
3581:
3496:
3419:
3384:
3270:
3226:
3073:
3005:
2994:
2746:
2682:
2581:
2448:
2432:
2205:
2190:
2185:
2174:
2155:
2132:
2123:
1953:
1443:
1432:
1383:
1327:
1312:
1289:
1264:
949:
654:
544:
471:
368:
176:
102:
10895:
8778:
6749:
6356:
5945:
5910:
5709:
5671:
5564:
4956:
Doherty, P.J. (2001). "The Lophophorates". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).
4210:"Heavy Predation on Freshwater Bryozoans by the Golden Apple Snail,
3171:, so that living zooids are found only round the edges of a colony.
2654:
2241:
Scientists are divided about whether the Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) are a
1448:
meaning 'animal'). Large colonies of encrusting species often have "
10992:
10918:
10853:
10833:
10828:
10803:
10783:
10758:
10723:
10713:
10708:
10539:
10514:
10494:
10154:
10057:
10041:
9964:
9956:
9911:
9874:
9855:
9844:
9826:
9820:
9681:
9622:
9598:
9495:
9376:
9265:
9149:
9040:
9031:
8937:
8721:
Vinn, Olev; Wilson, Mark A.; Mõtus, Mari-Ann; Toom, Ursula (2014).
6655:
6439:
Ernst, Andrej (2020). "2- Fossil record and evolution of Bryozoa".
5476:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4921:
3716:
3688:
3574:
3520:
3511:
Some phylactolaemate species are intermediate hosts for a group of
3438:
3406:
3380:
3372:
3140:
3077:
3028:
3020:
2950:
2946:
2677:
2650:
2561:
2514:
2452:
2444:
2380:
2302:
2196:
2169:
1542:
1515:
1352:
1219:
1177:
1051:
682:
668:
664:
515:
453:
449:
394:
116:
92:
87:
72:
67:
57:
11031:
8680:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"
7686:
Peck, L. S.; Hayward, P. J.; Spencer-Jones, M. E. (October 1995).
7435:"Modes of reproduction in recent and fossil cupuladriid bryozoans"
7396:
in Panama: a bryozoan range extension in the Western Hemisphere".
6957:
6185:
5691:
5689:
5401:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4832:
4799:
4708:
4704:
4702:
4672:
4575:
4537:
4499:
2367:. The Gymnolaemata are traditionally divided into the soft-bodied
2218:
1621:('animals'), based on the mossy appearance of encrusting species.
1569:
lies outside the "crown" of tentacles. After the discovery of the
134:
10858:
10534:
10509:
10499:
10489:
10445:
10382:
10017:
9985:
9922:
9836:
9576:
9567:
9512:
9437:
7832:
Five kingdoms: an illustrated guide to the phyla of life on earth
6805:. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from
6478:(January 1991). "Cambrian-Ordovician paleogeography of Baltica".
6335:
5658:
Beatty, J.A.; Blackwelder (1974). "Names of Invertebrate Phyla".
4293:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Museum of Paleontology.
3512:
3355:(nudibranchs). Other predators on marine bryozoans include fish,
3342:
3306:
3295:
3168:
3164:
3064:
3013:
2974:
2942:
2597:
2593:
2387:
1957:
1527:
1473:
1449:
1017:
965:
923:. Individual members of a bryozoan colony are about 0.5 mm (
886:
573:
559:
107:
82:
8773:
8018:"Predation on Bryozoans and its Reflection in the Fossil Record"
6521:
3535:
in 1987 and quickly became the most abundant organism living on
10698:
10690:
10559:
10062:
9796:
8996:
8983:
8854:
8851:
8015:
7432:
7319:"The first deep-sea ctenostome bryozoan from the Indian Ocean:
7257:
Decker, Sebastian; Wanninger, Andreas; Schwaha, Thomas (2020).
6924:
5932:
Ghiselin, M.T. (1977). "On Changing the Names of Higher Taxa".
5686:
4898:
4826:
4699:
3585:
3399:
3395:
3351:
produces spines in response to predation by several species of
3184:
3160:
3144:
3109:
3097:
3081:
3048:
3024:
2982:
2978:
2973:
In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular
2922:
2495:
2423:
2391:
2383:
probably evolved more than once within the early Gymnolaemata.
1927:
1868:
1839:
1731:
1599:
1590:
1490:
1398:
1231:
1078:
1065:
985:
957:
713:
690:
619:
597:
581:
577:
293: in) long, they have a special feeding structure called a
269:
186:
8059:"Freshwater Bryozoans of Thailand (Ectoprocta and Entoprocta)"
7115:
6674:. In Moyano, H. I.; Cancino, J.M.; Wyse-Jackson, P.N. (eds.).
6376:
6374:
6308:(2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
5791:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5781:
5779:
5777:
4571:
4569:
4567:
4318:"Fossil evidence unveils an early Cambrian origin for Bryozoa"
2297:
that appear earliest in the fossil record. However, in 2005 a
2087:
2080:
2045:
2010:
1984:
10607:
10479:
4668:
4666:
3448:
3128:
3093:
3040:
2990:
2546:
2490:
inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early
2480:
1881:
1625:
taxonomy of three genera belonging to this family, including
1616:
1610:
1522:, a trepostome bryozoan from the Whitewater Formation (Upper
1494:
1438:
1427:
1406:
1402:
1273:
1227:
1223:
1173:
1169:
1108:
1034:
914:
878:
836:
776:
702:
678:
410:
402:
364:
331:
7387:
7385:
7073:
Ryland, J.S. (1967). "Respiration in polyzoa (ectoprocta)".
6295:
6293:
5026:
Nielsen, C. (2001). "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: 'Moss' Animals)".
5021:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5013:
4627:
4533:
4531:
4529:
4076:
2525:
were also assigned to the "Tentaculata", which were renamed
27:
Phylum of colonial aquatic invertebrates called moss animals
10645:
10137:
7166:
6833:
Helmkampf, M.; Bruchhaus, Iris; Hausdorf, Bernhard (2008).
6371:
5855:
5774:
4960:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 363–373.
4564:
4495:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4155:(in Latin). Berolini Ex officina Academica. pp. 1–126.
3544:
3536:
3368:
3148:
2998:
2487:
2416:
2323:
valve; Cincinnatian of southeastern Indiana, United States.
2319:
of a Late Ordovician ctenostome bryozoan on a strophomenid
2262:
1566:
1207:
1203:, a hollow lobe called the "epistome" overhangs the mouth.
1160:
The basic shape of the "crown" is a full circle. Among the
1058:
800:
751:
Similar-looking feeding structure, but with solid tentacles
615:
445:
414:
406:
246:
Ectoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) (formerly subphylum of Bryozoa)
7790:"Bryozoans: The Fascinating Colonies Of Phylum Ectoprocta"
7652:
7640:
7024:
7022:
7020:
6832:
6500:
10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0007:COPOB>2.3.CO;2
6179:
5966:
5408:
Two Oceans – A Guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa
4663:
4623:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4377:
2576:
development of the embryo; and formation of the coelom by
844:
species often form clumps, but with no active co-operation
305:
bryozoans live in tropical waters, but a few are found in
10135:
8574:
Hayward, P.G., J.S. Ryland and P.D. Taylor (eds.), 1992.
8132:
7382:
6769:(2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 244–264.
6290:
5514:(2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 191.
5010:
4526:
4191:
A history of the classification of the phylum Brachiopoda
4034:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
4027:
3962:
Common intertidal invertebrates of the Gulf of California
3687:
Taylor, P.D.; Berning, B.; Wilson, M.A. (November 2013).
992:. The other main part of the bryozoan body, known as the
847:
Colonies of clones in some species; some solitary species
8100:"Symbiotic relationships between hydroids and bryozoans"
8020:. In Kelley, P.H.; Kowalewski, M.; Hansen, T.A. (eds.).
7685:
7669:
7667:
7529:
7527:
7525:
7523:
6767:
Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla
6678:. London: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 361–367.
5653:
5651:
4793:
3319:
9786:
8066:
The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University
7017:
6839:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
6473:
5323:
5073:
4602:
4374:
4194:. London: British Museum (Natural History). p. 13.
3418:(golden apple snail), which is generally a destructive
3088:
Zooids of all phylactolaemate species are simultaneous
2587:
2355:
are also monophyletic, but could not determine whether
1903:
Compressing the membranous sac(separate inner layer of
1218:
There is a nerve ring round the pharynx (throat) and a
8767:
8237:
8175:
7738:
7628:
7616:
7256:
6332:
5172:
5170:
3390:
In freshwater, bryozoans are among the most important
3290:
had become a dominant species in parts of Antarctica.
2501:
However, two well-known zoologists, Claus Nielsen and
2273:
has left their relationships to other groups unclear.
309:
and polar waters. The bryozoans are classified as the
30:"Polyzoa" redirects here. For the tunicate genus, see
8479:
7961:
Day, R.W.; Osman, R.W. (January 1981). "Predation by
7821:
7664:
7520:
6420:
6418:
5648:
5549:"Function-Dependent Development in a Colonial Animal"
5402:
Branch, M.L.; Griffiths, C.I.; Beckley, L.E. (2007).
5114:
695:
Three-part, if the cavity of the epistome is included
6530:. M.E. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. pp. 93–96.
6186:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
6144:
Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World
5805:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
5383:
5371:
5359:
5347:
5335:
4833:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4800:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4709:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4673:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4576:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4538:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
4500:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
3801:
3799:
2881:
1414:, structures that resemble an open head of lettuce.
722:
of larvae into adults makes this impossible to trace
562:
called zooids that are typically about 0.5 mm (
8627:Sharp, J. H.; Winson, M. K.; Porter, J. S. (2007).
7919:
6722:
6522:Dewel, R.A.; Winston, J.E.; McKinney, F.J. (2002).
6380:
5696:Mayr, E. (June 1968). "Bryozoa versus Ectoprocta".
5167:
4221:
Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University
4203:
4201:
3686:
3341:, but seldom a significant proportion of the total
2237:. Kope Formation, northern Kentucky, United States.
614:-like feeding structure has solid tentacles, their
8016:McKinney, F.K.; Taylor, P.D.; Lidgard, S. (2003).
6415:
6067:
5069:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5055:
4315:
3955:
2608:reappeared throughout the history of the bryozoa.
8727:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
8629:"Bryozoan metabolites: An ecological perspective"
8406:. National Institutes of Health. 19 August 2009.
8238:Anderson, C.; Canning, E.U.; Okamura, B. (1999).
8104:International Symbiosis Society Congress Number 5
6434:
6432:
6424:
6056:The text begins "Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) ..."
5657:
4183:
4181:
3910:
3805:
3796:
3584:have had to find other work because of a form of
3316:that are able to move slowly on a creeping foot.
2513:By 1891 bryozoans (ectoprocts) were grouped with
2508:
1819:Gelatinous masses or tubular branching structures
940:The bodies of all types have two main parts. The
229:
11157:
10422:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
7759:"'Weedy thing' thrives as Antarctic shores warm"
7217:
5006:Bryozoans and Palaeoenvironmental Interpretation
4198:
3456:against predation by the powerful and voracious
3096:develop on the inside of the body wall, and the
2545:. Bryozoan's tentacles bear cells with multiple
2415:, a ptilodictyine bryozoan from the Silurian of
1226:on the tentacles act as sensors. Members of the
8770:Bryozoa Home Page, was at RMIT; now bryozoa.net
8428:
8022:Predator-prey interactions in the fossil record
6065:
5975:: Implications for lophotrochozoan phylogeny".
5614:Taylor, Paul D.; James, Noel P. (August 2013).
5431:
5288:
5115:Riisgård, H.U.; Nielsen, C; Larsen, PS (2000).
5052:
4628:Rich, T.H.; Fenton, M.A.; Fenton, C.L. (1997).
4255:The Mechanistic Benefits of Microbial Symbionts
3749:
3059:
2390:and on the development of the adult forms from
1720:
1347:
944:consists of the body wall and whatever type of
8753:Woollacott, R.M. and R.L. Zimmer (eds), 1977.
7866:
7574:
7220:"Unravelling the Evolution of Bryozoan Larvae"
6881:
6429:
5256:(2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 227.
5082:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–13.
4872:(2nd ed.). Springer Verlag. p. 227.
4178:
4136:. Cork, IE: King and Ridings. pp. 89–102.
3387:predators on bryozoans eat individual zooids.
3034:
1311:, and is a reproductive strategy also used by
701:One per segment in basic form; merged in some
321:(Gymnolaemata), a few members of which prefer
10121:
8835:
6723:Garey, J.R.; Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas (1998).
6629:. Oxford University Press. pp. 235–237.
6474:Torsvik, T.H.; Ryan, Paul D.; Trench, Allan;
6259:
5462:
4955:
3689:"Reinterpretation of the Cambrian 'bryozoan'
2451:some organs including the gut are built from
2153:had appeared by the Middle Ordovician, about
522:, and whether bryozoans should be considered
7756:
7392:Wood, T.S.; Okamura, Beth (December 1998). "
6556:
6299:
6220:"ITIS Standard Report Page: Phylactolaemata"
4283:
4172:Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London
4159:
4119:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3216:
2195:, are mainly of erect forms, those from the
147:
11186:Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
9222:
7542:. Cambridge University Press. p. 116.
7391:
6968:
6666:
6222:. Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
5613:
5025:
3595:Marine bryozoans are often responsible for
2479:by means of a crown of tentacles that bore
2233:and the thin branching cyclostome bryozoan
2213:
1653:is now believed to be not conspecific with
1574:
1550:
1248:
10128:
10114:
9196:
8842:
8828:
7361:
6453:
6383:"Key to the higher taxa of marine Bryozoa"
5546:
3992:
3607:can be extracted from the marine bryozoan
3561:
3284:In 2014 it was reported that the bryozoan
3139:well-developed mouth and gut, and live as
3012:organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that
1665:has also been recently distinguished from
1301:
1136:
913:All bryozoans are colonial except for one
538:
478:, but analyses have not been encouraging.
133:
9389:
8599:
8578:, Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, Denmark.
8456:
8446:
8345:
7892:
7458:
7346:
7274:
7218:Kotenko, O. N.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2024).
7194:
7184:
7143:
7133:
7049:
6858:
6740:
6598:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6580:
5873:
5631:
5143:
4776:
4349:
4187:
4146:
4110:
4053:
3779:
3675:
2556:, along with most invertebrate phyla, or
2331:study, using a combination of genes from
1842:, gelatinous or membranous; unmineralized
835:Colonies of clones in most; one solitary
588:. Some encrusting bryozoan colonies with
9256:
9180:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)
9128:
8483:Journal of the American Chemical Society
7960:
7611:
7481:
6918:
6703:
6595:
6562:
6389:. Linnean Society of London. p. 7.
6017:
5931:
5817:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124
5795:
5074:McKinney, F.K.; Jackson, J.B.C. (1991).
4839:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4808:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4681:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4584:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4546:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4508:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
4165:
4125:
3467:
3323:
3256:
3063:
2902:
2422:
2407:
2307:
2217:
1943:
1533:
1514:
1368:Cheilostome bryozoan with serpulid tubes
1363:
1351:
1283:
279:animals, nearly all living in sedentary
10153:
8981:
8849:
7495:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
7289:
6760:
6140:
5206:
4758:
4717:(7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. p.
3986:
3577:that use bryozoans as alternate hosts.
3155:completely after settling: the larva's
1924:Limited heterozooids, mainly gonozooids
1833:Gelatinous or membranous; unmineralized
1356:A colony of the modern marine bryozoan
14:
11158:
10381:
9174:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
9144:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)
8576:Biology and Palaeobiology of Bryozoans
8519:
7744:
7673:
7658:
7646:
7634:
7622:
7296:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
7072:
6194:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
6105:
5896:
5389:
5377:
5365:
5353:
5341:
5329:
3993:Bock, P.; Gordon, D.P. (August 2013).
3953:
3947:
3294:has increased the rate of scouring by
2981:teeth that crush armored prey such as
1124:
1101:
1083:
1076:
1071:
1063:
1056:
428:Predators of marine bryozoans include
10900:
10899:
10109:
9115:
8823:
8779:International Bryozoology Association
8619:Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
7920:Hayward, P. J.; Ryland, J.S. (1985).
7787:
7533:
7028:
6457:Australasian Palaeontological Memoirs
6438:
5977:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
5505:
5247:
4863:
4252:
3913:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
3860:
3653:International Bryozoology Association
3320:Interactions with non-human organisms
2379:is monophyletic and that mineralized
1114:
1088:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1015:
11094:2353967f-ea0a-4495-9db7-0b408fd3dc19
11019:cf9fb193-0b4a-4c9c-a4f0-d5e00f257551
9445:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)
8673:from the original on 9 October 2022.
8296:
8278:from the original on 26 January 2012
8216:from the original on 11 January 2020
8114:from the original on 26 January 2012
8097:
8056:
7901:from the original on 26 January 2012
7688:"A pelagic bryozoan from Antarctica"
7578:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
7290:Schwaha, Thomas (23 November 2020).
6622:
6381:Hayward, P.J.; Ryland, J.S. (1985).
6226:from the original on 18 January 2018
5695:
4297:from the original on 8 December 2019
4246:
4207:
3236:The great majority of bryozoans are
2588:Lophophorate molecular phylogenetics
1805:Lip-like epistome overhanging mouth
11181:Extant Ordovician first appearances
8588:Integrative and Comparative Biology
8327:from the original on 9 October 2022
8079:from the original on 9 October 2022
7867:Iyengar, E.V.; Harvell, CD (2002).
7263:Organisms Diversity & Evolution
7038:Integrative and Comparative Biology
6685:from the original on 9 October 2022
6167:from the original on 9 October 2022
5826:from the original on 9 October 2022
5155:from the original on 9 October 2022
4765:Integrative and Comparative Biology
3658:List of prehistoric bryozoan genera
3625:was submitted to the United States
3515:that have also been found to cause
2911:that sieve small particles, mainly
2276:
1338:
626:Summary of distinguishing features
283:. Typically about 0.5 millimetres (
24:
11176:Early Ordovician first appearances
9479:
9285:
9042:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
8539:
8524:. London: Natural History Museum.
7800:from the original on 27 March 2022
7726:from the original on 3 August 2017
6803:"Introduction to the Hemichordata"
6706:Bulletins of American Paleontology
6610:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1995.tb01105.x
5798:"The new view of animal phylogeny"
3569:and hatcheries have lost stock to
3497:facultative symbiotic relationship
2541:, which are members of the phylum
976:(a mat of non-cellular material),
956:. The exoskeleton may be organic (
490:, a genus known from the Cambrian
405:into the water. Some also release
297:, a "crown" of tentacles used for
25:
11197:
8761:
8678:Taylor, P; Wilson, M. A. (2003).
8548:Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry
8410:from the original on 13 June 2011
8135:African Journal of Marine Science
8038:from the original on 8 March 2023
7942:from the original on 8 March 2023
7769:from the original on 17 June 2014
7556:from the original on 8 March 2023
6783:from the original on 8 March 2023
6643:from the original on 8 March 2023
6544:from the original on 8 March 2023
6403:from the original on 8 March 2023
6306:A student's guide to the seashore
6074:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
5758:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
5733:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
5528:from the original on 8 March 2023
5440:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
5311:from the original on 8 March 2023
5270:from the original on 8 March 2023
5229:from the original on 8 March 2023
5096:from the original on 8 March 2023
4983:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
4886:from the original on 8 March 2023
4174:. Session 123 (Symposium): 61–72.
3613:. In 2001 pharmaceutical company
3573:, which is caused by one or more
3039:There are no respiratory organs,
2965:(small hairs and pleats), absorb
2882:Ectoproct molecular phylogenetics
1825:Erect, encrusting or free-living
1728:Linnaean system of classification
1645:. This interpretation stabilizes
1000:
908:
10086:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species
8473:
8422:
8396:
8370:
8339:
8290:
8169:
8126:
8091:
8050:
8009:
7954:
7913:
7860:
7781:
7750:
7679:
7605:
7568:
7460:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00790.x
7376:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2006.00224.x
5547:von Dassow, M. (1 August 2006).
5289:Liddell, H.G.; Scott R. (1940).
5188:from the original on 13 May 2010
4147:Ehrenberg, Christian G. (1831).
3731:from the original on 7 June 2019
2820:
2798:
2750:
2729:
2681:
2653:
2632:
2086:
2079:
2066:
2044:
2031:
2009:
1983:
1939:
1930:and spines as well as autozooids
1511:List of bilaterial animal orders
1280:legs for burrowing and walking.
1008:
933: in) long and are known as
163:
50:
8795:The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)
8513:
7475:
7426:
7355:
7310:
7283:
7250:
7211:
7160:
7109:
7066:
6875:
6795:
6716:
6697:
6616:
6589:
6467:
6447:
6326:
6212:
6188:"Introduction to Invertebrates"
6134:
6099:
6090:
6059:
6011:
5960:
5925:
5890:
5862:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5749:
5724:
5607:
5540:
5499:
5456:
5404:"Bryozoa: Moss or Lace Animals"
5395:
5282:
5241:
5200:
5108:
5076:"Bryozoans as modular machines"
4999:
4974:
4857:
4638:. Dover Publications. pp.
4309:
4168:"The terms Polyzoa and Bryozoa"
4140:
1910:Compressing the whole body wall
1900:Compressing the whole body wall
1889:, whose lophophore is circular)
768:From bases to tips of tentacles
762:From tips to bases of tentacles
9273:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
8435:Journal of Alzheimer's Disease
8380:. 19 June 2006. Archived from
8024:. Springer. pp. 239–246.
7873:Marine Ecology Progress Series
7788:Ramel, Gordon (5 March 2020).
5124:Marine Ecology Progress Series
5030:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
4630:"'Moss Animals', or Bryozoans"
4070:
4021:
3854:
3743:
3505:Pseudopagurus cf. granulimanus
2509:Grouping into the Lophophorata
2431:, from the Middle Devonian of
2339:, concluded that Bryozoa is a
2126:stage of the Early Ordovician
1880:U-shaped appearance(except in
1253:Some authorities use the term
1192:withdrawn, sometimes within 60
584:, an internal cavity lined by
533:
13:
1:
9116:
8707:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9
8560:10.1016/S0162-0134(01)00359-2
8364:10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00274-7
8306:International Maritime Health
7928:. Brill Archive. p. 27.
7757:Matt McGrath (16 June 2014).
6569:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
6300:Fish, J.D.; Fish, S. (1996).
6066:Trumble, W; Brown, L (2002).
5028:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
4291:"Introduction to the Bryozoa"
3668:
3627:National Institutes of Health
3337:Marine species are common on
2897:
2466:
2427:The flat, branching bryozoan
2118:skeleton occurs in the Lower
1948:Bryozoan fossils in an Upper
896:have internal shells or none.
9885:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins
8774:Other Bryozoan WWW Resources
8757:, Academic Press, New York.
8747:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.08.021
7965:(Asteroidea) on bryozoans".
6667:Wood, T.S.; Lore M. (2005).
6024:Microscopy and Microanalysis
5508:"Life in velocity gradients"
5410:. Struik. pp. 104–110.
3957:"21: The Lophophorate Phyla"
3954:Brusca, Richard C. (1980) .
3863:Paläontologische Zeitschrift
3752:"The oldest known bryozoan:
3603:A group of chemicals called
3571:proliferative kidney disease
3517:proliferative kidney disease
3060:Reproduction and life cycles
3008:("little kidneys") or other
2359:are more closely related to
2076:
2041:
2006:
1980:
1916:
1895:
1875:
1848:
1828:
1814:
1803:
1787:
1760:
1721:Classification and diversity
1348:Colony forms and composition
1241:The solitary individuals of
867:
853:
830:
811:Varies, none in some species
797:
774:
757:
738:
710:
688:
652:
629:
552:strain food out of the water
114:Contested Cambrian records (
7:
9942:Chelicerates inc. arachnids
9682:Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
9497:Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9408:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
9297:Loricifera (corset animals)
8616:Robison, R.A. (ed.), 1983.
8057:Wood, T.S. (October 2006).
6076:. Oxford University Press.
5997:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.013
5760:. Oxford University Press.
5735:. Oxford University Press.
4985:. Oxford University Press.
4675:"Kamptozoa and Cycliophora"
4263:10.1007/978-3-319-28068-4_9
3933:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.01.021
3646:
3617:licensed bryostatin 1 from
3588:(a skin disease) known as "
3035:Respiration and circulation
2285:is most closely related to
1663:Microeciella suborbicularus
1541:found in Jefferson County,
1504:
1288:Kenozooids (from the Greek
858:Round, unlike normal zooids
10:
11202:
9832:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish
9578:Annelida (segmented worms)
9403:Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
9319:Onychophora (velvet worms)
8785:Neogene Bryozoa of Britain
7599:10.1016/j.ecss.2007.03.024
7348:10.1007/s12526-024-01409-9
7276:10.1007/s13127-020-00443-2
7135:10.1186/s12862-021-01775-z
6108:Journal of Natural History
4342:10.1038/s41586-021-04033-w
4227:(1): 31–36. Archived from
4126:Thompson, John V. (1830).
4103:10.1007/s12526-019-00948-w
4015:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.14
3832:10.1038/s41586-023-05775-5
3519:, which is often fatal in
3211:
3159:becomes the lining of the
2114:The oldest species with a
1734:Bryozoa are divided into:
1707:Metacleidochasma verrucosa
1617:
1611:
1508:
1439:
1428:
356:group was given the name "
29:
10908:
10871:
10689:
10606:
10558:
10443:
10434:
10377:
10149:
10145:
10140:phyla/divisions by domain
10082:
9880:Asterozoans inc. starfish
9782:
9775:
9726:
9677:Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
9667:
9658:Ectoprocta (moss animals)
9642:
9633:
9618:
9609:
9594:
9587:
9563:
9552:
9511:
9503:Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
9486:
9475:
9464:
9416:
9398:
9385:
9374:
9327:
9314:
9305:
9292:
9281:
9249:
9232:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
9218:
9207:
9192:
9168:
9159:
9139:
9124:
9111:
9076:
9051:
9027:
9012:
9004:Ctenophora (comb jellies)
8992:
8977:
8861:
8256:10.1017/S003118209900520X
8202:10.1007/s12526-013-0173-4
8155:10.2989/18142320509504115
7536:"Principal fossil groups"
7244:10.1134/S0031030123110072
7122:BMC Ecology and Evolution
6995:10.1007/s00442-002-0946-0
6943:10.1016/j.cbd.2012.03.003
6276:10.1007/s10750-007-9007-3
6120:10.1080/00222930802277640
6044:10.1017/S1431927600000349
4759:Nielsen, C. (July 2002).
4166:Stebbing, T.R.R. (1911).
3275:Alcyonidium pelagosphaera
3217:Habitats and distribution
2813:
2791:
2784:
2744:
2724:
2717:
2707:
2697:
2675:
2668:
2648:
2626:
2619:
2600:in a super-phylum called
2100:
2063:Cross-eye view
2058:
2023:
1997:
1971:
1966:
1891:
1821:
1810:
1799:
1754:
1593:level to include the two
1401:. Others look like small
968:) or made of the mineral
863:
860:
840:
804:
790:
787:
761:
744:
734:
724:
706:
697:
648:
636:
633:
630:
244:
237:
227:
222:
160:Scientific classification
158:
141:
132:
41:
9438:Rotifera (wheel animals)
9237:Priapulida (penis worms)
8755:The Biology of Bryozoans
8520:Taylor, Paul D. (2020).
7825:; Schwartz K.V. (1998).
6927:Membranipora grandicella
4278:invertebrate populations
4188:Muir-Wood, H.M. (1955).
3619:Arizona State University
3528:Membranipora membranacea
3348:Membranipora membranacea
3331:Membranipora membranacea
2214:Evolutionary family tree
2028:Parallel view
1897:How lophophore extended
1249:Avicularia and vibracula
1120: = Retractor muscle
463:Membranipora membranacea
10350:Thermodesulfobacteriota
9652:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
9624:Nemertea (ribbon worms)
9345:Tardigrada (waterbears)
9338:Arthropoda (arthropods)
8636:Natural Product Reports
8582:Winston, J. E. (2010).
7412:10.1023/A:1003502814572
7224:Paleontological Journal
5796:Halanych, K.M. (2004).
5465:The American Naturalist
5295:A Greek-English Lexicon
5182:Random House Dictionary
5036:10.1038/npg.els.0001613
4208:Wood, T.S. (May 2006).
3697:Journal of Paleontology
3562:Interaction with humans
3492:Acanthodesia commensale
3475:Acanthodesia commensale
3429:Several species of the
2208: million years ago
2193: million years ago
2177: million years ago
2158: million years ago
2135: million years ago
2101:Fossilized skeleton of
1856:none (except in family
1695:Calyptotheca kapaaensis
1687:Puellina septemcryptica
1302:Reproductive polymorphs
1148:A generalized autozooid
855:Shape of founder zooid
539:Distinguishing features
319:mostly-marine bryozoans
317:(Phylactolaemata), and
9827:Anthozoans inc. corals
9526:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
7186:10.1186/1742-9994-9-29
6851:10.1098/rspb.2008.0372
6141:Chapman, A.D. (2006).
5207:Hayward, P.J. (1985).
3580:Some fishermen in the
3478:
3334:
3279:Alcyonidium disciforme
3266:
3229:, and others near the
3085:
2436:
2420:
2324:
2238:
2145:were present, and the
2002:Right frame
1961:
1907:that lines the coelom)
1703:Cribellopora souleorum
1546:
1531:
1369:
1361:
1130: = Outer covering
1046:Lophophore's tentacles
814:Rear end, but none in
649:Similar-looking phyla
148:
11115:Paleobiology Database
10578:Neocallimastigomycota
9957:Hexapods inc. insects
9267:Nematoda (roundworms)
8790:Bryozoan Introduction
8687:Earth-Science Reviews
8522:Bryozoan Paleobiology
7540:Applied palaeontology
7394:Asajirella gelatinosa
6971:Plumatella emarginata
6884:Journal of Morphology
6582:10.4202/app.2011.0200
6563:Olempska, E. (2012).
5875:10.1093/molbev/msm214
5512:Life in moving fluids
5442:. Oxford University.
3471:
3327:
3265:by Jacques Burkhardt.
3260:
3194:Plumatella emarginata
3067:
2918:Plumatella emarginata
2903:Feeding and excretion
2503:Thomas Cavalier-Smith
2426:
2411:
2311:
2261:and especially their
2221:
1976:Left frame
1947:
1866:Yes (except in genus
1830:Exoskeleton material
1699:Bryopesanser serratus
1539:Evactinopora bryozoan
1537:
1518:
1469:Each colony grows by
1367:
1355:
1324:Odontoporella bishopi
1284:Structural polymorphs
864:Same as other zooids
745:With hollow tentacles
576:. All three of these
432:(nudibranchs), fish,
150:Kunstformen der Natur
11014:Fauna Europaea (new)
10243:Coprothermobacterota
9150:Chordata (chordates)
8348:Plumatella vaihiriae
7835:. Elsevier. p.
7534:Jones, R.W. (2006).
7173:Frontiers in Zoology
7029:Pratt, M.C. (2008).
6761:Nielsen, C. (2001).
6742:10.1093/icb/38.6.907
6387:Cyclostome bryozoans
6192:Invertebrate Zoology
6114:(39–40): 2557–2574.
5973:Loxosomella aloxiata
5213:Ctenostome Bryozoans
4958:Invertebrate Zoology
4836:Invertebrate Zoology
4806:Invertebrate Zoology
4778:10.1093/icb/42.3.685
4715:Invertebrate Zoology
4679:Invertebrate Zoology
4582:Invertebrate Zoology
4544:Invertebrate Zoology
4506:Invertebrate Zoology
4212:Pomacea canaliculata
3415:Pomacea canaliculata
3375:. In general marine
3225:, especially around
2997:and out through the
2533:for filter feeding.
1933:Full range of types
1877:Shape of lophophore
1863:None in most species
1683:Corbulella extenuata
1643:Oncousoecia lobulata
1326:, a species that is
1236:grow towards the sun
1162:freshwater bryozoans
315:freshwater bryozoans
9600:Mollusca (molluscs)
9085:of the animal root
8739:2014PPP...414..129V
8699:2003ESRv...62....1T
8489:(46): 13648–13649.
8194:2013MarBd..43..429K
8182:Marine Biodiversity
8147:2005AfJMS..27..549G
7979:1981Oecol..51..300D
7885:2002MEPS..225..205I
7704:1995MarBi.123..757P
7591:2007ECSS...73..835K
7451:2008Palgy..51..847O
7339:2024MarBd..54...19S
7327:Marine Biodiversity
7236:2024PalJ...57.1306K
7087:1967Natur.216.1040R
7081:(5119): 1040–1041.
6987:2002Oecol.132...51C
6845:(1645): 1927–1933.
6763:"Phylum Ectoprocta"
6492:1991Geo....19....7T
6349:1997Palai..12..505J
6036:2000MiMic...6..202R
5989:2008MolPE..47..612Y
5553:Biological Bulletin
5297:. Clarendon Press.
5136:2000MEPS..207...33R
4334:2021Natur.599..251Z
4095:2019MarBd..49.1843S
4083:Marine Biodiversity
3925:2009MolPE..52..225F
3875:2007PalZ...81..113E
3824:2023Natur.615..468Y
3772:2015Palgy..58..925M
3709:2013JPal...87..984T
3631:Alzheimer's disease
3453:Burnupena papyracea
3444:Alcyonidium nodosum
3287:Fenestrulina rugula
3261:1851 watercolor of
3177:gemmules of sponges
3072:brachiopod and S =
2492:pattern of division
2329:molecular phylogeny
2299:molecular phylogeny
2231:Cystaster stellatus
2103:Archimedes Bryozoan
1822:Erect or encrusting
1466: in) per day.
1437:meaning 'moss' and
1041:Protective covering
980:, muscles, and the
850:Colonies of clones
634:Bryozoa(Ectoprocta)
627:
508:molecular phylogeny
476:Alzheimer's disease
256:(also known as the
10573:Blastocladiomycota
9813:Calcareous sponges
8998:Porifera (sponges)
8815:Bryozoa Fact Sheet
8601:10.1093/icb/icq146
8448:10.3233/JAD-170161
7987:10.1007/BF00540898
7894:10.3354/meps225205
7712:10.1007/BF00349118
7661:, p. 112–113.
7649:, p. 162–163.
7051:10.1093/icb/icn052
6896:10.1002/jmor.10856
6809:on 1 February 2019
6729:American Zoologist
6476:Harper, David A.T.
6096:Taylor, Zaton 2008
5934:Systematic Zoology
5899:Systematic Zoology
5698:Systematic Zoology
5660:Systematic Zoology
5506:Vogel, S. (1996).
5248:Giere, O. (2009).
5145:10.3354/meps207033
5080:Bryozoan evolution
4864:Giere, O. (2009).
3883:10.1007/BF02988385
3781:10.1111/pala.12189
3479:
3411:introduced species
3335:
3313:Cristatella mucedo
3305:Bryozoans grow in
3267:
3086:
2953:, and microscopic
2529:as they all use a
2494:of cells in their
2437:
2421:
2413:Phaenopora superba
2325:
2313:Ropalonaria venosa
2239:
1962:
1850:Operculum ("lid")
1691:Junerossia copiosa
1547:
1532:
1370:
1362:
718:Uncertain because
625:
458:introduced species
48:Ordovician– Recent
32:Polyzoa (tunicate)
11153:
11152:
11102:Open Tree of Life
10902:Taxon identifiers
10893:
10892:
10889:
10888:
10867:
10866:
10430:
10429:
10373:
10372:
10365:Verrucomicrobiota
10103:
10102:
10078:
10077:
9771:
9770:
9767:
9766:
9722:
9721:
9718:
9717:
9714:
9713:
9710:
9709:
9706:
9705:
9702:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9694:
9693:
9690:
9689:
9548:
9547:
9544:
9543:
9460:
9459:
9456:
9455:
9370:
9369:
9366:
9365:
9362:
9361:
9358:
9357:
9354:
9353:
9245:
9244:
9188:
9187:
9107:
9106:
9072:
9071:
9068:
9067:
8810:Connecticut River
8716:on 25 March 2009.
8621:, Part G, Bryozoa
8495:10.1021/ja027509+
8297:Clin, B. (2008).
8098:Puce, S. (2007).
8031:978-0-306-47489-7
7935:978-90-04-07697-6
7846:978-0-7167-3027-9
7549:978-0-521-84199-3
7506:978-0-19-503652-7
7303:978-3-11-058631-2
7095:10.1038/2161040b0
6776:978-0-19-850681-2
6636:978-0-19-857784-3
6623:Wood, R. (1999).
6537:978-90-5809-388-2
6443:. pp. 11–56.
6396:978-90-04-07697-6
6319:978-0-521-46819-0
6205:978-0-03-025982-1
6157:978-0-642-56849-6
6083:978-0-19-860457-0
5868:(12): 2723–2729.
5767:978-0-19-860613-0
5742:978-0-19-860613-0
5633:10.1111/sed.12032
5521:978-0-691-02616-9
5449:978-0-19-860613-0
5417:978-1-77007-633-4
5332:, pp. 72–73.
5304:978-0-19-864226-8
5263:978-3-540-68657-6
5222:978-90-04-07583-2
5209:"Systematic part"
5089:978-0-226-56047-2
4992:978-0-19-860613-0
4967:978-0-19-551368-4
4879:978-3-540-68657-6
4850:978-0-03-025982-1
4819:978-0-03-025982-1
4728:978-0-03-025982-1
4692:978-0-03-025982-1
4649:978-0-486-29371-4
4595:978-0-03-025982-1
4557:978-0-03-025982-1
4519:978-0-03-025982-1
4328:(7884): 251–255.
4272:978-3-319-28066-0
4234:on 6 October 2011
4046:10.1111/brv.12583
3818:(7952): 468–471.
3200:Plumatella repens
2967:organic compounds
2907:Most species are
2878:
2877:
2869:
2868:
2860:
2859:
2851:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2833:
2832:
2764:
2763:
2447:, while in other
2347:Phylactolaemata,
2188:era, which ended
2137:, all the modern
2108:
2107:
2096:
2095:
2054:
2053:
2019:
2018:
1993:
1992:
1937:
1936:
1715:Favosipora adunca
1711:Disporella compta
1679:Alderina flaventa
1420:calcium carbonate
978:connective tissue
970:calcium carbonate
906:
905:
681:(class in phylum
251:
250:
218:
16:(Redirected from
11193:
11171:Protostome phyla
11146:
11145:
11133:
11132:
11123:
11122:
11110:
11109:
11097:
11096:
11087:
11086:
11074:
11073:
11061:
11060:
11048:
11047:
11035:
11034:
11022:
11021:
11009:
11008:
10996:
10995:
10983:
10982:
10970:
10969:
10957:
10956:
10944:
10943:
10942:
10929:
10928:
10927:
10897:
10896:
10641:Anthocerotophyta
10520:Hemimastigophora
10441:
10440:
10412:Nitrososphaerota
10379:
10378:
10355:Thermomicrobiota
10295:Kiritimatiellota
10290:Ignavibacteriota
10255:Deferribacterota
10218:Campylobacterota
10203:Bdellovibrionota
10151:
10150:
10147:
10146:
10130:
10123:
10116:
10107:
10106:
9784:
9783:
9740:
9640:
9639:
9616:
9615:
9592:
9591:
9561:
9560:
9557:
9484:
9483:
9477:
9476:
9473:
9472:
9469:
9396:
9395:
9387:
9386:
9383:
9382:
9379:
9312:
9311:
9290:
9289:
9283:
9282:
9254:
9253:
9220:
9219:
9216:
9215:
9212:
9205:
9204:
9201:
9194:
9193:
9166:
9165:
9137:
9136:
9133:
9126:
9125:
9113:
9112:
9090:
9025:
9024:
8990:
8989:
8986:
8979:
8978:
8890:
8870:
8844:
8837:
8830:
8821:
8820:
8781:official website
8768:Index to Bryozoa
8750:
8717:
8715:
8709:. Archived from
8684:
8674:
8672:
8648:10.1039/b617546e
8633:
8613:
8603:
8571:
8554:(3–4): 410–419.
8535:
8507:
8506:
8477:
8471:
8470:
8460:
8450:
8426:
8420:
8419:
8417:
8415:
8400:
8394:
8393:
8391:
8389:
8374:
8368:
8367:
8343:
8337:
8336:
8334:
8332:
8326:
8303:
8294:
8288:
8287:
8285:
8283:
8235:
8226:
8225:
8223:
8221:
8173:
8167:
8166:
8130:
8124:
8123:
8121:
8119:
8110:(1–3): 137–143.
8095:
8089:
8088:
8086:
8084:
8078:
8063:
8054:
8048:
8047:
8045:
8043:
8013:
8007:
8006:
7958:
7952:
7951:
7949:
7947:
7917:
7911:
7910:
7908:
7906:
7896:
7864:
7858:
7857:
7855:
7853:
7819:
7810:
7809:
7807:
7805:
7785:
7779:
7778:
7776:
7774:
7754:
7748:
7742:
7736:
7735:
7733:
7731:
7683:
7677:
7671:
7662:
7656:
7650:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7614:
7613:
7609:
7603:
7602:
7585:(3–4): 835–843.
7572:
7566:
7565:
7563:
7561:
7531:
7518:
7517:
7515:
7513:
7479:
7473:
7472:
7462:
7430:
7424:
7423:
7389:
7380:
7379:
7359:
7353:
7352:
7350:
7321:Aethozoon flavum
7314:
7308:
7307:
7287:
7281:
7280:
7278:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7215:
7209:
7208:
7198:
7188:
7164:
7158:
7157:
7147:
7137:
7113:
7107:
7106:
7070:
7064:
7063:
7053:
7035:
7026:
7015:
7014:
6966:
6955:
6954:
6922:
6916:
6915:
6890:(9): 1094–1109.
6879:
6873:
6872:
6862:
6830:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6814:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6758:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6720:
6714:
6713:
6701:
6695:
6694:
6692:
6690:
6684:
6673:
6664:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6593:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6560:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6549:
6519:
6504:
6503:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6451:
6445:
6444:
6436:
6427:
6426:
6422:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6378:
6369:
6368:
6330:
6324:
6323:
6297:
6288:
6287:
6257:
6236:
6235:
6233:
6231:
6216:
6210:
6209:
6183:
6177:
6176:
6174:
6172:
6166:
6149:
6138:
6132:
6131:
6103:
6097:
6094:
6088:
6087:
6071:
6063:
6057:
6055:
6015:
6009:
6008:
5969:Loxocorone allax
5964:
5958:
5957:
5929:
5923:
5922:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5877:
5853:
5836:
5835:
5833:
5831:
5825:
5802:
5793:
5772:
5771:
5753:
5747:
5746:
5728:
5722:
5721:
5693:
5684:
5683:
5655:
5646:
5645:
5635:
5626:(5): 1184–1212.
5611:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5591:. Archived from
5544:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5533:
5503:
5497:
5496:
5460:
5454:
5453:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5399:
5393:
5387:
5381:
5375:
5369:
5363:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5339:
5333:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5286:
5280:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5245:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5234:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5193:
5184:. Random House.
5174:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5154:
5147:
5121:
5112:
5106:
5105:
5103:
5101:
5071:
5050:
5049:
5023:
5008:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4953:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4830:
4824:
4823:
4797:
4791:
4790:
4780:
4756:
4733:
4732:
4706:
4697:
4696:
4670:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4625:
4600:
4599:
4573:
4562:
4561:
4535:
4524:
4523:
4497:
4372:
4371:
4353:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4233:
4218:
4205:
4196:
4195:
4185:
4176:
4175:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4089:(4): 1843–1856.
4074:
4068:
4067:
4057:
4025:
4019:
4018:
3998:
3995:"Phylum Bryozoa
3990:
3984:
3983:
3959:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3908:
3895:
3894:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3803:
3794:
3793:
3783:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3693:as an octocoral"
3684:
3663:Colony (biology)
3642:
3641:
3637:
3590:Dogger Bank itch
2824:
2802:
2787:
2786:
2755:
2754:
2733:
2720:
2719:
2710:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2686:
2685:
2671:
2670:
2657:
2637:
2636:
2622:
2621:
2612:
2611:
2327:In 2009 another
2277:Traditional view
2226:cobble with the
2209:
2201:phylactolaemates
2194:
2178:
2159:
2136:
2090:
2083:
2072:
2070:
2060:
2048:
2037:
2035:
2025:
2013:
1999:
1987:
1973:
1964:
1963:
1737:
1736:
1641:was found to be
1620:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1565:), in which the
1564:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1447:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1430:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1358:Flustra foliacea
1339:Other polymorphs
1293:
1195:
1140:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1086:
1081:
1074:
1069:
1061:
1054:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1030:
1029:Retractor muscle
1025:
1020:
1012:
984:which lines the
932:
931:
927:
805:Outside base of
759:Feeding current
628:
624:
571:
570:
566:
328:
313:(Stenolaemata),
311:marine bryozoans
307:oceanic trenches
292:
291:
287:
213:
168:
167:
153:
142:"Bryozoa", from
137:
127:
112:
49:
45:Temporal range:
39:
38:
21:
11201:
11200:
11196:
11195:
11194:
11192:
11191:
11190:
11156:
11155:
11154:
11149:
11141:
11136:
11128:
11126:
11118:
11113:
11105:
11100:
11092:
11090:
11082:
11077:
11069:
11064:
11056:
11051:
11043:
11038:
11030:
11025:
11017:
11012:
11004:
10999:
10991:
10986:
10978:
10973:
10965:
10960:
10952:
10947:
10938:
10937:
10932:
10923:
10922:
10917:
10904:
10894:
10885:
10863:
10814:Gnathostomulida
10719:Xenacoelomorpha
10685:
10681:Flowering plant
10636:Marchantiophyta
10602:
10568:Chytridiomycota
10554:
10426:
10369:
10325:Planctomycetota
10285:Gemmatimonadota
10270:Elusimicrobiota
10163:Acidobacteriota
10141:
10134:
10104:
10099:
10074:
10000:Phylactolaemata
9788:
9778:
9777:
9763:
9754:Xenambulacraria
9730:
9686:
9663:
9629:
9611:Kryptotrochozoa
9605:
9583:
9553:
9540:
9531:Monoblastozoa (
9507:
9465:
9452:
9424:Micrognathozoa
9412:
9375:
9350:
9323:
9301:
9277:
9241:
9208:
9197:
9184:
9155:
9129:
9120:
9103:
9080:
9064:
9047:
9016:
9008:
8982:
8973:
8972:
8888:
8866:
8857:
8848:
8764:
8720:
8713:
8682:
8677:
8670:
8631:
8626:
8581:
8545:
8542:
8540:Further reading
8532:
8516:
8511:
8510:
8478:
8474:
8427:
8423:
8413:
8411:
8402:
8401:
8397:
8387:
8385:
8376:
8375:
8371:
8344:
8340:
8330:
8328:
8324:
8301:
8295:
8291:
8281:
8279:
8236:
8229:
8219:
8217:
8174:
8170:
8131:
8127:
8117:
8115:
8096:
8092:
8082:
8080:
8076:
8061:
8055:
8051:
8041:
8039:
8032:
8014:
8010:
7963:Patiria miniata
7959:
7955:
7945:
7943:
7936:
7918:
7914:
7904:
7902:
7865:
7861:
7851:
7849:
7847:
7820:
7813:
7803:
7801:
7786:
7782:
7772:
7770:
7755:
7751:
7743:
7739:
7729:
7727:
7684:
7680:
7672:
7665:
7657:
7653:
7645:
7641:
7633:
7629:
7621:
7617:
7610:
7606:
7573:
7569:
7559:
7557:
7550:
7532:
7521:
7511:
7509:
7507:
7487:"The Paleozoic"
7480:
7476:
7431:
7427:
7390:
7383:
7360:
7356:
7315:
7311:
7304:
7288:
7284:
7255:
7251:
7216:
7212:
7165:
7161:
7114:
7110:
7071:
7067:
7033:
7027:
7018:
6967:
6958:
6923:
6919:
6880:
6876:
6831:
6822:
6812:
6810:
6801:
6800:
6796:
6786:
6784:
6777:
6759:
6750:
6721:
6717:
6702:
6698:
6688:
6686:
6682:
6671:
6665:
6656:
6646:
6644:
6637:
6621:
6617:
6594:
6590:
6561:
6557:
6547:
6545:
6538:
6520:
6507:
6472:
6468:
6452:
6448:
6437:
6430:
6423:
6416:
6406:
6404:
6397:
6379:
6372:
6357:10.2307/3515408
6331:
6327:
6320:
6298:
6291:
6258:
6239:
6229:
6227:
6218:
6217:
6213:
6206:
6184:
6180:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6158:
6147:
6139:
6135:
6104:
6100:
6095:
6091:
6084:
6064:
6060:
6016:
6012:
5965:
5961:
5946:10.2307/2412681
5930:
5926:
5911:10.2307/2412617
5895:
5891:
5854:
5839:
5829:
5827:
5823:
5800:
5794:
5775:
5768:
5754:
5750:
5743:
5729:
5725:
5710:10.2307/2412368
5694:
5687:
5672:10.2307/2412472
5656:
5649:
5612:
5608:
5598:
5596:
5565:10.2307/4134580
5545:
5541:
5531:
5529:
5522:
5504:
5500:
5461:
5457:
5450:
5436:
5432:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5400:
5396:
5388:
5384:
5376:
5372:
5364:
5360:
5352:
5348:
5340:
5336:
5328:
5324:
5314:
5312:
5305:
5287:
5283:
5273:
5271:
5264:
5246:
5242:
5232:
5230:
5223:
5205:
5201:
5191:
5189:
5176:
5175:
5168:
5158:
5156:
5152:
5119:
5113:
5109:
5099:
5097:
5090:
5072:
5053:
5046:
5024:
5011:
5004:
5000:
4993:
4979:
4975:
4968:
4954:
4899:
4889:
4887:
4880:
4862:
4858:
4851:
4831:
4827:
4820:
4798:
4794:
4757:
4736:
4729:
4707:
4700:
4693:
4671:
4664:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4635:The fossil book
4626:
4603:
4596:
4574:
4565:
4558:
4536:
4527:
4520:
4498:
4375:
4314:
4310:
4300:
4298:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4273:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4235:
4231:
4216:
4206:
4199:
4186:
4179:
4164:
4160:
4145:
4141:
4124:
4120:
4075:
4071:
4026:
4022:
3997:Ehrenberg, 1831
3996:
3991:
3987:
3972:
3952:
3948:
3909:
3898:
3859:
3855:
3804:
3797:
3754:Prophyllodictya
3748:
3744:
3734:
3732:
3685:
3676:
3671:
3649:
3639:
3635:
3634:
3610:Bugula neritina
3564:
3503:of the species
3424:P. canaliculata
3322:
3219:
3214:
3183:shells made of
3062:
3037:
2939:dinoflagellates
2905:
2900:
2884:
2879:
2870:
2861:
2852:
2843:
2834:
2765:
2749:
2680:
2631:
2590:
2511:
2469:
2435:, United States
2419:, United States
2361:Phylactolaemata
2283:Phylactolaemata
2279:
2216:
2204:
2189:
2173:
2154:
2131:
2092:
2091:
2084:
2064:
2050:
2049:
2029:
2015:
2014:
1989:
1988:
1942:
1921:Autozooids only
1918:Types of zooid
1746:Phylactolaemata
1723:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1545:, United States
1530:, United States
1513:
1507:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1350:
1341:
1304:
1286:
1251:
1193:
1166:Phylactolaemata
1151:
1150:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1141:
1134:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1096:Digestive tract
1091:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1064:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1016:
1013:
1003:
929:
925:
924:
911:
820:Inside base of
794:not applicable
771:not applicable
735:not applicable
568:
564:
563:
541:
536:
326:
289:
285:
284:
264:or commonly as
212:
162:
128:
113:
111:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
47:
46:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11199:
11189:
11188:
11183:
11178:
11173:
11168:
11151:
11150:
11148:
11147:
11134:
11124:
11111:
11098:
11088:
11075:
11062:
11049:
11036:
11023:
11010:
11001:Fauna Europaea
10997:
10984:
10971:
10958:
10945:
10930:
10914:
10912:
10906:
10905:
10891:
10890:
10887:
10886:
10879:
10877:
10874:Incertae sedis
10869:
10868:
10865:
10864:
10862:
10861:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10826:
10821:
10819:Micrognathozoa
10816:
10811:
10809:Acanthocephala
10806:
10801:
10796:
10791:
10786:
10781:
10776:
10771:
10766:
10761:
10756:
10751:
10746:
10741:
10736:
10731:
10726:
10721:
10716:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10695:
10693:
10687:
10686:
10684:
10683:
10678:
10673:
10668:
10663:
10658:
10653:
10651:Lycopodiophyta
10648:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10628:
10623:
10618:
10612:
10610:
10604:
10603:
10601:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10570:
10564:
10562:
10556:
10555:
10553:
10552:
10547:
10542:
10537:
10532:
10527:
10522:
10517:
10512:
10507:
10502:
10497:
10492:
10487:
10482:
10477:
10472:
10467:
10465:Ancyromonadida
10462:
10457:
10451:
10449:
10438:
10432:
10431:
10428:
10427:
10425:
10424:
10419:
10417:Thermoproteota
10414:
10409:
10402:
10395:
10387:
10385:
10375:
10374:
10371:
10370:
10368:
10367:
10362:
10357:
10352:
10347:
10342:
10337:
10332:
10330:Pseudomonadota
10327:
10322:
10317:
10312:
10307:
10305:Mycoplasmatota
10302:
10300:Lentisphaerota
10297:
10292:
10287:
10282:
10280:Fusobacteriota
10277:
10275:Fibrobacterota
10272:
10267:
10262:
10257:
10252:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10230:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10205:
10200:
10195:
10190:
10185:
10180:
10178:Armatimonadota
10175:
10170:
10168:Actinomycetota
10165:
10159:
10157:
10143:
10142:
10133:
10132:
10125:
10118:
10110:
10101:
10100:
10098:
10097:
10090:
10083:
10080:
10079:
10076:
10075:
10073:
10072:
10071:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10055:
10050:
10038:
10037:
10036:
10031:
10026:
10014:
10013:
10012:
10007:
10002:
9990:
9989:
9988:
9983:
9978:
9973:
9965:Platyhelminths
9961:
9960:
9959:
9954:
9949:
9944:
9932:
9931:
9930:
9925:
9920:
9908:
9907:
9906:
9901:
9889:
9888:
9887:
9882:
9877:
9865:
9864:
9863:
9858:
9853:
9841:
9840:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9817:
9816:
9815:
9810:
9805:
9792:
9790:
9780:
9779:
9776:
9773:
9772:
9769:
9768:
9765:
9764:
9762:
9761:
9759:Centroneuralia
9756:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9727:
9724:
9723:
9720:
9719:
9716:
9715:
9712:
9711:
9708:
9707:
9704:
9703:
9700:
9699:
9696:
9695:
9692:
9691:
9688:
9687:
9685:
9684:
9679:
9673:
9671:
9665:
9664:
9662:
9661:
9654:
9648:
9646:
9637:
9631:
9630:
9628:
9627:
9619:
9613:
9607:
9606:
9604:
9603:
9595:
9589:
9585:
9584:
9582:
9581:
9574:
9564:
9558:
9555:Lophotrochozoa
9550:
9549:
9546:
9545:
9542:
9541:
9539:
9538:
9528:
9523:
9517:
9515:
9509:
9508:
9506:
9505:
9500:
9492:
9490:
9481:
9470:
9467:Platytrochozoa
9462:
9461:
9458:
9457:
9454:
9453:
9451:
9450:
9449:
9448:
9441:
9429:
9426:(Limnognathia)
9420:
9418:
9414:
9413:
9411:
9410:
9405:
9399:
9393:
9380:
9372:
9371:
9368:
9367:
9364:
9363:
9360:
9359:
9356:
9355:
9352:
9351:
9349:
9348:
9341:
9333:
9331:
9325:
9324:
9322:
9321:
9315:
9309:
9303:
9302:
9300:
9299:
9293:
9287:
9279:
9278:
9276:
9275:
9270:
9262:
9260:
9251:
9247:
9246:
9243:
9242:
9240:
9239:
9234:
9228:
9226:
9213:
9202:
9190:
9189:
9186:
9185:
9183:
9182:
9177:
9169:
9163:
9157:
9156:
9154:
9153:
9146:
9140:
9134:
9122:
9121:
9109:
9108:
9105:
9104:
9102:
9101:
9096:
9091:
9077:
9074:
9073:
9070:
9069:
9066:
9065:
9063:
9062:
9058:
9056:
9055:(Triploblasts)
9049:
9048:
9046:
9045:
9038:
9036:and relatives)
9028:
9022:
9010:
9009:
9007:
9006:
9001:
8993:
8987:
8975:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8969:
8968:
8967:
8966:
8963:Mesomycetozoea
8960:
8955:
8945:
8935:
8934:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8912:
8911:
8899:Diaphoretickes
8896:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8876:
8871:
8863:
8862:
8859:
8858:
8847:
8846:
8839:
8832:
8824:
8818:
8817:
8812:
8803:
8802:at Wikispecies
8800:Phylum Bryozoa
8797:
8792:
8787:
8782:
8776:
8771:
8763:
8762:External links
8760:
8759:
8758:
8751:
8718:
8675:
8642:(4): 659–673.
8624:
8614:
8594:(6): 919–933.
8579:
8572:
8541:
8538:
8537:
8536:
8530:
8515:
8512:
8509:
8508:
8472:
8441:(2): 521–535.
8421:
8395:
8378:"Bryostatin 1"
8369:
8358:(3): 609–614.
8352:Water Research
8338:
8289:
8250:(6): 555–561.
8227:
8188:(4): 429–444.
8168:
8141:(3): 549–556.
8125:
8090:
8049:
8030:
8008:
7973:(3): 300–309.
7953:
7934:
7912:
7859:
7845:
7811:
7780:
7749:
7747:, p. 114.
7737:
7698:(4): 757–762.
7692:Marine Biology
7678:
7663:
7651:
7639:
7637:, p. 164.
7627:
7625:, p. 159.
7615:
7604:
7567:
7548:
7519:
7505:
7474:
7445:(4): 847–864.
7425:
7406:(1–3): 19–23.
7381:
7364:Acta Zoologica
7354:
7309:
7302:
7293:Phylum Bryozoa
7282:
7269:(3): 417–437.
7249:
7210:
7159:
7108:
7065:
7044:(6): 808–822.
7016:
6956:
6937:(3): 248–253.
6917:
6874:
6820:
6794:
6775:
6748:
6735:(6): 907–917.
6715:
6696:
6654:
6635:
6626:Reef evolution
6615:
6604:(3): 465–481.
6588:
6575:(4): 925–940.
6555:
6536:
6505:
6466:
6446:
6441:Phylum Bryozoa
6428:
6414:
6395:
6370:
6343:(6): 505–523.
6325:
6318:
6289:
6237:
6211:
6204:
6178:
6156:
6133:
6098:
6089:
6082:
6058:
6030:(3): 202–210.
6010:
5983:(2): 612–628.
5959:
5940:(3): 346–349.
5924:
5905:(2): 250–251.
5889:
5837:
5773:
5766:
5748:
5741:
5723:
5704:(2): 213–216.
5685:
5666:(4): 545–547.
5647:
5606:
5595:on 6 July 2009
5539:
5520:
5498:
5477:10.1086/286214
5471:(6): 861–880.
5455:
5448:
5430:
5416:
5394:
5382:
5370:
5358:
5346:
5334:
5322:
5303:
5281:
5262:
5254:Meiobenthology
5240:
5221:
5199:
5166:
5107:
5088:
5051:
5045:978-0470016176
5044:
5009:
4998:
4991:
4973:
4966:
4897:
4878:
4870:Meiobenthology
4856:
4849:
4825:
4818:
4792:
4771:(3): 685–691.
4734:
4727:
4698:
4691:
4662:
4648:
4601:
4594:
4563:
4556:
4525:
4518:
4373:
4308:
4282:
4271:
4245:
4197:
4177:
4158:
4139:
4118:
4069:
4040:(3): 696–729.
4020:
3985:
3970:
3946:
3919:(1): 225–233.
3896:
3869:(2): 113–117.
3853:
3795:
3766:(5): 925–934.
3742:
3717:10.1666/13-029
3703:(6): 984–990.
3673:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3648:
3645:
3623:clinical trial
3563:
3560:
3555:M. membranacea
3549:Codium fragile
3462:Jasus lalandii
3392:filter feeders
3321:
3318:
3292:Global warming
3242:Amphibiobeania
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3090:hermaphrodites
3061:
3058:
3054:coelomic fluid
3036:
3033:
2935:photosynthetic
2909:filter feeders
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2790:
2785:
2783:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2723:
2718:
2716:
2708:
2706:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2625:
2620:
2618:
2616:Lophotrochozoa
2610:
2602:Lophotrochozoa
2589:
2586:
2510:
2507:
2468:
2465:
2369:Ctenostomatida
2291:Ctenostomatida
2278:
2275:
2215:
2212:
2166:cheilostomates
2162:filter feeders
2106:
2105:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2003:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1890:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1864:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1816:Colony shapes
1813:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1801:
1800:Mostly marine
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1778:Ctenostomatida
1775:
1773:Cyclostomatida
1770:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1722:
1719:
1506:
1503:
1411:Thalamoporella
1349:
1346:
1340:
1337:
1303:
1300:
1285:
1282:
1269:Charles Darwin
1250:
1247:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1014:
1007:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1002:
1001:Feeding zooids
999:
962:polysaccharide
910:
909:Types of zooid
907:
904:
903:
900:
897:
890:
884:
881:
875:
866:
865:
862:
861:not applicable
859:
856:
852:
851:
848:
845:
839:
833:
829:
828:
825:
818:
812:
809:
803:
796:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
773:
772:
769:
766:
765:not applicable
763:
760:
756:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
737:
736:
733:
728:
723:
716:
709:
708:
705:
699:
696:
693:
687:
686:
676:
671:
662:
657:
651:
650:
647:
645:Lophotrochozoa
641:
635:
632:
554:by means of a
540:
537:
535:
532:
488:Protomelission
399:hermaphrodites
323:brackish water
299:filter feeding
249:
248:
242:
241:
235:
234:
225:
224:
220:
219:
207:
203:
202:
197:
190:
189:
184:
180:
179:
174:
170:
169:
156:
155:
139:
138:
130:
129:
123:Protomelission
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11198:
11187:
11184:
11182:
11179:
11177:
11174:
11172:
11169:
11167:
11164:
11163:
11161:
11144:
11139:
11135:
11131:
11125:
11121:
11116:
11112:
11108:
11103:
11099:
11095:
11089:
11085:
11080:
11076:
11072:
11067:
11063:
11059:
11054:
11050:
11046:
11041:
11037:
11033:
11028:
11024:
11020:
11015:
11011:
11007:
11002:
10998:
10994:
10989:
10985:
10981:
10976:
10972:
10968:
10963:
10959:
10955:
10950:
10946:
10941:
10935:
10931:
10926:
10920:
10916:
10915:
10913:
10911:
10907:
10903:
10898:
10884:
10883:
10878:
10876:
10875:
10870:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10817:
10815:
10812:
10810:
10807:
10805:
10802:
10800:
10797:
10795:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10782:
10780:
10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10740:
10737:
10735:
10732:
10730:
10727:
10725:
10722:
10720:
10717:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10696:
10694:
10692:
10688:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10613:
10611:
10609:
10605:
10599:
10598:Basidiomycota
10596:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10583:Glomeromycota
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10565:
10563:
10561:
10557:
10551:
10548:
10546:
10545:Stramenopiles
10543:
10541:
10538:
10536:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10511:
10508:
10506:
10503:
10501:
10498:
10496:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10470:Apusomonadida
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10433:
10423:
10420:
10418:
10415:
10413:
10410:
10407:
10406:Nanoarchaeota
10403:
10400:
10396:
10393:
10392:Euryarchaeota
10389:
10388:
10386:
10384:
10380:
10376:
10366:
10363:
10361:
10358:
10356:
10353:
10351:
10348:
10346:
10343:
10341:
10340:Spirochaetota
10338:
10336:
10335:Rhodothermota
10333:
10331:
10328:
10326:
10323:
10321:
10318:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10291:
10288:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10265:Dictyoglomota
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10250:
10249:Cyanobacteria
10246:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10238:Chrysiogenota
10236:
10234:
10233:Chloroflexota
10231:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10213:Calditrichota
10211:
10209:
10208:Caldisericota
10206:
10204:
10201:
10199:
10196:
10194:
10191:
10189:
10186:
10184:
10183:Atribacterota
10181:
10179:
10176:
10174:
10171:
10169:
10166:
10164:
10161:
10160:
10158:
10156:
10152:
10148:
10144:
10139:
10131:
10126:
10124:
10119:
10117:
10112:
10111:
10108:
10095:
10094:dubious phyla
10091:
10089:
10085:
10084:
10081:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10049:
10046:
10045:
10044:
10043:
10039:
10035:
10032:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10019:
10015:
10011:
10008:
10006:
10003:
10001:
9998:
9997:
9996:
9995:
9991:
9987:
9984:
9982:
9979:
9977:
9974:
9972:
9969:
9968:
9967:
9966:
9962:
9958:
9955:
9953:
9950:
9948:
9945:
9943:
9940:
9939:
9938:
9937:
9933:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9919:
9916:
9915:
9914:
9913:
9909:
9905:
9902:
9900:
9897:
9896:
9895:
9894:
9893:Hemichordates
9890:
9886:
9883:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9873:
9872:
9871:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9848:
9847:
9846:
9842:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9824:
9823:
9822:
9818:
9814:
9811:
9809:
9808:Glass sponges
9806:
9804:
9801:
9800:
9799:
9798:
9794:
9793:
9791:
9785:
9781:
9774:
9760:
9757:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9749:Deuterostomia
9747:
9745:
9742:
9738:
9735:of Bilateria
9734:
9729:
9728:
9725:
9683:
9680:
9678:
9675:
9674:
9672:
9670:
9666:
9660:
9659:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9649:
9647:
9645:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9632:
9626:
9625:
9621:
9620:
9617:
9614:
9612:
9608:
9602:
9601:
9597:
9596:
9593:
9590:
9586:
9580:
9579:
9575:
9573:
9571:
9568:Cycliophora (
9566:
9565:
9562:
9559:
9556:
9551:
9536:
9534:
9529:
9527:
9524:
9522:
9519:
9518:
9516:
9514:
9510:
9504:
9501:
9499:
9498:
9494:
9493:
9491:
9489:
9485:
9482:
9478:
9474:
9471:
9468:
9463:
9447:
9446:
9442:
9440:
9439:
9435:
9434:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9427:
9422:
9421:
9419:
9415:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9400:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9388:
9384:
9381:
9378:
9373:
9347:
9346:
9342:
9340:
9339:
9335:
9334:
9332:
9330:
9326:
9320:
9317:
9316:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9307:Panarthropoda
9304:
9298:
9295:
9294:
9291:
9288:
9284:
9280:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9268:
9264:
9263:
9261:
9259:
9255:
9252:
9248:
9238:
9235:
9233:
9230:
9229:
9227:
9225:
9221:
9217:
9214:
9211:
9206:
9203:
9200:
9195:
9191:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9175:
9171:
9170:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9158:
9152:
9151:
9147:
9145:
9142:
9141:
9138:
9135:
9132:
9127:
9123:
9119:
9114:
9110:
9100:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9088:
9084:
9079:
9078:
9075:
9060:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9050:
9044:
9043:
9039:
9037:
9035:
9030:
9029:
9026:
9023:
9020:
9015:
9011:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8999:
8995:
8994:
8991:
8988:
8985:
8980:
8976:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8950:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8940:
8939:
8936:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8926:Stramenopiles
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8910:
8907:
8906:
8905:
8902:
8901:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8889:(major groups
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8877:
8875:
8872:
8869:
8865:
8864:
8860:
8856:
8853:
8845:
8840:
8838:
8833:
8831:
8826:
8825:
8822:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8807:
8804:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8780:
8777:
8775:
8772:
8769:
8766:
8765:
8756:
8752:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8732:
8728:
8724:
8719:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8688:
8681:
8676:
8669:
8665:
8661:
8657:
8653:
8649:
8645:
8641:
8637:
8630:
8625:
8622:
8620:
8615:
8611:
8607:
8602:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8580:
8577:
8573:
8569:
8565:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8544:
8543:
8533:
8531:9781118455005
8527:
8523:
8518:
8517:
8504:
8500:
8496:
8492:
8488:
8484:
8476:
8468:
8464:
8459:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8425:
8409:
8405:
8399:
8384:on 9 May 2007
8383:
8379:
8373:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8342:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8300:
8293:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8257:
8253:
8249:
8245:
8241:
8234:
8232:
8215:
8211:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8172:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8144:
8140:
8136:
8129:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8094:
8075:
8072:(2): 83–119.
8071:
8067:
8060:
8053:
8037:
8033:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8012:
8004:
8000:
7996:
7992:
7988:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7957:
7941:
7937:
7931:
7927:
7923:
7916:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7886:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7870:
7863:
7848:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7833:
7828:
7824:
7818:
7816:
7799:
7795:
7791:
7784:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7753:
7746:
7741:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7705:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7682:
7676:, p. 79.
7675:
7670:
7668:
7660:
7655:
7648:
7643:
7636:
7631:
7624:
7619:
7608:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7584:
7580:
7579:
7571:
7555:
7551:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7530:
7528:
7526:
7524:
7508:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7493:
7488:
7484:
7478:
7470:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7452:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7439:Palaeontology
7436:
7429:
7421:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7400:
7399:Hydrobiologia
7395:
7388:
7386:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7358:
7349:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7322:
7313:
7305:
7299:
7295:
7294:
7286:
7277:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7253:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7214:
7206:
7202:
7197:
7192:
7187:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7170:
7163:
7155:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7112:
7104:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7069:
7061:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7032:
7025:
7023:
7021:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6965:
6963:
6961:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6921:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6878:
6870:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6836:
6829:
6827:
6825:
6808:
6804:
6798:
6782:
6778:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6757:
6755:
6753:
6743:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6719:
6711:
6707:
6700:
6681:
6677:
6670:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6642:
6638:
6632:
6628:
6627:
6619:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6592:
6583:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6559:
6543:
6539:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6518:
6516:
6514:
6512:
6510:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6470:
6462:
6458:
6450:
6442:
6435:
6433:
6421:
6419:
6402:
6398:
6392:
6388:
6384:
6377:
6375:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6337:
6329:
6321:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6296:
6294:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6264:
6263:Hydrobiologia
6256:
6254:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6244:
6242:
6225:
6221:
6215:
6207:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6182:
6163:
6159:
6153:
6146:
6145:
6137:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6102:
6093:
6085:
6079:
6075:
6070:
6062:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6014:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5963:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5928:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5893:
5885:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5852:
5850:
5848:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5799:
5792:
5790:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5778:
5769:
5763:
5759:
5752:
5744:
5738:
5734:
5727:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5692:
5690:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5654:
5652:
5643:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5625:
5621:
5620:Sedimentology
5617:
5610:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5543:
5527:
5523:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5502:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5459:
5451:
5445:
5441:
5434:
5419:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5398:
5392:, p. 75.
5391:
5386:
5380:, p. 65.
5379:
5374:
5368:, p. 60.
5367:
5362:
5356:, p. 59.
5355:
5350:
5344:, p. 74.
5343:
5338:
5331:
5326:
5310:
5306:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5285:
5269:
5265:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5250:"Tentaculata"
5244:
5228:
5224:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5203:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5173:
5171:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5111:
5095:
5091:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5047:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5016:
5014:
5007:
5002:
4994:
4988:
4984:
4977:
4969:
4963:
4959:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4902:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4866:"Tentaculata"
4860:
4852:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4837:
4829:
4821:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4796:
4788:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4739:
4730:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4711:"Lophoporata"
4705:
4703:
4694:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4669:
4667:
4651:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4636:
4631:
4624:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4597:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4578:"Lophoporata"
4572:
4570:
4568:
4559:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4540:"Lophoporata"
4534:
4532:
4530:
4521:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4502:"Lophoporata"
4496:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4296:
4292:
4286:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4249:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4215:
4213:
4204:
4202:
4193:
4192:
4184:
4182:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4135:
4134:
4129:
4122:
4113:
4112:11380/1174838
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4073:
4065:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4024:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3989:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3971:9780816506828
3967:
3963:
3958:
3950:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3800:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3760:Palaeontology
3757:
3755:
3746:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3692:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3674:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3644:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3598:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3559:
3556:
3552:
3551:tomentosoides
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3533:Gulf of Maine
3530:
3529:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3483:Banc d'Arguin
3477:
3476:
3470:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3447:protects the
3446:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3394:, along with
3393:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3332:
3326:
3317:
3315:
3314:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3288:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3209:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3125:metamorphosis
3122:
3117:
3113:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3057:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3045:blood vessels
3042:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3004:There are no
3002:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2931:cyanobacteria
2928:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2913:phytoplankton
2910:
2895:
2893:
2888:
2874:
2873:
2865:
2864:
2856:
2855:
2847:
2846:
2838:
2837:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2789:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:hemichordates
2563:
2560:, along with
2559:
2558:deuterostomes
2555:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2504:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2475:animals that
2474:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2429:Sulcoretepora
2425:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2315:, an etching
2314:
2310:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2253:
2252:deuterostomes
2249:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2228:edrioasteroid
2225:
2220:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2152:
2151:gymnolaemates
2148:
2144:
2143:stenolaemates
2140:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2104:
2099:
2089:
2082:
2075:
2069:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2040:
2034:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2012:
2005:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1986:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1940:Fossil record
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1807:
1804:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:Environments
1788:
1784:
1783:Cheilostomata
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1615:('moss') and
1607:
1603:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1572:
1568:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1526:) of eastern
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1502:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1453:
1451:
1446:
1435:
1425:
1424:Ancient Greek
1421:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1393:but may have
1392:
1391:unmineralized
1387:
1385:
1366:
1359:
1354:
1345:
1344:degenerated.
1336:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1281:
1277:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1146:
1139:
1110:
1097:
1080:
1068:(body cavity)
1067:
1060:
1053:
1036:
1019:
1011:
998:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
938:
936:
922:
921:
916:
901:
898:
895:
891:
888:
885:
882:
880:
876:
874:
871:
868:
857:
854:
849:
846:
843:
838:
834:
831:
826:
823:
819:
817:
813:
810:
808:
802:
798:
793:
784:
782:
778:
777:Multiciliated
775:
770:
767:
764:
758:
753:
750:
747:
742:
739:
732:
729:
727:
721:
720:metamorphosis
717:
715:
712:Formation of
711:
704:
700:
694:
692:
689:
684:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
646:
642:
640:
639:lophophorates
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
603:
599:
594:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
561:
557:
553:
550:
546:
531:
529:
528:deuterostomes
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:morphological
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
479:
477:
473:
469:
465:
464:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
419:metamorphosis
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
378:
374:
373:Cheilostomata
370:
366:
361:
359:
353:
351:
350:
345:
341:
337:
333:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
282:
278:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
247:
243:
240:
236:
233:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
208:
205:
204:
201:
198:
195:
192:
191:
188:
185:
182:
181:
178:
175:
172:
171:
166:
161:
157:
152:
151:
145:
144:Ernst Haeckel
140:
136:
131:
125:
124:
119:
118:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
40:
37:
33:
19:
10909:
10880:
10872:
10838:
10794:Orthonectida
10789:Gastrotricha
10764:Nematomorpha
10739:Chaetognatha
10729:Hemichordate
10656:Pteridophyta
10525:Malawimonada
10399:Korarchaeota
10360:Thermotogota
10345:Synergistota
10320:Nitrospirota
10315:Nitrospinota
10260:Deinococcota
10193:Bacteroidota
10092:Potentially
10087:
10040:
10016:
10010:Gymnolaemata
10005:Stenolaemata
9994:Ectoproctans
9993:
9992:
9963:
9934:
9910:
9904:Pterobranchs
9891:
9867:
9843:
9819:
9795:
9789:within phyla
9787:Major groups
9657:
9656:
9644:Bryozoa s.l.
9643:
9635:Lophophorata
9623:
9599:
9577:
9569:
9532:
9521:Orthonectida
9496:
9443:
9436:
9425:
9344:
9337:
9266:
9224:Scalidophora
9173:
9161:Ambulacraria
9148:
9061:(see below↓)
9041:
9033:
8997:
8948:Opisthokonta
8754:
8730:
8726:
8711:the original
8693:(1): 1–103.
8690:
8686:
8639:
8635:
8617:
8591:
8587:
8575:
8551:
8547:
8521:
8514:Bibliography
8486:
8482:
8475:
8438:
8434:
8424:
8412:. Retrieved
8398:
8386:. Retrieved
8382:the original
8372:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8341:
8329:. Retrieved
8312:(1–4): 1–4.
8309:
8305:
8292:
8280:. Retrieved
8247:
8244:Parasitology
8243:
8218:. Retrieved
8185:
8181:
8171:
8138:
8134:
8128:
8116:. Retrieved
8107:
8103:
8093:
8081:. Retrieved
8069:
8065:
8052:
8040:. Retrieved
8021:
8011:
7970:
7966:
7962:
7956:
7944:. Retrieved
7925:
7915:
7903:. Retrieved
7876:
7872:
7862:
7850:. Retrieved
7831:
7823:Margulis, L.
7802:. Retrieved
7793:
7783:
7771:. Retrieved
7762:
7752:
7740:
7728:. Retrieved
7695:
7691:
7681:
7654:
7642:
7630:
7618:
7607:
7582:
7576:
7570:
7558:. Retrieved
7539:
7510:. Retrieved
7491:
7483:Emiliani, C.
7477:
7442:
7438:
7428:
7403:
7397:
7393:
7370:(1): 83–89.
7367:
7363:
7357:
7330:
7326:
7320:
7312:
7292:
7285:
7266:
7262:
7252:
7230:(11): 1306.
7227:
7223:
7213:
7176:
7172:
7162:
7125:
7121:
7111:
7078:
7074:
7068:
7041:
7037:
6981:(1): 51–59.
6978:
6974:
6970:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6920:
6887:
6883:
6877:
6842:
6838:
6813:22 September
6811:. Retrieved
6807:the original
6797:
6785:. Retrieved
6766:
6732:
6728:
6718:
6709:
6705:
6699:
6687:. Retrieved
6675:
6645:. Retrieved
6625:
6618:
6601:
6597:
6591:
6572:
6568:
6558:
6546:. Retrieved
6527:
6483:
6479:
6469:
6460:
6456:
6449:
6440:
6405:. Retrieved
6386:
6340:
6334:
6328:
6305:
6267:
6261:
6228:. Retrieved
6214:
6191:
6181:
6169:. Retrieved
6143:
6136:
6111:
6107:
6101:
6092:
6073:
6061:
6027:
6023:
6022:(Bryozoa)".
6019:
6013:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5962:
5937:
5933:
5927:
5902:
5898:
5892:
5865:
5861:
5828:. Retrieved
5808:
5804:
5757:
5751:
5732:
5726:
5701:
5697:
5663:
5659:
5623:
5619:
5609:
5597:. Retrieved
5593:the original
5559:(1): 76–82.
5556:
5552:
5542:
5530:. Retrieved
5511:
5501:
5468:
5464:
5458:
5439:
5433:
5421:. Retrieved
5407:
5397:
5385:
5373:
5361:
5349:
5337:
5325:
5313:. Retrieved
5294:
5284:
5272:. Retrieved
5253:
5243:
5231:. Retrieved
5212:
5202:
5190:. Retrieved
5181:
5159:12 September
5157:. Retrieved
5127:
5123:
5110:
5098:. Retrieved
5079:
5027:
5001:
4982:
4976:
4957:
4888:. Retrieved
4869:
4859:
4835:
4828:
4805:
4795:
4768:
4764:
4714:
4678:
4653:. Retrieved
4634:
4581:
4543:
4505:
4325:
4321:
4311:
4299:. Retrieved
4285:
4276:
4254:
4248:
4236:. Retrieved
4229:the original
4224:
4220:
4211:
4190:
4171:
4161:
4152:
4142:
4132:
4121:
4086:
4082:
4072:
4037:
4033:
4023:
4009:(1): 67–74.
4006:
4002:
3988:
3961:
3949:
3916:
3912:
3866:
3862:
3856:
3815:
3811:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3745:
3733:. Retrieved
3700:
3696:
3690:
3608:
3602:
3594:
3579:
3565:
3554:
3547:
3526:
3525:
3510:
3504:
3501:hermit crabs
3490:
3489:the species
3480:
3473:
3460:
3458:rock lobster
3451:
3442:
3428:
3423:
3413:
3404:
3389:
3346:
3336:
3329:
3311:
3304:
3300:
3285:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3268:
3262:
3248:
3246:
3241:
3235:
3220:
3206:
3198:
3192:
3181:bivalve-like
3173:
3153:metamorphose
3137:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3103:
3087:
3038:
3003:
2985:. Wave-like
2972:
2916:
2906:
2892:Chaetognatha
2889:
2885:
2815:
2814:
2793:
2792:
2779:
2774:
2745:
2725:
2704:Lophophorata
2676:
2649:
2627:
2606:
2591:
2574:
2551:
2543:Hemichordata
2539:pterobranchs
2535:
2527:Lophophorata
2512:
2500:
2485:
2470:
2438:
2428:
2412:
2396:
2385:
2365:Gymnolaemata
2357:Stenolaemata
2353:Gymnolaemata
2349:Stenolaemata
2341:monophyletic
2337:cell nucleus
2333:mitochondria
2326:
2317:trace fossil
2312:
2287:Stenolaemata
2280:
2267:invertebrate
2259:biochemistry
2256:
2243:monophyletic
2240:
2234:
2230:
2113:
2109:
1967:Stereo image
1956:), northern
1886:Fredericella
1884:
1867:
1845:Mineralized
1768:Plumatellida
1756:Gymnolaemata
1751:Stenolaemata
1724:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1631:Microeciella
1630:
1626:
1623:
1608:
1604:
1560:outside-anus
1548:
1538:
1519:
1499:
1483:
1468:
1454:
1444:
1433:
1416:
1409:
1395:exoskeletons
1388:
1371:
1357:
1342:
1332:hermit crabs
1323:
1321:
1317:
1309:polyembryony
1305:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1278:
1258:
1254:
1252:
1243:Monobryozoon
1242:
1240:
1230:
1217:
1205:
1197:milliseconds
1190:
1186:pterobranchs
1159:
1152:
993:
990:pseudocoelom
974:basal lamina
941:
939:
934:
920:Monobryozoon
918:
912:
889:-like shells
873:exoskeletons
816:Siboglinidae
799:Position of
606:
593:exoskeletons
542:
520:Lophophorata
500:monophyletic
487:
480:
468:kelp forests
461:
427:
388:
375:is the most
362:
354:
349:Monobryozoon
347:
343:
339:
336:Aethozooides
335:
277:invertebrate
266:moss animals
265:
261:
257:
253:
252:
245:
228:
209:
200:Lophophorata
193:
121:
115:
36:
11040:iNaturalist
10934:Wikispecies
10849:Brachiopoda
10824:Cycliophora
10769:Onychophora
10744:Kinorhyncha
10666:Ginkgophyta
10661:Cycadophyta
10626:Chlorophyta
10616:Glaucophyta
10310:Myxococcota
10228:Chlorobiota
10223:Chlamydiota
10068:Tusk shells
10053:Cephalopods
10024:Polychaetes
9971:Turbellaria
9952:Crustaceans
9928:Secernentea
9918:Chromadorea
9899:Acorn worms
9869:Echinoderms
9861:Vertebrates
9803:Demosponges
9737:is disputed
9199:Protostomia
9087:is disputed
9014:ParaHoxozoa
8733:: 129–132.
7922:"Predators"
7879:: 205–218.
7745:Taylor 2020
7674:Taylor 2020
7659:Taylor 2020
7647:Taylor 2020
7635:Taylor 2020
7623:Taylor 2020
6486:(1): 7–10.
5811:: 229–256.
5390:Taylor 2020
5378:Taylor 2020
5366:Taylor 2020
5354:Taylor 2020
5342:Taylor 2020
5330:Taylor 2020
5178:"funiculus"
3615:GPC Biotech
3605:bryostatins
3377:echinoderms
3365:crustaceans
3361:pycnogonids
3357:sea urchins
3339:coral reefs
3263:Alcyonidium
3250:Cristatella
3189:desiccation
3076:worm tube;
2987:peristaltic
2977:lined with
2959:zooplankton
2955:crustaceans
2927:green algae
2727:Brachiopoda
2629:Cycliophora
2578:enterocoely
2570:echinoderms
2554:protostomes
2523:Brachiopods
2519:cyphonautes
2461:schizocoely
2457:enterocoely
2449:bilaterians
2373:mineralized
2248:protostomes
2235:Corynotrypa
2116:mineralized
1952:oil shale (
1836:Mineralized
1671:O. dilatans
1667:O. lobulata
1659:Oncousoecia
1655:O. lobulata
1651:Eurystrotos
1647:Oncousoecia
1639:Oncousoecia
1635:Eurystrotos
1627:Oncousoecia
1584:inside-anus
1456:2 cm (
1260:avicularium
1257:(plural of
1212:mesothelium
1182:brachiopods
982:mesothelium
946:exoskeleton
894:cephalopods
870:Mineralized
824:-like organ
731:Schizocoely
726:Enterocoely
660:Brachiopoda
590:mineralized
586:mesothelium
549:brachiopods
543:Bryozoans,
534:Description
524:protostomes
512:brachiopods
442:crustaceans
438:pycnogonids
434:sea urchins
423:statoblasts
413:have large
391:exoskeleton
384:mineralized
344:Franzenella
272:of simple,
11160:Categories
10882:Parakaryon
10844:Entoprocta
10779:Arthropoda
10774:Tardigrada
10754:Priapulida
10749:Loricifera
10734:Echinoderm
10704:Ctenophora
10676:Gnetophyta
10631:Charophyta
10621:Rhodophyta
10593:Ascomycota
10588:Zygomycota
10530:Metamonada
10505:Euglenozoa
10490:Ciliophora
10198:Balneolota
10173:Aquificota
10048:Gastropods
10029:Clitellata
9936:Arthropods
9875:Sea lilies
9821:Cnidarians
9739:; see also
9669:Brachiozoa
9432:Syndermata
9391:Gnathifera
9089:; see also
9034:Trichoplax
9032:Placozoa (
9019:Planulozoa
6463:: 169–178.
6020:Plumatella
4802:"Annelida"
4301:8 December
3980:1029265317
3669:References
3600:stations.
3597:biofouling
3567:Fish farms
3487:Mauritania
3435:Zancleidae
3227:cold seeps
3133:blastopore
3070:thecideide
2963:microvilli
2937:bacteria,
2898:Physiology
2817:Ectoprocta
2795:Entoprocta
2714:Brachiozoa
2531:lophophore
2477:filter-fed
2467:Entoprocts
2403:embryology
2399:morphology
2321:brachiopod
2271:entoprocts
2224:Ordovician
2181:Cretaceous
2147:ctenostome
2120:Ordovician
1950:Ordovician
1905:epithelium
1793:Freshwater
1675:Junerossia
1571:Entoprocta
1524:Ordovician
1520:Peronopora
1509:See also:
1479:calcareous
1313:armadillos
1265:appendages
1255:avicularia
1155:lophophore
1085:Funiculus
902:Some taxa
822:lophophore
807:lophophore
781:epithelium
741:Lophophore
698:Three-part
674:Entoprocta
612:lophophore
608:Entoprocts
602:lophophore
556:lophophore
483:Ordovician
472:fish farms
460:of snail.
358:Entoprocta
295:lophophore
262:Ectoprocta
11166:Bryozoans
10799:Dicyemida
10671:Pinophyta
10550:Telonemia
10485:Cryptista
10475:Breviatea
10460:Amoebozoa
10455:Alveolata
10436:Eukaryote
10188:Bacillota
10034:Sipuncula
9981:Monogenea
9976:Trematoda
9947:Myriapods
9912:Nematodes
9856:Tunicates
9851:Lancelets
9845:Chordates
9837:Myxozoans
9744:Nephrozoa
9733:phylogeny
9533:Salinella
9488:Rouphozoa
9329:Tactopoda
9258:Nematoida
9210:Ecdysozoa
9131:Bilateria
9118:Bilateria
9099:Benthozoa
9094:Eumetazoa
9083:phylogeny
9053:Bilateria
8943:Amoebozoa
8921:Alveolata
8909:Cryptista
8884:Eukaryota
8806:Bryozoans
8656:2160/3792
8414:20 August
8388:20 August
8331:18 August
8282:18 August
8220:19 August
8118:18 August
8083:24 August
8042:18 August
7967:Oecologia
7946:18 August
7905:18 August
7852:20 August
7827:"Bryozoa"
7794:Earthlife
7730:28 August
7560:11 August
7512:11 August
7333:(2): 19.
7179:(1): 29.
7128:(1): 54.
6975:Oecologia
6787:14 August
6689:24 August
6647:11 August
6548:13 August
6302:"Bryozoa"
6270:: 93–99.
6230:12 August
6069:"Bryozoa"
5830:26 August
5642:128939236
5573:0006-3185
5130:: 33–51.
4368:240073948
4238:18 August
3891:129637643
3848:257425218
3790:130040324
3725:129113026
3582:North Sea
3575:myxozoans
3485:offshore
3439:parasitic
3420:herbivore
3385:arthropod
3353:sea slugs
3328:Lacelike
3273:species,
3271:Antarctic
3157:epidermis
3029:defecates
3010:excretory
3006:nephridia
2995:intestine
2979:chitinous
2951:nematodes
2921:feeds on
2747:Phoronida
2582:coelomate
2562:chordates
2515:phoronids
2441:epidermis
2433:Wisconsin
2381:skeletons
2303:Phoronida
2222:An Upper
2186:Paleozoic
2149:order of
2124:Arenigian
1954:kukersite
1892:Circular
1487:turf wars
1328:symbiotic
1178:phoronids
954:epidermis
832:Colonial
779:cells in
655:Phoronida
545:phoronids
516:phoronids
430:sea slugs
393:, and a "
369:excretion
340:Aethozoon
215:Ehrenberg
183:Kingdom:
177:Eukaryota
10919:Wikidata
10859:Annelida
10854:Mollusca
10834:Phoronid
10829:Nemertea
10804:Rotifera
10784:Flatworm
10759:Nematoda
10724:Chordate
10714:Cnidaria
10709:Placozoa
10540:Rhizaria
10515:Haptista
10495:Cercozoa
10155:Bacteria
10058:Bivalves
10042:Molluscs
10018:Annelids
9377:Spiralia
8984:Animalia
8938:Amorphea
8916:Rhizaria
8904:Hacrobia
8894:Excavata
8879:Bacteria
8668:Archived
8664:17653353
8610:21714171
8568:11897358
8503:12431074
8467:28482641
8408:Archived
8322:Archived
8318:19227737
8276:Archived
8264:10633916
8214:Archived
8210:15841444
8163:84531235
8112:Archived
8074:Archived
8036:Archived
8003:19976956
7995:28310012
7940:Archived
7899:Archived
7798:Archived
7767:Archived
7763:BBC News
7724:Archived
7720:83529565
7554:Archived
7485:(1992).
7469:41016220
7323:sp. nov"
7205:23098166
7154:33845757
7060:21669834
7011:19925846
7003:28547286
6951:22503287
6912:11453241
6904:20730922
6869:18495619
6781:Archived
6680:Archived
6641:Archived
6542:Archived
6407:9 August
6401:Archived
6284:13057599
6224:Archived
6171:7 August
6162:Archived
6128:84315311
6052:10790488
6005:18374604
5884:17921486
5821:Archived
5599:5 August
5589:16946244
5532:5 August
5526:Archived
5485:18811433
5423:2 August
5315:1 August
5309:Archived
5274:2 August
5268:Archived
5233:2 August
5227:Archived
5192:2 August
5186:Archived
5150:Archived
5094:Archived
4884:Archived
4787:21708765
4655:7 August
4360:34707285
4295:Archived
4064:32032476
3941:19475710
3840:36890226
3735:20 April
3729:Archived
3691:Pywackia
3647:See also
3541:invasion
3521:salmonid
3407:Thailand
3381:molluscs
3373:starfish
3296:icebergs
3223:trenches
3141:plankton
3121:cleavage
3078:Jurassic
3074:sabellid
3049:anascans
3021:polypide
3017:diffuses
2949:, small
2947:protozoa
2943:rotifers
2678:Mollusca
2651:Annelida
2598:molluscs
2594:annelids
2453:endoderm
2445:mesoderm
2335:and the
2197:Mesozoic
2172:, about
2170:Jurassic
2130:, about
1543:Missouri
1505:Taxonomy
1450:chimneys
1397:made of
1220:ganglion
1107: =
1094: =
1073:Stomach
1052:Ganglion
994:polypide
950:secreted
683:Cnidaria
669:Mollusca
665:Annelida
574:bivalves
496:dasyclad
454:Thailand
450:starfish
395:polypide
281:colonies
268:) are a
239:Synonyms
230:See text
223:Classes
206:Phylum:
187:Animalia
173:Domain:
117:Pywackia
18:Bryozoan
10967:Bryozoa
10954:Bryozoa
10940:Bryozoa
10925:Q148134
10910:Bryozoa
10839:Bryozoa
10535:Provora
10510:Jakobea
10500:Discoba
10446:Protist
10383:Archaea
10136:Extant
10063:Chitons
9986:Cestoda
9923:Enoplea
9797:Sponges
9570:Symbion
9513:Mesozoa
8953:Animals
8874:Archaea
8850:Extant
8808:in the
8735:Bibcode
8695:Bibcode
8458:5438479
8272:2851575
8190:Bibcode
8143:Bibcode
7975:Bibcode
7881:Bibcode
7773:16 June
7700:Bibcode
7587:Bibcode
7497:488–490
7447:Bibcode
7420:1525771
7335:Bibcode
7232:Bibcode
7196:3489856
7145:8042935
7103:4207120
7083:Bibcode
6983:Bibcode
6860:2593926
6712:: 192p.
6488:Bibcode
6480:Geology
6365:3515408
6345:Bibcode
6336:PALAIOS
6310:418–419
6032:Bibcode
5985:Bibcode
5954:2412681
5919:2412617
5718:2412368
5680:2412472
5581:4134580
5493:5535013
5291:"kenos"
5132:Bibcode
5100:29 July
4841:284–291
4810:414–420
4683:808–812
4640:142–152
4586:821–829
4548:817–821
4510:829–845
4351:8580826
4330:Bibcode
4091:Bibcode
4055:7317743
4003:Zootaxa
3921:Bibcode
3871:Bibcode
3820:Bibcode
3768:Bibcode
3705:Bibcode
3638:⁄
3558:ships.
3539:. This
3513:myxozoa
3481:In the
3433:family
3431:hydroid
3400:mussels
3396:sponges
3343:biomass
3238:sessile
3212:Ecology
3165:budding
3094:ovaries
3014:ammonia
2983:diatoms
2975:gizzard
2923:diatoms
2775:Bryozoa
2496:embryos
2473:sessile
2392:embryos
2388:anatomy
2345:classes
2295:classes
1958:Estonia
1928:Stolons
1858:Eleidae
1595:classes
1578:
1554:
1528:Indiana
1491:sponges
1474:budding
1471:asexual
1461:⁄
1384:secrete
1377:⁄
1018:Pharynx
966:protein
952:by the
928:⁄
887:Bivalve
842:Sessile
580:have a
567:⁄
377:diverse
325:. 5,869
301:. Most
288:⁄
274:aquatic
258:Polyzoa
254:Bryozoa
210:Bryozoa
154:, 1904
42:Bryozoa
11143:146142
11130:230484
11127:uBio:
11107:442934
11091:NZOR:
11071:155469
10993:1BRYOP
10699:Sponge
10691:Animal
10088:bolded
8931:Plants
8868:Domain
8852:animal
8662:
8608:
8566:
8528:
8501:
8465:
8455:
8316:
8270:
8262:
8208:
8161:
8028:
8001:
7993:
7932:
7843:
7804:19 May
7718:
7546:
7503:
7467:
7418:
7300:
7203:
7193:
7152:
7142:
7101:
7075:Nature
7058:
7009:
7001:
6949:
6910:
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