Buddhism and science

2891:...there is found a third level of religious experience, even if it is seldom found in a pure form. I will call it the cosmic religious sense. This is hard to make clear to those who do not experience it, since it does not involve an anthropomorphic idea of God; the individual feels the vanity of human desires and aims, and the nobility and marvelous order which are revealed in nature and in the world of thought. He feels the individual destiny as an imprisonment and seeks to experience the totality of existence as a unity full of significance. Indications of this cosmic religious sense can be found even on earlier levels of development—for example, in the Psalms of David and in the Prophets. The cosmic element is much stronger in Buddhism, as, in particular, Schopenhauer's magnificent essays have shown us. The religious geniuses of all times have been distinguished by this cosmic religious sense, which recognizes neither dogmas nor God made in man's image. Consequently there cannot be a church whose chief doctrines are based on the cosmic religious experience. It comes about, therefore, that we find precisely among the heretics of all ages men who were inspired by this highest religious experience; often they appeared to their contemporaries as atheists, but sometimes also as saints. 1496:(1890–1947) held that while scientific study might help prove Buddhist doctrines, "it cannot ascertain the realities" of Buddhism and therefore it "does not go far enough into the mysteries of nature, and that if she went further the Buddhist doctrine would be even more evident." Thus, while for Taixu, "the Buddhist scholar is aided in his research" by the use of scientific methods, they must ultimately go beyond such methods to understand the true nature of reality. Taixu wrote that "the reality of the Buddhist doctrine is only to be grasped by those who are in the sphere of supreme and universal perception, in which they can behold the true nature of the Universe, but for this they must have attained the wisdom of Buddha himself, and it is not by the use of science or logic that we can expect to acquire such wisdom. Science therefore is only a stepping stone in such matters" 2767:(dependent origination). But this twofold analogy does not show that there is a single essence of reality which can be disclosed by our reason irrespective of whether we rely on an experimental approach or a contemplative approach. The analogy rather shows that, at a sufficiently accurate level of analysis and careful attention, the negative conclusions of experimental physicists and contemplative Buddhists are bound to be similar: both realize the approximative status of the reified entities of everyday life, and both must cope with the high amount of instability and lack of self-sufficient existence (Śūnyatā) of phenomena. Then, if thoroughly applied, the critical concept of Śūnyatā can be seen to underpin the anti-metaphysical stances of both Buddhism and certain trends in the contemporary philosophy of science. 1705:, the traditional Buddhist worldview understands the Buddha's ancient understanding of reality as complete, and thus "nothing beyond that reality has been discovered since." Lopez argues that attempts to make Buddhism compatible with science severely restrict Buddhism, "eliminating much of what has been deemed essential, whatever that might be, to the exalted monks and ordinary lay-people who have gone for refuge to the Buddha over the course of more than two thousand years." Lopez argues that in traditional Buddhism, the truth is something that the Buddha has already discovered, making Buddhism a deeply conservative tradition which is wary of innovation and deviation. This is different from the scientific worldview, in which the complete truth of the universe has not been fully discovered yet. 2563:

Because of this, while Buddhists like the Dalai Lama embrace the findings and methods of neuroscience, they do not accept the assumptions of some neuroscientists that consciousness can be fully explained as a function of the brain (which is a metaphysical assumption). He further argues that "there is as yet no scientific basis for such a categorical claim," since neuroscience mainly studies correlations between brain states and first person pare "grounded in the phenomenology of experience" and "include the contemplative techniques of meditation" could assist in the development of a more holistic cognitive science that makes use of introspection. The Dalai Lama sees these methods as first person empirical processes.

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to karma, since many things merely arise due to the works of natural laws. As such, the Dalai Lama argues that "the entire process of the unfolding of a universe system is a matter of the natural law of causality" but that karma also influences its very beginning and that when a universe is able to support life "its fate becomes entangled with the karma of the beings who will inhabit it." Because Buddhist thought sees consciousness as being interconnected with the physical world, Buddhists like the Dalai Lama hold that "even the laws of physics are entangled with the karma of the sentient beings that will arise in that universe."

2724:"suggests that mind and matter, thought and thing, are mutually implicit, as are all other phenomena, such that there is a wholeness to the universe in which all distinctions ultimately dissolve." Since, for Bohm, "there is no definable divide between mind and matter," there is a kind of wholeness to the universe which cannot be understood conceptually or discursively, but "can only be ultimately realized in the present moment, inseparable from the subject." According to Unno, the same is true for the Buddhist view of emptiness. This is not surprising, since according to Unno, Bohm was "influenced by Indian philosopher 1810: 1656:

dialogue, since both traditions discuss numerous elements that are of interest to the other (for example, Buddhism often discusses physical events and science has much to say about the mind). As such, the "segregationist metaphors" which are often used in the complementarity discourse are ultimately artificial "because scientific claims impinge, and sometimes impinge negatively, upon Buddhist ones, and vice versa." Because of this, Cabezón argues that Buddhism and science are "complete systems that resist dichotomizing: systems that can both support and challenge each other at a variety of different levels."

1410:) as an example. He also argues that the Buddhist idea that humans and nature are constantly changing according to causal laws is easily compatible with biological evolution and therefore, modern findings do not threaten the Buddhist worldview. Furthermore, Jayatilleke points out that Buddhism holds that the law of cause and effect applies even when it comes to moral and religious phenomena. Because of this, Jayatilleke writes that "Buddhism is not likely to be at variance with science so long as scientists confine themselves to their methodology and their respective fields without making a dogma of 1337:

there is a "similarity in method, and difference in the object of study". This sees Buddhism as mainly a science of the subjective world, while science is mainly concerned with the external and material world. In this view, both disciplines can learn from each other regarding these fields. Another view "stresses difference in method and similarity in content." This view sees Buddhism as using "nonconceptual modes of intuitive understanding that emerge as the result of the practice of meditation" which is different from the objective and conceptual scientific method and leads to self transformation.

1223:). Carus and other Buddhist modernists saw Buddhism as having certain advantages over Christianity. They held that Buddhism accepted the scientific ideal of a universe ordered by natural laws and did not require belief in a God or any being that could alter natural laws. For many Asian Buddhists, the narrative of Buddhism as rational and scientific was a useful strategy used to counter Christian and colonial attacks on Buddhism as backward. Others like Shaku Sōen, sought to create a more rational westernized Buddhism, or as he put it, to "wed the Great Vehicle to Western thought." 1791:(such as greed and desire) and the actions fueled by these afflictions. As such, Buddhism sees our physical existence as being caused by past actions (done in our previous lives). Waldron thinks that this view is roughly compatible (but clearly not the same as) the theory of evolution, which holds that our current physical form is based on the past actions of our ancestors. According to Waldron, "the Buddhists and biologists thus largely concur that the very forms and structures of human life result from the accumulative actions of innumerable beings over countless generations." 2554:"). These ways of being are altered, secularized, modernized and abstracted out when Buddhist meditation is studied in a clinical setting and viewed in terms of an individual's internal states that are caused by the meditation technique. According to McMahan, the general assumption of those who study meditation is that meditation techniques can be studied in isolation, but this is likely to be mistaken since "meditation "works" as a systemic part of the ecology of a sociocultural system." A similar contextual critique has been put forth by Robert H. Sharf. 1272: 2144:(1715–1746) began to question this classical Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha from Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the heart of Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend the traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued that it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of Indian mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further and argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original Buddhism. 3031:'These central teachings aren't empirical; they're normative and soteriological. They're based on value judgments that aren't subject to independent empirical test, and they evaluate the world according to the desired goal of liberation. Although it's unquestionably true that Buddhism possesses a vast and sophisticate philosophical and contemplative literature on the mind. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam also possess sophisticated philosophical and contemplative writings about the mind.' 951: 2992:

of India 25 centuries ago a scientific religion containing the highest individualistic altruistic ethics, a philosophy of life built on psychological mysticism and a cosmogony which is in harmony with geology, astronomy, radioactivity and relativity. No creator god can create an ever-changing, ever-existing cosmos. Countless billions of aeons ago the earth was existing but under-going change, and there are billions of solar systems that had existed and exist and shall exist."

1777:(1996) is one publication which discusses Buddhism and the field of biology. Cooper argues that Buddhism is compatible with evolutionary thought, but he also argues that the Buddhist view also sees a role for the mind in the evolution of living beings. Cooper writes that mind-led adaptations also play a role in evolution, along with random genetic mutation. He attempts to harmonize biological theories of evolution with Buddhist views of the transformation of the mind. 42: 2713:'s participatory anthropic principle (which sees scientific concepts like matter, mass and so on as "creations of the human mind, not discovered in the pre-existing, objective world of nature") to the Madhyamaka view which sees a deep interdependence between subjects and objects. Wallace thinks that "such parallels suggest that meaningful theoretical collaboration could take place between physicists and Buddhist philosophers and contemplatives." 671:. Historically, Buddhism encompasses many types of beliefs, traditions and practices, so it is difficult to assert any single "Buddhism" in relation to science. Similarly, the issue of what "science" refers to remains a subject of debate, and there is no single view on this issue. Those who compare science with Buddhism may use "science" to refer to "a method of sober and rational investigation" or may refer to specific scientific 1801:, which according to him, "complement each other like a pair of powerful searchlights illuminating the same thing from different angles". Barash argues that modern biology is commensurate with the Buddhist view of impermanence and not-self, since both see sentient beings (individuals or groups) as a product of constantly changing and interrelated processes, and thus sees them as being without a fixed and separate identity. 1406:, "emphasizes the importance of the scientific outlook in dealing with the problems of morality and religion. Its specific 'dogmas' are said to be capable of verification. And its general account of the nature of man and the universe is one that accords with the findings of science rather than being at variance with them." Jayatilleke points to the early Buddhist idea that there are many worlds, suns and "world systems" ( 2302: 1094: 1572:", and as such, it focuses on the subjective and on qualitative states of consciousness (unlike science, which focuses on the quantifiable and the objective), discussing issues such as mental training and ethics. Wallace also argues that Buddhist insights are roughly empirical, since they are based on direct experiences (of a subjective, first-person character) which are also replicable. 1677:- a classical notion of physical world characterised by axiomatic equations and general laws of motion, reflects our desire and assertiveness not only to discover physical facts about the world by scientific induction, but also to make use of our discoveries in a constructive way. There are many ways to further clarify this example, and here is one such way. As a founding figure of 1857:). He also points out that this difference might be due to the different methods and goals of Buddhism and science. Therefore, while the Dalai Lama thinks that evolution "gives us a fairly coherent account of the evolution of human life on earth," he also holds that karma and consciousness have central roles in nature and therefore biology cannot explain all aspects of life (such as 1634:

intellectual practices. The historical question regarding contemporary Buddhism, then, is not "Is Buddhism scientific?" but "How is Buddhism transforming itself through its engagement with science?" Rather than telling us "what Buddhism is," this discourse is itself constitutive of novel forms of Buddhism with shifting epistemic structures and criteria for authority and legitimacy.

1881:, Buddhist thought asks some of the same questions that physicists ask about reality, time, matter and space, and uses rational analysis and thought experiments (which are also used by physicists). However, unlike physics which focuses on measuring the physical world to better understand it, the Buddhist tradition focuses on inner contemplation and its goal is mainly therapeutic. 2427:. The number of studies on Buddhist and Buddhist-derived meditation techniques skyrocketed in the 21st century (in 2015, there were 674 such studies) and their results were widely reported in the popular press. This also led to a cottage industry of popular books on Buddhist and mindfulness meditation and the adoption of secularized meditation in major corporations. 1693:'', which implicitly sanctions not only the manipulation, but also potentially the exploitation, of the natural world. This shows the potential that conventional modern science can be overpowering and lack balance; meanwhile, the practice of Buddhism can act as a counter-balance to science: ''Science without Dharma is blind and Dharma without Science is lame. '' 2251:, which helps explain how natural selection hardwired humans with powerful but distorted cognitions and emotions which are effective at getting us to survive and pass on our genes in a pre-historic environment. These cognitive modules do not depict reality as it is, and do not often lead to well being. Wright also thinks that the Buddhist view of not-self ( 1625:) as a higher source of knowledge than scripture (which is secondary). However, Dunne also notes that Buddhist theories do not undergo constant revision throughout the centuries (as a result of new observations) as they have done in science, though he notes that more recently the 14th Dalai Lama has been interested in learning from science in this regard. 2148:

Dalai Lama writes that "my own view is that Buddhism must abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees the falsehood of this traditional cosmology as not affecting the core of Buddhism (the teaching of the four noble truths and liberation) since it is "secondary to the account of the nature and origins of sentient beings".

705:. Nevertheless, since the 19th century, numerous modern figures have argued that Buddhism is rational and uniquely compatible with science. Some have even argued that Buddhism is "scientific" (a kind of "science of the mind" or an "inner science"). Those who argue that Buddhism is aligned with science point out certain commonalities between the 1539:, though it can also disprove certain Buddhist views, such as the insentience of plants (and therefore, Buddhists should not stubbornly cling to their doctrine). Chopel argued that Buddhism can only survive as an ally of science and prayed that science and the teachings of the Buddha "may abide together for tens of thousands of years." 942:

held that one should not rely on scripture to decide issues that can be discovered through rational means and that one could reject unreasonable parts of scripture. However, he did argue that when it came to "radically inaccessible things" (such as karma), one could turn to scripture (which was an uncertain and fallible source).

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century have been extensions of relativity at one level or another, and I think a further extension is due." Finkelstein's theory is based on the view that all laws of nature are ultimately relative and non-absolute. In this theory, doing (change) and knowing (attempting to fix a process in place) are relative elements.

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other words, the enhancement of fundamental human values is indispensable to our basic quest for happiness. Therefore, from the perspective of human well-being, science and spirituality are not unrelated. We need both, since the alleviation of suffering must take place at both the physical and psychological levels.

1561:(2005), where he discusses various topics, including physics and evolution. The Dalai Lama argues that science and Buddhism share the same commitment "to keep searching for reality by empirical means and to be willing to discard accepted or long-held positions if our search finds that the truth is different." 1015:. Ancient Buddhist philosophy explored key questions about the natural world such as the nature of space and time, the nature and existence of atoms (and their indivisibility), the origin of the world and the relationship between mind and matter. It explored these questions though philosophical analysis and 1729:

seeking to transcend all biological life, to go totally beyond the world and thus as being at odds with the world and with science. However, Lopez also notes that disputes between Buddhists and scientists over the bare facts of science "have occurred only rarely in the history of Buddhism and science."

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Russell states that "Buddhism is a combination of both speculative and scientific philosophy. It advocates the scientific method and pursues that to a finality that may be called Rationalistic. In it are to be found answers to such questions of interest as: 'What is mind and matter? Of them, which is

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My confidence in venturing into science lies in my basic belief that as in science so in Buddhism, understanding the nature of reality is pursued by means of critical investigation: if scientific analysis were conclusively to demonstrate certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then we must accept the

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If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether the electron's position changes with time, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether it is in motion, we must say 'no.' The Buddha

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developed a theory of "universal relativity," influenced by Madhyamaka philosophy and his discussions at the Mind and Life dialogues. Finkelstein believes that "a philosophical argument for a universal relativity could be a useful guide for future physics," since "the major changes in physics in this

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and Madhyamaka thought. According to Mansfield, an appreciation of how these two traditions understand time as a relative phenomenon can aid a deeper understanding of both and that "a nontrivial synergy between these two very different disciplines is possible." Mansfield also argues that this kind of

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are the reflection in physical reality...of a larger non-physical dynamic at work in non-physical domains. When Science and its discoveries are understood with the higher order of logic and understanding of the multisensory human, they reveal the same richness that Life itself displays everywhere and

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as well as due to the "increased accessibility of information about these two traditions." Regarding the discourse on complementarity, Cabezón thinks that it may be useful if understood "as a fluid metaphor". However, if understood as a literal and strict binary opposition, it could lead to a stunted

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must be tempered by the insights and discoveries of science. If as spiritual practitioners we ignore the discoveries of science, our practice is also impoverished, as this mind-set can lead to fundamentalism." For the 14th Dalai Lama, science is concerned with conventional truth and understanding the

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crisis of faith and the emergence of the immense symbolic capital of scientific discourse." José Ignacio Cabezón notes that there were different opinions among American Buddhist modernists during the late 19th century. Some were happy to note the similarities between science and Buddhism and believed

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Anagarika Dharmapala said in a lecture delivered at the Town Hall in New York in 1925: "The Message of the Buddha that I have to bring to you is free from theol-ogy, priestcraft, rituals, ceremonies, dogmas, heavens, hells and other the-ological shibboleths. The Buddha taught to the civilized Aryans

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The great benefit of science is that it can contribute tremendously to the alleviation of suffering at the physical level, but it is only through the cultivation of the qualities of the human heart and the transformation of our attitudes that we can begin to address and overcome mental suffering. In

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as a more fruitful ground for the dialogue between Buddhism and science, since these theories "see cognition, and consciousness in general, as part of an ongoing process in which both 'world' and 'mind' are constituted through mutual interaction". According to Samuel, Varela "argued that the upwards

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Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are also incompatible with modern science, and have been abandoned by numerous modern Buddhists. Perhaps one of the most well known of these ideas is the view of the world found in various classic Buddhist texts which holds there is a giant mountain

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argues that the Buddhist idea of "subtle impermanence", which refers to the idea that everything is constantly changing extremely rapidly is consistent with "our modern scientific conception of the universe" which holds that everything is in constant motion. He also compares the Buddhist doctrine of

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central focus of Buddhism is on one's conscious experience and its conditioned nature. This includes the external world, which seems separate, but is actually "inescapably conditioned by and of a piece with oneself" and "depends on our position, our interpretations, our intentions, and our desires."

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thinks that "we might better advance the discussion not by highlighting where Buddhism and science see eye-to-eye, but precisely where they do not, perhaps forcing each to confront its own contradictions and shortcomings." Verhoeven argues that Buddhism and science see reality in different ways. The

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The discourse of complementarity often seeks to unify these different disciplines, which focus on different aspects (the exterior and interior worlds, the quantitative and the qualitative, reason and intuition, etc.). This discourse generally argues that there should be a balance and harmony between

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The Dalai Lama also notes that in Buddhist cosmology, there is a role for consciousness and karma, since Buddhist systems hold that the nature of a world system is connected with the karmic propensities of sentient beings. However, the Dalai Lama points out that this does not mean everything is due

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Professor P. L. Dhar claims that the practice of Buddhism, Dharma, is compatible with the practice of scientific discoveries, as both reflects human tendency to inquire into things. On one hand, in scientific practices we ask questions about the external physical world, and gain knowledge about the

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interpretation of neuroscience and sees Buddhist meditation as a kind of "inner science" with "a vast array of mental technologies". Thurman also thinks that the materialist worldview has led to an imbalance in the world where "our powers to effect the outer reality have outstripped our powers over

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B. Alan Wallace (who has studied physics and Buddhism formally in Western institutions) sees Buddhism as an "organized, systematic enterprise aimed at understanding reality, and it presents a wide range of testable laws and principles," as well as a "time-tested discipline of rational and empirical

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have also argued for the compatibility of Buddhism and science. According to Lopez, "the Fourteenth Dalai Lama of Tibet has been the most visible and influential Buddhist teacher to embrace the discourse of Buddhism and Science." The Dalai Lama is known for his interest in science and has written a

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Not all Buddhist modernists thought that Buddhism could stand on a rationalist scientific framework alone. D.T. Suzuki initially accepted the idea that Buddhism could be founded on scientific principles, writing that karma "may be regarded as an application in our ethical realm of the theory of the

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According to Cristian Coseru, Dignāga's theory of knowledge is strongly grounded on perception. Furthermore, unlike other Indian theories of knowledge, Indian Buddhist philosophers like Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th century) generally rejected scripture as a major epistemic instrument. Dharmakīrti

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This idea is also supported by B. Alan Wallace, who argues that modern cognitive science is held back by materialist assumptions and its desire to study consciousness (which is subjective and qualitative) through quantitative measuring of its physical correlates. However, since Wallace argues that

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and widely promoted as a counter to missionary Christianity. Lopez thinks that the "scientific" Buddhism discourse is outdated, especially since the colonial and missionary threats to Buddhism in Asia have subsided. Lopez argues it is best to see Buddhism as radically incompatible with science, as

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José Ignacio Cabezón argues that modern Buddhists have at times discussed the relationship between Buddhism and science in three main ways: conflict/ambivalence, identity/similarity, and complementarity. Cabezón outlines various kinds of views regarding complementarity. One of these ideas is that

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is not just a western orientalist representation of the eastern Other, nor is it just a native strategy of legitimation for Asian Buddhists, though it does involve both. It is rather a part of the ongoing hybridization of certain forms of Buddhism with distinctively modern cultural formations and

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Come, Kālāmas, do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching, by hearsay, by a collection of scriptures, by logical reasoning, by inferential reasoning, by reasoned cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by the seeming competence of a speaker, or because you think: 'The

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Buddhism rejects all materialistic theories which attempt to reduce consciousness to the functions of physical properties. The 14th Dalai Lama states that "from the Buddhist perspective, the mental realm cannot be reduced to the world of matter, though it may depend upon that world to function."

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The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist intellectuals like Gendun Chopel and the 14th Dalai Lama. According to Choepel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching taught in accord with the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for the modern era. Similarly, the 14th

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However, McMahan also thinks that there is also the danger of Buddhism losing "a great deal of its diversity" if the adaptation process is taken too far and that "too much adaptation and accommodation may in fact blur the distinctions between the epistemic claims of Buddhism and those of current

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is at the forefront of such studies. The Institute hosts conferences on Buddhism and science and sponsors research on Buddhist meditation. McMahan also argues that "perhaps no major tradition has attempted to adopt scientific discourse more vigorously than Buddhism." Geoffrey Samuel remarks that

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to explain his approach to these questions, his teaching is focused on how to remove the arrow of suffering, not on the particular details about the arrow and who shot the arrow (and so forth). As Paul David Numrich writes, there are thus certain questions about the world that the Buddha sees as

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who said that "it is better not to view a particle as a permanent entity, but rather as an instantaneous event. Sometimes these events link together to create the illusion of permanent entities." Thuận sees this understanding of sub-atomic particles as similar to the understanding of reality in

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According to Geoffrey Samuel, while the dialogue between Buddhism and science has generally focused on ways in which Buddhism can adapt to science or how science can study the efficacy of Buddhist practices, "the more significant developments are arguably elsewhere, in the potential of Buddhist

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As noted by David McMahan, the modernist idea of Buddhism as being compatible with science continued into the 20th century and remains strong today, having become "not only more voluminous but far more sophisticated throughout the late twentieth century and is now at its productive and creative

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As far as Buddhism is concerned, the idea that there is some principle of organization that is supposed to have tuned the universe perfectly so that the conscious mind could evolve is fundamentally misguided. The apparently amazing fine-tuning is explained simply by the fact that the physical

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Geoffrey Samuel notes how the Buddhist point of view has often clashed with the reductionist and materialistic assumptions of many modern neuroscientists. He suggests that the question of personal identity and the self "might provide an important starting point" for a critical revision of the

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According to one scholar of Buddhism, John Dunne, "Buddhism endorses the notion that if we want to prove something, we need to use empirical evidence." Dunne argues that this principle trumps what the Buddhist scriptures say, since the Buddhist tradition considers direct experience (Sanskrit:

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David McMahan has written about the modernist scientific Buddhism discourse. According to McMahan, this discourse should not be dismissed entirely, since modern Buddhist traditions have gone through "a concrete and highly significant transformation", which includes adapting to the scientific

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Buddhism was more compatible with science than Christianity (which was more likely to die out due to scientific findings). Other Buddhist modernists like Carus saw Buddhism as the "Religion of Science," which would make scientific truth "the last guide of a religious conception of mankind."

2505:). Furthermore, the Buddhist epistemic focus on an empirical understanding of causal processes "commits Buddhists theorists of mind to attend to contemporary scientific results concerning the mind." Garfield thinks that the greatest contribution that Buddhism can make lies in the field of 2592:

causation of conventional neuroscience, in which consciousness is seen as derivative of the body, needs to be complemented by a downwards causation from the emergent structures of the self, which develop within the neural system as part of the process of maturation of each human being".

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system popular in Tibetan Buddhism holds that the material world arises out of the supportive element of space, which is made up of "space particles", the other four elements arise from this medium. The Dalai Lama believes this is compatible with the idea that the universe arose from a

2137:). According to Lopez, "the human realm that Buddhist texts describe is a flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters contained by a ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central mountain, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents." 1530:

was the first Tibetan Buddhist to write about science and he urged his countrymen to accept the methods of science, which were based on empirical observation and was therefore seen by him as compatible with the epistemic methods of Buddhism (i.e. the pramana of direct perception or

2535:, such as the "enactive approach to cognition", can help Buddhist scholars understand better how mindfulness functions as an aspect of the entire embodied person and how it relates to the study of mediation, which would more effectively be done through the perspective of 1355:

said that he was in "complete agreement" with the main idea of the book, mainly that the "two basic themes" found in modern physics ("the fundamental interrelatedness and interdependence of all phenomena and the intrinsically dynamic nature of reality") are also found in

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notes, this should not be surprising (to scientists or to Buddhists), since meditation is one kind of cognitive expertise and it is therefore normal that it should have neural correlates. Similarly, for Buddhists, the interdependence of mind and body is an ancient view.

2531:, and slower baseline respiration rate) for mindfulness itself, which is actually "a host of cognitive, affective, and bodily skills" which are situated in an ethical way of life and in a particular socio-cultural setting. Thompson thinks that applying insights from 841:

ascetic is our guru.' But when, Kālāmas, you know for yourselves: 'These things are unwholesome; these things are blameworthy; these things are censured by the wise; these things, if accepted and undertaken, lead to harm and suffering,' then you should abandon them.

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A commonly held modern view is that Buddhism is exceptionally compatible with science and reason, or even that it is a kind of science (perhaps a "science of the mind" or a "scientific religion"). This view arose in the modern era, as part of what has been called

1031:. According to Pierce Salguero "Buddhist texts mentioning various aspects of medicine proliferated across the Buddhist world throughout the first millenium." Because of this, Buddhism was "one of the most important vehicles for the cross-cultural diffusion of 1974:

seem to support the Buddhist view that physical particles do not exist as independent phenomena, but can only be said to exist in dependence on our conceptual designations and the process of observation. This view of the quantum world is sometimes called the

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have been compared to the scientific understanding of the natural world. However, some scholars have criticized the idea that Buddhism is uniquely rational and science friendly, seeing these ideas as a minor element of traditional Buddhism. Scholars like

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which are physical phenomena. According to Lopez, the main reason these views are at odds is that Buddhism reserves a central place for consciousness and volition in the production of all sentient life, while this is not the case with modern biology.

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of greater importance? Is the universe moving towards a goal? What is man's position? Is there living that is noble?' It takes up where science cannot lead because of the limitations of the latter's instruments. Its conquests are those of the mind."

1324:). Furthermore, according to McMahan "the compatibility of Buddhism and modern science has not only become a staple of popular Buddhist literature, it has also become a hypothesis in a large number of quite sophisticated experimental studies." The 1184:, some of these modernists even "suggested that Buddhism was barely a religion at all in the Western sense, but a scientifically-based philosophy in its own right." Some of these figures also dismissed the "irrational" elements of Buddhism as folk 1066:

elements). Traditional Buddhist cosmology taught that there were multiple world systems and that the universe goes through cycles of formation, endurance and destruction. It also holds that the universe has no absolute beginning (and thus rejects

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as a text which affirms that sentient beings, including humans, change over time. However this discourse describes a process in which heavenly beings (devas) devolve into a lower form of life on earth as a result of mental afflictions or

1421:, argues that Buddhism and science are compatible because Buddhism is based on a similar method of empirical inquiry, observation and careful analysis which is "in conformity with and in the spirit of science." Bhikkhu Ñanajivako, citing 1457:, Wang Hui and Wang Xiaoxu (an electrical engineer and lay Buddhist) were some of the leading figures in this discourse. According to Hammerstrom, 20th century Chinese Buddhists championed the scientific method and its findings such as 3315:

Even if there is a minority movement that fits the bill of naturalized Buddhism in the sense that it dissociates itself from beliefs in supernatural and nonphysical phenomena, it does not follow that it really deserves to call itself

2638:"acted as deterrents to the acceptance of science in these various cultures since its movement east, something that would be expected were Jaki's thesis true." On the contrary, these religious cultures embraced science rapidly. 2450:) as ways to develop wisdom and transform oneself in a radical, highly ethical fashion by letting go of all attachments. The Buddhist perspective also rejects sensual pleasures as worthless and is opposed to the maximization of 1022:

Medicine was a particularly important concern for ancient Buddhists, and references to it can be in all historical layers of Buddhist literature. Nālandā University was also said to have been the site of the composition of the

1612:

nature of the mundane world, while Buddhism offers "a real under-standing of the true nature of the mind," and the ultimate truth of liberation. Lopez compares this view with the view of Gould's "non-overlapping magisteria."

2805:

so that consciousness can exist. The universe and consciousness have always coexisted and so cannot exclude each other. To coexist, phenomena must be mutually suitable. The problem with the anthropic principle, or any other

2041:

dialogue is important for Buddhism because "if Buddhism is to come to the West, in the best and fullest sense of the term, then interaction with science is both inevitable and necessary for a real transplant to take place."

2263:) to back up the idea that there is no "CEO" in control of the mind. Wright argues that Buddhist mindfulness meditation can provide a way to gain personal insights into these delusions and may help weaken their hold on us. 2029:." Vedral, who argues for an interpretation of quantum physics based on information theory, states that "Quantum physics is indeed very much in agreement with Buddhistic emptiness." He states that "we will never arrive at ' 1825:. This is because the basic Buddhist understanding of how sentient beings undergo change is based on the rebirth of their consciousness, which could be into any form of existence (animal, human, god realms etc.), while the 3427:

ch. 13 in Wise Teacher, Wise Student: Tibetan Approaches to a Healthy Relationship (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2010). Originally published in Relating to a Spiritual Teacher: Building a Healthy Relationship (Ithaca, Snow Lion,

2666:

philosophy. Wallace also argues that Buddhism can complement science by providing a spirit of responsibility and service for others, a spirit that has been lost as science became separated from religion and philosophy.

1708:

Lopez has also described the historical development which led to the idea that Buddhism was compatible with science, which began in the Victorian era, with the European study of Buddhist literature in Indian languages

3117:

Two of the most common Western conceptions of Buddhism – that it's atheistic and that it revolves around meditation—are wrong; most Asian Buddhists do believe in gods, though not an omnipotent creator God, and don't

1672:

According to Zukav, the significance of science lies in its reflection of the relationship between our own being and the external world. This point can be illustrated with specific branches of science. For example,

1449:. According to Hammerstrom, during the 1920s and 30s, "dozens of articles and monographs devoted to the topic of science and Buddhism appeared in the rapidly growing Buddhist press of China." Chinese Buddhists like 1329:

these dialogues point to the fact that westerners (including scientists) have come to take Buddhist ideas much more seriously as a valuable system of knowledge. The Mind and Life Institute has also influenced how

2270:

has also been influenced by Buddhist ideas and various figures in this field see Buddhism and western psychology as complementary, since each provides a structure of human development that is not found in other

962:

contain various ideas about the nature of the world and the universe. However, they also warn against certain speculative questions regarding about the universe. In various early discourses, the Buddha rejects

2012:. Rovelli writes that "Nāgārjuna has given us a formidable conceptual tool for thinking about the relationality of quanta: we can think of interdependence without autonomous essence entering the equation." 3424: 2067:

theory (since ancient Buddhist views about the cosmos accept that there are periods of expansion). However, Trịnh Xuân Thuận and the Dalai Lama both argue that from the Buddhist point of view, there is no

1234:. This book contained a chapter on Buddhism and science that rejected miracles as an explanation for the Buddha's supposedly supernatural feats and instead offered natural explanations for them (such as 845:

The exact meaning of this passage has been widely debated and interpreted. Buddhist modernists consider this passage to show that the Buddha promoted a skeptical empirical investigation which rejected

2287:. However, Cabezón is unconvinced by the attempts of these figures to present a single and unified structure of meditative development (which they source from various traditions, including Buddhism). 1853:. As such, the Dalai Lama finds theories which focus only on physical causes "deeply unsatisfying", since it seems difficult to explain how conscious beings can arise from an unconscious basis (i.e. 1371:

that "when you put the two psychologies together, you get a more complete spectrum of human development." Another publication which argues for the complementarity of science and Buddhist thought is

2489:

Garfield also argues that cognitive science might have much to contribute to the development of Buddhist philosophy, since ancient Buddhist thinkers do not discuss important issues related to

2867:

has given such answers when interrogated as to the conditions of man's self after his death; but they are not familiar answers for the tradition of seventeenth and eighteenth-century science.

1591:

which goes beyond the domain of empirical science and "presents formidable obstacles to any meaningful collaboration between Buddhism and science." Similarly, Robert Thurman criticizes the

2235:

has argued that the Buddhist view of the emptiness of the self "may turn out to fit the data far better than the notions that have dominated Psychological thinking for the last century."

2617:

view of nature) that it gave rise to modern science, while this could not have happened in Buddhist Asia (which generally held a cyclic view of time and accepted polytheism/animism).

5333: 2850:

problems with which already thinkers like the Buddha and Lao Tzu have been confronted, when trying to harmonize our position as spectators and actors in the great drama of existence.

1942:, which understands that sub-atomic particles cannot be understood as being real solid entities with fixed properties such as momentum and position (this is one understanding of the 2620:

However, Cabezón notes that India and China "did give rise to forms of empirically derived sciences that can be recognized as such even in Western terms." He points to the work of

1845:(2005), the 14th Dalai Lama similarly points outs that while biological theories generally attempts to explain things solely from the perspective of physical causes (and are often 1651:

José Ignacio Cabezón writes that there has been an increasing sophistication in the dialogue between science and Buddhism, which he sees as due to the advances in both science and

5020:

Among his students was the American doctor Jon Kabat-Zinn, founder of the Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction course that is now offered at hospitals and medical centers worldwide.

2523:) which is then conceptualized as neural networks that are studied in brain imaging tools. Thompson thinks this confuses the biological markers for mindfulness (such as decreased 1242:

occult science). This modernist view was also promoted by early Buddhist societies in the West, such as Karl Seidenstücker and George Grimm's Society for the Buddhist Mission in

740:

that promote rational and empirical investigation and invite people to put the teachings of the Buddha to the test before accepting them. Furthermore, Buddhist doctrines such as

1770:, eighty one percent of Buddhists accept the theory of evolution as the "best explanation for the origins of human life on earth" (the highest among all religions surveyed). 1639:

Western traditions." This could lead to the loss of Buddhist distinctiveness and to the making of Buddhism into an impotent tradition that has nothing to offer to modernity.

3332: 1514:." Instead, Thuận thinks they do overlap (since Buddhism is a kind of contemplative science) and as such, there can be "a fruitful and illuminating dialogue" between them. 1461:

and evolution and generally did not question the findings of science. However, Chinese Buddhists also rejected certain ideas associated with science at the time, such as

1911:, both physicists who supported the idea that the Buddhist view of emptiness (the lack of any independent and fixed essence) was consistent with the insights of modern 869:

promotes an "honest, impartial search for truth" as well as "critical investigation and personal verification" which is compatible with a scientific outlook. However,

2583:

assumptions of modern science which focuses on the study of individual brains. He points to the 'enactive' and 'ecological' approach to consciousness by figures like

826:

have been seen as indicating the importance of free thinking and empirical inquiry to Buddhism. Perhaps the most popular Buddhist discourse used in this way is the

5701:

Dalai Lama joining discussions on "Robotics, Telepresence and Artificial Intelligence" and "Sickness, Aging and Health" at De Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, Netherlands

4184:"Book reviews : P.L. Dhar and R.R. Gaur, Science & Humanism: Towards a Unified World View. New Delhi: Commonwealth Pub lishers, 1992, xii + 139 pp, Rs 70" 1896:

level, matter is revealed as less solid and definable than it appears, then it seems to me that science is coming closer to the Buddhist contemplative insights of

836:

3.65). In this discourse, the Buddha is speaking to a number of villagers that are unsure of which ideas to believe. The key passage which is widely quoted states:

2542:

Similarly, David McMahan thinks that Buddhist meditation practices are situated in specific religious, conceptual and socio-cultural contexts, that is, ways of

1333:

is presented to western audiences, and it is also closely connected to the 14th Dalai Lama's promotion of scientific education among Tibetan Buddhist monks.

809:

contain ideas which share commonalities with modern scientific methods, such as encouraging an impartial investigation of nature (an activity referred to as

2430:

William Edelglass has argued that the modern study of meditation and happiness is implicitly founded on a Western notion of happiness as positive affect or

913:"O monks, like gold that is heated, cut, and rubbed, my words should be analyzed by the wise and then accepted; they should not do so out of reverence." – 2698:' fourfold model of reality (matter and forces, consciousness, physical and biological possibilities, and mathematical reality) as well as the views of 1919:(who was also president of the Mind and Life Institute) and Anton Zeilinger. Some of these discussions on the nature of physics have been published. 2185:

often drew on Buddhist ideas (which he saw as the psychology of the future). Influenced by Buddhism, James promoted meditation and coined the term "

4306: 1583:) interpretation of science which sees consciousness as something that arises from physical causes alone. For Wallace, scientific materialism is a 5550:

McMahan, David, "Modernity and the Discourse of Scientific Buddhism." Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 72, No. 4 (2004), 897–933.

5453: 1660:

facts of the world. On the other hand, in practicing Dharma we inquire about the essence of our own beings, and gain wisdom about our existence.

3396: 2481:

have shown that Buddhist and mindfulness meditators experience long term transformations in cognitive function and neural activity. However, as

1473:(and they participated in public debates about such ideas). They also sought to carve out a space for Buddhism as a "philosophy of life" (人生觀, 104: 2662:. Wallace thinks these two theories fail to provide a proper philosophical foundation for science and instead argues in favor of the Buddhism 2255:) is compatible with modern psychological understandings of the mind. He cites various modern studies and psychological theories (such as the 1391:

Buddhist intellectuals (such as Anagarika Dharmapala) have generally embraced science and have seen Buddhism as compatible with its findings.

1299:

zenith." The Buddhist modernist view has also been expounded by a variety of western intellectuals, including Nobel Prize–winning philosopher

1258:) is an important exposition of this rationalistic Buddhism. According to McMahan, western commentators on this topic were responding to "the 2801:

constants and consciousness have always coexisted in a universe that has no beginning and no end.... The universe has not been adjusted by a

2654:. Wallace argues that science is not metaphysically neutral, and that the two main metaphysical views in the philosophy of science have been 3869: 2810:, is that it puts the constants before consciousness and thus claims that the constants exist only so that they can create consciousness. 2961: 1489:, 1907). However, Suzuki later changed his mind about this, writing in 1959 that "a religion based solely on science is not enough." 1351:

as one of the most influential examples of the discourse of complementarity. According to Capra, none other than the great physicist

2575:). Wallace argues that the contemplative skills found in traditions like Buddhism can aid in the development of a rigorous form of 1207:," while D.T. Suzuki held that the Buddhist view of karma can be seen as "an application in our ethical realm of the theory of the 1043:. Practitioners of rasaśāstra experimented with various substances and metals. Rasāyana is also an important part of some of the 1701:

Several contemporary scholars of Buddhism have argued against the idea that Buddhism is a science or "scientific". According to

1306:

In the late 20th century and the early 21st, numerous publications discussing Buddhist ideas and science were released (such as

1212: 1097: 932:, developed complex theories of knowledge which held that there were only two "instruments of knowledge" or "epistemic tools" ( 4877: 4834: 4388: 4341: 4263: 3538: 3517: 3308: 2609:

seek to understand the origins of science and why its rise was much more successful in Europe. Some of these figures such as

2223:) and how it can provide insights to the development of a more dynamic, conditional and constructivist views of personality, 1506:, has also written about Buddhism and science, which he sees as "two complementary modes of knowledge." Thuận disagrees with 2904:

is known for his interest in science and has gone on record to say that Buddhism must conform to proven scientific findings:

2820: 2186: 5335:"Buddhism and Science: Confrontation and Collaboration" Presented at: International Conference on "Buddhism and Science." 4456: 3130: 2356: 3275: 1954:

Thuận and Matthieu Ricard also discuss the similarities between Buddhist views of interdependence and phenomena such as

2944: 2364: 646: 99: 56: 2720:

as being similar to the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy of the twofold truth (of form and emptiness). According to Unno,

5651: 5531: 4869: 3774: 3187: 3167: 2626: 2008:

resonates with the relational view of Quantum Mechanics and provides a conceptual understanding of reality that does

765: 5186:

Jay Garfield, "Ask not what Buddhism can do for cognitive science; ask what cognitive science can do for Buddhism,"

2613:

have argued that it is because Europe was dominated by the Christian worldview (with its linear view of time and de-

2247:) that the Buddhist analysis of human suffering and delusion is fundamentally correct and that this is backed up by 2859: 2335:

techniques. During the late 20th century, numerous studies were conducted on the psychological effects of certain

2279:

respectively). According to José Ignacio Cabezón, this idea "has been put forward most clearly and forcefully" in

2036:

Physics professor Vic Mansfield has also written on the similarities between the modern understanding of time and

1375:(1991, Varela, Thompson & Rosch). This book argues that Buddhism can provide a sophisticated phenomenology of 1050:

The Buddhist tradition of worldly sciences continued to develop in outside of India and today survives as part of

2934: 2793: 2747:

philosophy can help provide a useful philosophical framework for quantum mechanics. According to Bitbol, there is

1607:) and thus that anything which is not proven by science is false or insignificant. However, he also argues that " 4881: 2950: 2519:

writes that the neuroscientific study of mindfulness tends to view mindfulness a private inner observation (or

2189:". Another 20th century defender of Buddhism was Gerald Du Pre, who saw Buddhism as a "scientific psychology". 1892:(2005) that "there is an unmistakable resonance between the notion of emptiness and the new physics. If on the 1821:

Donald Lopez argues that the naturalistic theory of evolution is at odds with the traditional Buddhist view of

5690: 2162: 5715: 2717: 2683: 2572: 2462: 1557: 976: 582: 277: 3670: 1192:, Buddhist modernists downplay mythic and religious elements such as traditional Indic cosmology, belief in 983:

In spite of this warning found in the Buddhist texts, Indian Buddhists developed complex theories about the

4363: 2880: 2876: 2332: 1997: 1884:

Some of the metaphysical doctrines of Buddhism have sometimes been compared favorably with the insights of

1110: 1051: 921: 527: 302: 262: 2215:

Various authors such as William S. Waldron and David Galin have also written about the Buddhist theory of

1603:

which would argue that only science can discover truths about the world (and that those truths ultimately

5448: 2884: 2103: 5443: 5101: 4469: 3244: 3108: 2435: 2238: 2063:

as the origin of all things." Furthermore, Buddhists like the Dalai Lama have no problem accepting the

1511: 789: 4910:

The Puritan Origins of American Sex: Religion, Sexuality, and National Identity in American Literature

2913:

The Dalai Lama argues that science and spirituality are related, though they work on different levels:

883:(MN 47, with a Chinese parallel at MA 186) has been called "a remarkable advocacy of free inquiry" by 5368:

Two aspects of Śūnyatā in quantum physics : relativity of properties and quantum non-separabilit

3809: 3362: 2059:, the 14th Dalai Lama notes that "Buddhism and science share a fundamental reluctance to postulate a 1976: 1813:

The classical Buddhist understanding of life includes karma and rebirth (depicted here in a Tibetan "

1718: 753:

have also argued that this narrative of Buddhism as rationalistic developed recently, as a part of a

402: 1445:

Erik J. Hammerstrom has written a study of the reception of modern science in 19th and 20th century

909:

cites a well known scriptural passage that is also cited by the 14th Dalai Lama and other Buddhists:

212: 5405:

B. Alan Wallace (ed.) Berkeley, CA: University of California Press (2001) 2000.08.16 rev 2003.12.15

2276: 2272: 2267: 1809: 964: 718: 407: 357: 5423:

1958 Niels Bohr, Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, (edited by John Wiley and Sons, 1958) p. 20.

4135: 3866: 2674:(2007), Wallace also cites the ideas of some modern physicists which have argued for alternative 2502: 2424: 2248: 2157: 1663:

Gary Zukav points out a new perspective of understanding the significance of science. He writes:

1565:

inquiry." Wallace argues that Buddhism is a mainly pragmatic enterprise aimed at "the pursuit of

1325: 1291: 683: 567: 5432:

J. R. Oppenheimer, Science and the Common Understanding, (Oxford University Press, 1954) pp 8–9.

4846: 1535:). Chopel writes that science even confirms central Buddhist doctrines such as impermanence and 833: 667:

is a subject of contemporary discussion and debate among Buddhists, scientists, and scholars of

2929: 2764: 2710: 2478: 2471: 2375: 1753: 1536: 1482: 1220: 1208: 866: 639: 382: 367: 347: 272: 267: 182: 89: 4299: 3300: 879: 784:

differences between these traditions. For the Dalai Lama, Buddhism mainly focuses on studying

3449:"Coseru, Christian. Reason and Experience in Buddhist Epistemology in Steven Emmanuel (ed.), 2855: 2807: 2752: 2703: 2651: 2551: 2439: 2296: 1943: 1690: 1604: 1226:

The idea that the Buddhist worldview was rational and scientific is also seen in the popular

900: 722: 587: 577: 532: 3292: 2442:). Edelglass contrasts this notion of happiness with the Buddhist view found in the work of 1643:

thought to provoke genuine rethinking and transformation within science itself." Similarly,

5113: 3810:""Buddhism and Science: Probing the Boundaries of Faith and Reason," Verhoeven, Martin J., 3412:

The Scope of Free Inquiry According to the Vīmaṃsakasutta and its Madhyama- āgama Parallel;

2760: 2528: 2451: 2243: 2093: 2009: 1862: 1686: 1275: 1114: 1035:

in pre-modern Asia." Closely related with this ancient medicine was the practice of Indian

959: 597: 557: 552: 517: 362: 242: 150: 135: 79: 51: 5590:

Exploring the nature and functions of the mind: a Tibetan Buddhist meditative perspective,

5004: 1947: 8: 5571: 5567: 3510:

Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture

2939: 2789: 2785: 2510: 2408:(1998). A more recent overview of related research findings can be found in Davidson and 2371: 2336: 1959: 1955: 1767: 1702: 1674: 1527: 1283: 750: 710: 607: 562: 500: 440: 377: 322: 317: 72: 61: 5117: 4224: 2579:

which could be used in cognitive science to deliver a better understanding of the mind.

2446:

and other ancient Buddhist sources that sees meditation (and other virtues, such as the

2025:, mentions the Buddhist theory of emptiness as an ancient example of the philosophy of " 1717:). Western scholars often saw the historical Buddha as a rational humanist, critical of 1271: 5695: 5684: 5129: 2802: 2725: 2695: 2655: 2606: 2543: 2532: 2256: 2050: 2037: 1788: 1782: 1678: 1376: 1357: 1347: 1231: 1130: 1106: 1044: 1016: 1004: 992: 971:). These include questions about the eternity and the infinity of the universe. In the 754: 592: 572: 512: 507: 395: 297: 290: 217: 207: 114: 5600:

The Quantum and the Lotus: A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism Meet,

5398:

Finkelstein, David Ritz. Emptiness and relativity. Georgia Institute of Technology in

5125: 1522:

Similar views of the complementarity of science and Buddhism remain popular in modern

5647: 5527: 5137: 4873: 4865: 4830: 4827:

The Buddhist unconscious: the ālaya-vijñāna in the context of Indian Buddhist thought

4394: 4384: 4357: 4337: 4287: 4269: 4259: 4203: 3770: 3671:

Science through Buddhist Eyes, On the imperfect harmonizing of Buddhism with science.

3534: 3513: 3304: 3293: 3183: 3163: 2956: 2772: 2536: 2404: 2352: 2260: 2224: 2181:

and has often been interpreted as a kind of psychology in its own right. In America,

2141: 1971: 1939: 1912: 1834: 1822: 1507: 1395: 1352: 1312: 1055: 874: 862: 706: 691: 672: 632: 537: 522: 327: 202: 145: 109: 94: 25: 5696:

Buddha on the Brain – Dalai Lama on the Society for Neuroscience's annual conference

5616:' (International Journal of Humanistic Ideology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, vol. 4, 2010) 4010: 3260:"The Neuroscience of Meditation." November 12, 2005, speech given by the Dalai Lama. 1797:(who describes himself as a Buddhist atheist) has written a book about Buddhism and 980:"irrelevant to the ultimate religious goal of liberation from the human condition." 5121: 5071: 4329: 4195: 3737: 3600:

Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400,

3581: 3081: 3072:

McMahan, D. L. (2004). "Modernity and the Early Discourse of Scientific Buddhism".

2971: 2584: 2506: 2383: 2021: 1991: 1930: 1652: 1644: 1523: 1499: 1470: 1446: 1430: 1422: 1399: 1330: 1317: 1300: 1287: 1247: 1189: 1012: 895:

Buddhist texts contain exhortations to examine the teachings of the Buddha through

702: 602: 547: 477: 467: 332: 4848:

Buddhist Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Thinking about 'Thoughts without a Thinker'.

3473: 1735:

has also criticized the narrative of Buddhism as being uniquely scientific in his

995:. Apart from teaching Buddhist philosophy, medieval Buddhist universities such as 5665:

Why Buddhism is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment.

5632: 5628: 5621: 5619:

Sharf, Robert H. "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience."

5595: 5519: 3873: 2966: 2901: 2872: 2847: 2729: 2659: 2588: 2482: 2420: 2399: 2030: 1915:. The Dalai Lama has also been part of various dialogues with physicists such as 1908: 1878: 1794: 1547: 1543: 1307: 1279: 1181: 884: 828: 773: 714: 620: 542: 342: 252: 197: 5035:, University of West Florida, Journal of Consciousness Studies 2007, 14(4), 4–49 4183: 4013:

Interview with Robert A. F. Thurman by Matthew Abrahams. Tricycle, June 21, 2019

3572:

Salguero, C. Pierce (2015). "Toward a Global History of Buddhism and Medicine".

2756: 2571:, this method creates a blind spot in cognitive science (which also ignores the 2192:

Various modern therapists have written on the relationship between Buddhism and

1897: 1433:

in favor of processes or events is commensurate with the Buddhist impermanence (

1211:". Similarly, both Anagarika Dharmapala's and Shaku Sōen's presentations at the 745: 192: 5509: 4955: 4199: 3138: 2687: 2621: 2414: 2409: 2360: 2316: 2305: 2232: 1927: 1885: 1766:, as being compatible with Buddhist thought. According to a 2009 survey by the 1551: 1503: 1418: 1364: 1321: 905: 823: 806: 737: 487: 417: 372: 230: 5700: 4321: 4273: 1575:

However, the Dalai Lama, Thurman and Wallace all note that Buddhism rejects a

865:

argue that this and other passages from the Buddhist scriptures indicate that

5709: 5060:"The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology" 4398: 4333: 4207: 3585: 3288: 3022: 2740: 2699: 2576: 2520: 2516: 2447: 2395: 2193: 2182: 2026: 2016: 1983: 1916: 1858: 1850: 1732: 1682: 1458: 1417:

In a similar fashion, Buddhadasa P. Kirthisinghe, a Theravada Buddhist and a

1368: 1342: 1259: 870: 810: 785: 312: 307: 247: 3376: 3329:

Defining Modern Buddhism: Mr. and Mrs. Rhys Davids and the Pāli Text Society

3085: 2308:, founder of the Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction Clinic and a student of 1403: 1196:

and rituals in favor of the rational and psychological aspects of Buddhism.

1137:. These modernists accepted and promoted modern scientific theories such as 452: 257: 16:

Relation between Buddhism and modern scientific methods and modes of thought

5524:

The Universe in a Single Atom: The Convergence of Science and Spirituality.

5141: 2610: 2467: 2209: 2197: 2077: 1846: 1721: 1608: 1185: 1165: 1134: 1126: 950: 760:

Furthermore, while some have compared Buddhist ideas to modern theories of

741: 695: 352: 237: 155: 41: 4690:

Tibetan Buddhism and Modern Physics: Toward a Union of Love and Knowledge.

4378: 2340: 2177:

In the 20th century, Buddhism has been in close contact with the field of

819:) — the principal object of study being the nature of one's mind or self. 2691: 2635: 2348: 2170: 2166: 1854: 1758:

Modern Buddhists have generally accepted and embraced modern theories of

1592: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1466: 1454: 1411: 1219:(associating scientific ideas of causality with the Buddhist doctrine of 1204: 1153: 1146: 1122: 1068: 1040: 929: 858: 781: 777: 687: 422: 5133: 3861:

Capra, Fritjof (1989). Howling with the Wolves. Werner Heisenberg, from

3133:

A Review of Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka

5005:"The Monk Who Taught the World Mindfulness Awaits the End of This Life" 4908:

Fessenden, Tracy; Radel, Nicholas F.; Zaborowska, Magdalena J. (2014).

3742: 3725: 2839: 2835: 2744: 2721: 2679: 2663: 2498: 2443: 2398:. One of the first westerners to study the neurology of meditation was 2391: 2328: 2178: 2130: 2088: 2081: 2001: 1967: 1904: 1814: 1629:

worldview and creating new forms of Buddhism. McMahan writes that this:

1569: 1566: 1303:, who described Buddhism as "a speculative and scientific philosophy." 1200: 1177: 1161: 1118: 1078: 991:

theories, theories of sense perception, theories of time and space and

854: 816: 730: 427: 187: 84: 5076: 5059: 4518:

Buddhist Biology: Ancient Eastern Wisdom Meets Modern Western Science,

4505:

Buddhist Biology: Ancient Eastern Wisdom Meets Modern Western Science,

4253: 2072:

beginning to the universe. This would be more compatible with certain

1141:

and held that they were consistent with the Buddhist understanding of

925: 5538:

The Science of Chinese Buddhism: Early Twentieth-Century Engagements.

4328:, New York, NY : Routledge, 2019.: Routledge, pp. 277–300, 2547: 2490: 2379: 2320: 2140:

As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars like

2073: 2056: 2005: 1987: 1826: 1763: 1725: 1600: 1462: 1388: 1239: 1216: 1173: 1138: 1063: 1059: 1008: 769: 761: 726: 679: 472: 447: 3512:, pp. 332–333. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd (Reprinted 1988). 2216: 945: 792:

perspective, while science focuses on studying the objective world.

757:

that arose from the encounter between Buddhism and western thought.

5562:

The Boundaries of Knowledge in Buddhism, Christianity, and Science.

2846:

For a parallel to the lesson of atomic theory... to those kinds of

2675: 2524: 2431: 2312: 2064: 1935: 1866: 1830: 1710: 1235: 1032: 1028: 984: 733:

as common philosophical principles shared by Buddhism and science.

668: 482: 462: 457: 337: 33: 3788:

The Doctrine of the Buddha: The Religion of Reason and Meditation.

5658:

Choosing Reality: A Buddhist Perspective of Physics and the Mind,

3363:

Buddhism and Science: Probing the Boundaries of Faith and Reason.

2631: 2614: 2419:

which discusses studies done with the aid of Buddhist monks like

2301: 2116: 2112: 2108: 1893: 1798: 1759: 1243: 1193: 1093: 1036: 996: 988: 934: 162: 4706:

Time and Impermanence in Middle Way Buddhism and Modern Physics.

3375:

Kesamuttisutta AN 3.65 (AN i 188), translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi.

2382:

effects of meditation practices (carried out by figures such as

1696: 1596:

ourselves," and sees Buddhist practice as a corrective to this.

1363:

The discourse of complementary can also be found in the work of

5637:

Hidden Dimensions: The Unification of Physics and Consciousness

5337:

Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi.

5222:"Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience." 2494: 2283:(Wilber, Engler, and Brown 1986), a collection of essays from t 2087:

There are different Buddhist cosmologies. The cosmology of the

1437:) doctrine, which sees the world made up of transient dhammas. 1169: 1142: 1072: 896: 698: 678:

There are many examples throughout Buddhism of beliefs such as

177: 172: 167: 130: 3867:

http://www4.westminster.edu/staff/brennie/wisdoms/uncowisd.htm

3613:

Rasayana Siddhi: Medicine and Alchemy in the Buddhist Tantras.

2650:(1996) is one work which discusses Buddhism in regards to the 2630:) as an example. Furthermore, Cabezón also notes that neither 2454:

for its own sake (indeed, it sees this as counterproductive).

2169:

with the Dalai Lama and others at a Mind and Life dialogue in

1083: 1075:, but also the idea that the universe arose without a cause). 877:

as an important component of the path. Another discourse, the

5672:

The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama.

4862:

Embracing mind: the common ground of science and spirituality

3333:

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

2390:, which have been enthusiastically encouraged by the present 2344: 1588: 1493: 1450: 1157: 1000: 890: 850: 846: 412: 5352:

Buddhism, Christianity, and Physics: An Epistemological Turn

5033:

Buddhism and Western Psychology: Fundamentals of Integration

4829:. Routledge Curzon critical studies in Buddhism. Routledge. 3181:

Popularizing Buddhism: Preaching as Performance in Sri Lanka

2887:, described Buddhism as containing a strong cosmic element: 2387: 2228: 1714: 1510:, who held the view that science and religion examine two " 3212:

Buddhist-Christian Studies – Volume 25, 2005, pp. 176–180.

1742: 1215:

in 1893 presented Buddhism as being founded on the law of

4897:(3rd ed.). Shambhala Publications. pp. 134–135. 2309: 2060: 1199:

Paul Carus for example, wrote that Buddha was "the first

4907: 3863:"Uncommon wisdom: conversations with remarkable people". 2557: 1599:

The 14th Dalai Lama has explicitly rejected any kind of

1387:

Since the Buddhist modernist revival in Southeast Asia,

5607:

The Evolving Mind: Buddhism, Biology and Consciousness,

4956:"Increasing use of Buddhist Practices in Psychotherapy" 4472:

The Evolving Mind: Buddhism, Biology, and Consciousness

1555:

book on the relationship between science and Buddhism,

1542:

More recently, contemporary Tibetan Buddhists like the

5687:

How Buddhism Met Science: A Monastic Scholar’s Journey

4708:

Holos: Forum for a New Worldview. Vol. 6, No. 1 (2010)

4677:

Decoding Reality: The Universe as Quantum Information,

4147: 4145: 3883: 3881: 2567:

the correlates of consciousness are not equivalent to

2290: 861:

metaphysical speculations. Buddhist philosophers like

3726:"Between Buddhism and Science, Between Mind and Body" 3366:

Religion East and West, Issue 1, June 2001, pp. 77–97

2678:

to materialism or physicalism. These figures include

2513:, which is highly sophisticated in Buddhist thought. 2386:) as well as to dialogues on the nature of the human 2351:

practices influenced the development of new forms of

2076:

theories of the universe, such as those that posit a

800: 5685:

https://www.lionsroar.com/monastic-scholars-journey/

2595: 2359:. One of the most influential of these therapies is 1079:

Buddhism as scientific or as compatible with science

4225:"Dharma and Science | Vipassana Research Institute" 4142: 3878: 2784:Matthieu Ricard, commenting on the question of the 2751:a thorough and detailed structural analogy between 2624:(author of the long running series of books called 924:. Buddhist philosophers in this tradition, such as 4457:Religious Differences on the Question of Evolution 3210:Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground (review) 2378:has also led to research on the physiological and 1252:The teaching of the Buddha, the Religion of Reason 915:A Sutra on Pure Realms Spread Out in a Dense Array 736:Buddhists also point to various statements in the 4661:Helgoland: Making Sense of the Quantum Revolution 4648:Helgoland: Making Sense of the Quantum Revolution 1477:) which they saw as a separate field of inquiry. 946:Natural philosophy and proto-scientific practices 5707: 5614:'Distinctiveness of the Unseen Buddhist Identity 5583:The Scientific Buddha: His Short and Happy Life. 5370:y. In : Siddheshwar Rameshwar Bhatt (ed.), 4474:. By Robin Cooper. Birmingham: Windhorse, 1996." 2858:made an analogy to Buddhism when describing the 2830: 2796:whose exact values are improbable), states that: 2792:(which states that life is dependent on certain 1615: 5576:Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed 4933:Freud and the Buddha: The Couch and the Cushion 3276:Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed 3161:The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge 2208:, 2008), Jeffrey B. Rubin, Andrew Olendzki and 1382: 1256:Die Lehre des Buddho, die Religion der Vernunft 1027:, an influential medical work by the physician 2895: 1998:relational interpretation of quantum mechanics 3865:Toronto ; New York : Bantam Books. 3765:Prebish, Charles S.; Baumann, Martin (2002). 3414:Rivista di studi sudasiatici, 4 ∙ 2010, 7–20. 2909:findings of science and abandon those claims. 1697:Criticism of the Buddhist modernist discourse 1517: 640: 5543:Kirthisinghe, Buddhadasa P. (editor) (1993) 5504:The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science. 5048:Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22, 661–678. 4883:, (accessed: Wednesday April 21, 2010) p.186 1922: 1903:The Dalai Lama cites his conversations with 1724:. This idea was then taken up by Asians and 1203:, the first humanitarian, the first radical 5002: 3074:Journal of the American Academy of Religion 2690:'s idea (developed along with Jung) of the 1849:), Buddhist thought focuses on the role of 1084:History of the Buddhist modernist discourse 967:as "unfathomable" or "unexplainable" (Skt. 5612:Sarunya Prasopchingchana & Dana Sugu, 4011:"Buddhism Is What Science Should Be Doing" 3769:, p. 88. University of California Press. 2814: 2123: 2080:of the universe or those that argue for a 1492:Similarly, the Chinese Buddhist modernist 1429:writes that modern science's rejection of 1266: 1003:) were important centers for the study of 891:Reason and logic in Buddhist scholasticism 647: 633: 5644:Buddhism and Science: breaking new ground 5075: 5051: 4305:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4181: 3741: 2962:Relationship between religion and science 2527:reactivity, relative deactivation of the 1088: 5512:(in collaboration with The Dalai Lama), 5441: 5211:McMahan and Braun (2017), pp. 16, 21–46. 5202:McMahan and Braun (2017), pp. 16, 47–61. 5172:McMahan and Braun (2017), pp. 17, 62–83. 4319: 3571: 3531:The Continuum companion to Hindu studies 3335:– Volume 27, Number 1, 2007, pp. 186–202 3287: 3021: 2735: 2641: 2461: 2300: 2161: 2102: 1934:emptiness (the idea that nothing has an 1808: 1270: 1092: 949: 873:notes that this sutra does not rule out 5592:Prog. Brain Res. 2000 vol 122 pp 507–15 5553:McMahan, David L.; Braun, Erik (2017). 5400:Meeting at the Roots: Essays on Tibetan 5394: 5392: 5382: 5380: 5362: 5360: 5346: 5344: 5310: 5308: 5198: 5196: 4700: 4698: 4671: 4669: 4529:Lopez (2012), Section three, pp. 47–80. 4438:Lopez (2012), Section three, pp. 79–80. 4376: 3071: 2605:José Ignacio Cabezón has discussed how 2434:(which are most often measured through 1743:Buddhism and specific scientific fields 1440: 1109:," and was defended by figures such as 5708: 5497:An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology 5182: 5180: 5178: 5003:Fitzpatrick, Liam (January 24, 2019). 4892: 4320:Merchant, Carolyn (November 9, 2018), 4247: 4245: 4219: 4217: 4168: 4166: 4084: 4082: 3979: 3977: 3723: 3567: 3565: 3445: 3443: 3115:. Simon & Schuster. p. 256l. 3107: 2779: 2759:(emptiness of own-being); and between 2285:he Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 1402:Buddhist philosopher, writes that the 795: 5442:Einstein, Albert (November 9, 1930). 4953: 4860:B. Alan Wallace, Brian Hodel (2008). 4851:(accessed: Wednesday April 21, 2010). 4251: 4059: 4057: 4055: 3958: 3956: 3767:Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3486: 3484: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3029:. Yale University Press. p. 36. 2600: 2558:The problem of scientific materialism 2357:mindfulness-based cognitive therapies 1172:but was based on an understanding of 805:Some modern commentators assert that 5389: 5377: 5357: 5341: 5305: 5193: 5099: 5057: 5046:Buddhism and behaviour modification. 4695: 4666: 4136:Is Buddhism Scientific or Religious? 3278:, (University of Chicago Press 2008) 3137:. Buddhistethics.org. Archived from 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3039: 2821:Buddhism and artificial intelligence 2457: 2111:depicting Mount Meru, 19th century, 1689:movement by popularizing the term '' 1367:, who writes regarding Buddhism and 1341:these elements. Cabezon singles out 5456:from the original on August 2, 2022 5372:Quantum Reality and Theory of Śūnya 5175: 4954:Szpir, M. (January–February 2004). 4637:Ricard and Thuan (2009), pp. 81–85. 4628:Ricard and Thuan (2009), pp. 65–70. 4565:Ricard and Thuan (2009), pp. 10–12. 4447:Lopez (2012), Section three, p. 112 4242: 4214: 4163: 4079: 3992:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 114, 119–120. 3974: 3692:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 11–12, 20–21. 3562: 3478:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3440: 2825: 2291:Mindfulness and meditation research 1152:They also held that Buddhism was a 1098:Parliament of the World's Religions 922:tradition of epistemology and logic 13: 5555:Meditation, Buddhism, and Science. 5499:, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan. 5293:Wallace (2003), p. 40, and note 6. 5163:McMahan and Braun (2017), pp. 2–3. 5154:McMahan and Braun (2017), pp. 1–2. 4717:Zajonc (2004), pp. 93–94, 183–184. 4182:Mukherjee, Sanjoy (October 1995). 4052: 3953: 3759: 3704: 3645: 3602:p. 51. University of Hawaii Press. 3481: 3451:A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy 3347: 3263: 3123: 2945:Index of Buddhism-related articles 2728:and Buddhist thinkers such as the 2365:Mindfulness-based stress reduction 2327:Buddhist spiritual practices like 2129:at the center of the world called 2010:not need a metaphysical foundation 1982:The Italian theoretical physicist 1804: 1605:reduce to the physical world alone 801:Rational inquiry in Buddhist texts 717:, for example, in a speech to the 105:Decline in the Indian subcontinent 100:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism 14: 5727: 5678: 5588:Rapgay L, Rinpoche VL, Jessum R, 5502:Clayton, Philip (editor) (2006). 5403:Buddhism and the Natural Sciences 5126:10.1038/scientificamerican0206-23 5100:Reed, Christina (February 2006). 4022:Wallace (2007) and Wallace (2003) 3036: 2627:Science and Civilisation in China 2596:Buddhism and other related fields 1966:According to Thuận, the views of 965:certain questions about the world 5670:Zajonc, Arthur (editor) (2004). 5477: 5468: 5435: 5426: 5417: 5408: 5326: 5317: 5296: 5287: 5278: 5266: 5257: 5248: 5239: 5230: 5214: 5205: 5166: 5157: 5148: 5093: 5084: 5038: 5025: 4996: 4990:Wright (2017), pp. 55, 121–144, 4984: 4975: 4966: 4947: 4938: 4925: 4916: 4901: 4886: 4854: 4839: 4819: 4810: 4801: 4792: 4783: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4747: 4738: 4729: 4720: 4711: 4682: 4653: 4640: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4595: 4586: 4577: 4568: 4559: 4550: 4541: 4532: 4523: 4510: 4252:narrator., Zukav, Gary, author, 3962:Hammerstrom (2015), Introduction 3814:, Issue 1, June 2001, pp. 77–97" 3790:Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1973. 3377:https://suttacentral.net/an3.65/ 3221:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. xi–xii, 5. 2860:Heisenberg uncertainty principle 2281:Transformations of Consciousness 1944:Heisenberg uncertainty principle 1888:. The 14th Dalai Lama writes in 40: 5414:Ricard and Thuan (2009), p. 42. 5354:, in Numrich (2008) pp. 80–104. 5272:Wallace (2007), pp. 41–45, 60, 5064:Japanese Psychological Research 4538:Gyatso (2005), pp. 104–106, 112 4497: 4488: 4479: 4462: 4450: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4414: 4405: 4370: 4313: 4175: 4154: 4127: 4118: 4109: 4100: 4091: 4070: 4067:, in Clayton (2006), pp. 24–40. 4043: 4034: 4025: 4016: 4004: 3995: 3986: 3965: 3944: 3935: 3926: 3917: 3908: 3899: 3890: 3855: 3846: 3837: 3828: 3802: 3793: 3780: 3750: 3695: 3686: 3677: 3636: 3627: 3618: 3605: 3592: 3553: 3544: 3523: 3502: 3493: 3465: 3456: 3431: 3417: 3404: 3390: 3387:Kirthisinghe (1993), pp. 10–11. 3381: 3369: 3338: 3321: 3281: 3254: 3237: 3224: 3215: 2995: 2985: 2935:Buddhism and Western Philosophy 1213:World's Parliament of Religions 1100:, Chicago, United States, 1893. 5642:Wallace, B. Alan (2003) (ed), 5609:Windhorse (Birmingham UK 1996) 5578:. University of Chicago Press. 5522:(The 14th Dalai Lama) (2005). 4972:Wright (2017), pp. 4–8, 40–42. 4895:How the Swans Came to the Lake 4411:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. xii–xiii 4097:Wallace (2003), pp. 10–11, 17. 4001:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 112, 127 3950:Kirthisinghe (1993), pp. 24–26 3932:Kirthisinghe (1993), pp. 15–16 3529:Frazier, Jessica, ed. (2011). 3425:"Overdependence and Rebellion" 3202: 3193: 3173: 3153: 3101: 3092: 3015: 2951:Issues in Science and Religion 2871:Nobel Prize–winning physicist 2794:fundamental physical constants 2206:Psychotherapy Without the Self 1: 5691:The Mind and Life Conferences 5581:Lopez Jr., Donald S. (2012). 5560:Numrich, Paul David. (2008). 5536:Hammerstrom, Erik J. (2015). 5044:de Silva, Padmasiri. (1984). 4420:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 135–137 3914:Kirthisinghe (1993), pp. 9–10 3668:Verhoeven, Martin J. (2013). 3360:Verhoeven, Martin J. (2001). 3009: 2831:Modern scientists on Buddhism 2573:hard problem of consciousness 2151: 1890:The Universe in a Single Atom 1843:The Universe in a Single Atom 1780:William S. Waldron cites the 1616:Views of scholars of Buddhism 1558:The Universe in a Single Atom 1487:Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism 1145:(sometimes interpreted as a " 1007:and applied sciences such as 938:): perception and inference. 5646:(Columbia University Press) 4944:Wallace (2003), pp. 107–195. 4845:Waldron, William S. (2002). 4825:Waldron, William S. (2003). 4485:Wallace (2003), pp. 149–151. 3941:Kirthisinghe (1993), pp. 4–5 3533:, p. 34. London: Continuum. 3234:Yale University Press. p. 1. 3131:"Journal of Buddhist Ethics 2881:special theory of relativity 2877:general theory of relativity 2333:cognitive behavioral therapy 2044: 1383:Views of Theravada Buddhists 1250:. Georg Grimm's (1868–1945) 772:, other figures such as the 303:Buddhist Paths to liberation 7: 5602:Crown Publishers, New York. 5598:; Trinh Xuan Thuan (2009). 5564:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 5516:Bloomsbury (London UK 2003) 5495:De Silva, Padmasiri (2005) 5449:The New York Times Magazine 4798:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 59–61 4692:Templeton Foundation Press. 4556:Gyatso (2005), pp. 111, 114 4476:Buddhist Journal of Ethics. 3971:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 18–19 3683:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 11–20 2922: 2896:Modern Buddhists on science 2331:have also been compared to 977:parable of a poisoned arrow 954:Ruins of Nālandā University 675:, methods or technologies. 10: 5732: 5625:42, no. 3 (1995a): 228–83. 5540:Columbia University Press. 5489: 5323:Wallace (2007), chapter 5. 5263:Wallace (2007), pp. 7, 105 5245:Gyatso (2005), pp. 135–136 5227:42, no. 3 (1995a): 228–83. 5102:"Talking Up Enlightenment" 5058:Kato, Hiroki (June 2016). 4962:– via buddhanet.net. 4864:. Shambhala Publications. 4583:Gyatso (2005), pp. 51, 56. 4459:, Pew Research Center 2009 4429:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 7–11 4380:Dialectic of Enlightenment 4200:10.1177/097168589500100210 4106:Gyatso (2005), pp. 12, 38. 4088:Numrich (2008), pp. 51–52. 3983:Numrich (2008), pp. 22, 31 3923:Kirthisinghe (1993), p. 11 3905:Kirthisinghe (1993), p. 9. 3872:September 9, 2021, at the 3611:Fenner, Edward T. (1984). 3398:A Look at the Kalama Sutta 3327:Snodgrass, Judith. (2007) 2818: 2709:Wallace has also compared 2370:The growing popularity of 2294: 2202:Thoughts Without a Thinker 2155: 2048: 1964:The quantum and the lotus. 1872: 1829:view is strictly based on 1751: 1747: 1518:Views of Tibetan Buddhists 1512:non-overlapping magisteria 822:Several passages from the 776:have also highlighted the 5656:Wallace, B. Alan (1996), 5332:Wallace, B. Alan (2011). 5090:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 207. 4912:. Routledge. p. 209. 4601:Numrich (2008), pp. 35–36 4516:Barash, David P. (2004). 4503:Barash, David P. (2004). 4468:Jones, Charles S. (1996) 4326:After the Death of Nature 4076:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 149. 4049:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 136. 3799:Wallace (2003), pp. 46–47 3724:Samuel, Geoffrey (2014). 3642:Gyatso (2005), pp. 81–82. 3624:Gyatso (2005), pp. 73–74. 3490:Gyatso (2005), pp. 77–79. 3437:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 143. 3179:Deegalle, Mahinda (2006) 3098:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. xii. 2743:has argued that Buddhist 2347:). Furthermore, Buddhist 1977:Copenhagen interpretation 1923:Comparisons by physicists 1427:An Outline of Philosophy, 920:Buddhism also has a long 788:from the first-person or 721:, listed a "suspicion of 659:The relationship between 5557:Oxford University Press. 5506:Oxford University Press. 4981:Wright (2017), pp. 75–90 4744:Gyatso (2005), pp. 90–91 4679:pp. 199–200. OUP Oxford. 4574:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 136 4362:: CS1 maint: location ( 4334:10.4324/9781315099378-18 4040:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 132 3701:Lopez Jr. (2009), pp. 15 3586:10.1558/bsrv.v32i1.26984 3453:. Wiley-Blackwell (2013) 3245:Talking Up Enlightenment 3232:Why I am Not a Buddhist. 2978: 2374:and Buddhist influenced 2277:developmental psychology 2268:Transpersonal psychology 2257:modular view of the mind 2241:has argued (in his 2017 1685:contributed towards the 1502:, a Vietnamese-American 719:Society for Neuroscience 5674:Oxford University Press 5663:Wright, Robert (2017). 5474:Gyatso (2005), pp. 2–3. 5254:Wallace (2007), pp. 4–6 4816:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 70 4807:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 69 4789:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 51 4780:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 50 4771:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 47 4762:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 45 4688:Mansfield, Vic (2008). 4675:Vedral, Vlatko (2010). 4663:, pp. 142–158. Penguin. 4659:Rovelli, Carlo (2021). 4646:Rovelli, Carlo (2021). 4520:pp. 20, 86–88. OUP USA. 4494:Wallace (2003), pp. 152 4188:Journal of Human Values 4124:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 34 4031:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 28 3756:Lopez Jr. (2009), p. 20 3574:Buddhist Studies Review 3295:The Bodhisattva's Brain 3230:Thompson, Evan (2020). 3159:Safire, William (2007) 3027:Why I Am Not a Buddhist 2885:mass–energy equivalence 2854:The American physicist 2815:Artificial intelligence 2771:The American physicist 2503:inattentional blindness 2249:evolutionary psychology 2187:stream of consciousness 2158:Buddhism and psychology 2124:Traditional cosmography 1938:) with the findings of 1900:and interdependence ." 1737:Why I am Not a Buddhist 1326:Mind and Life Institute 1292:Mind and Life Institute 1267:20th and 21st centuries 323:Philosophical reasoning 5585:Yale University Press. 5444:"Religion and Science" 5314:Wallace (2003), p. 55. 5302:Wallace (2003), p. 40. 5284:Wallace (2003), p. 39. 5188:Bulletin of Tibetology 4922:Wallace (2003), p. 48. 4547:Gyatso (2005), pp. 105 4377:Cumming, John (2016). 4151:Numrich (2008), p. 56. 3887:Wallace (2003), p. 53. 3852:Wallace (2003), p. 51. 3843:Wallace (2003), p. 49. 3834:Wallace (2003), p. 41. 3812:Religion East and West 3550:Numrich (2008), p. 33. 3508:Dutt, Sukumar (1962). 3499:Numrich (2008), p. 12. 3471:Tom Tillemans (2011), 3462:Numrich (2008), p. 43. 3401:by Bhikku Bodhi (1988) 3344:Gyatso (2005), p. 165. 3199:Wallace (2003), p. 52. 2930:Buddhism and evolution 2920: 2911: 2893: 2869: 2852: 2812: 2773:David Ritz Finkelstein 2769: 2718:ontology of David Bohm 2716:Mark T. Unno sees the 2711:John Archibald Wheeler 2475: 2376:mindfulness meditation 2324: 2174: 2120: 1951:Buddhist metaphysics. 1818: 1754:Buddhism and evolution 1670: 1636: 1483:conservation of energy 1295: 1209:conservation of energy 1111:Migettuwatte Gunananda 1101: 1089:19th century modernism 955: 918: 843: 90:Pre-sectarian Buddhism 5639:(Columbia Univ Press) 5545:Buddhism and Science. 5514:Destructive Emotions, 5236:Gyatso (2005), p. 126 4893:Fields, Rick (1992). 4735:Gyatso (2005), p. 85. 4726:Numrich (2008), p. 39 4650:, pp. 74–82. Penguin. 4619:Numrich (2008), p. 38 4610:Numrich (2008), p. 37 4172:Wallace (2003), p. 58 4160:Wallace (2003), p. 57 4115:Gyatso (2005), p. 13. 3896:Wallace (2003), p. 54 3674:The New Atlantis, 39. 3633:Gyatso (2005), p. 86. 3559:Numrich (2008), p. 34 3299:. MIT Press. p. 3274:Donald S. Lopez Jr., 3086:10.1093/jaarel/lfh083 2915: 2906: 2889: 2883:, also known for his 2864: 2856:J. Robert Oppenheimer 2844: 2798: 2753:quantum contextuality 2749: 2736:Philosophy of physics 2652:philosophy of science 2642:Philosophy of science 2636:cyclic theory of time 2607:historians of science 2465: 2355:, which are known as 2304: 2297:Effects of meditation 2165: 2106: 2055:In his discussion of 1812: 1665: 1631: 1537:dependent origination 1294:XXVI conference, 2013 1274: 1221:dependent origination 1156:that did not require 1096: 1025:Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya-saṃhitā 953: 911: 838: 358:Aids to Enlightenment 183:Dependent Origination 5716:Buddhism and science 5547:Motilal Banarsidass. 5483:Gyatso (2005), p. 4. 4753:Gyatso (2005), p. 92 4255:The seat of the soul 4133:Dunne, John (2019). 4065:Buddhism and Science 3113:Why Buddhism is True 2875:, who developed the 2838:, who developed the 2761:quantum entanglement 2569:consciousness itself 2529:default-mode network 2244:Why Buddhism Is True 2094:quantum vacuum state 1863:religious experience 1441:Views of East Asians 1276:Rajesh Kasturirangan 1154:rationalist religion 1115:Anagarika Dharmapala 975:the Buddha uses the 960:early Buddhist texts 725:" and a reliance on 328:Devotional practices 151:Noble Eightfold Path 5667:Simon and Schuster. 5526:Morgan Road Books. 5118:2006SciAm.294b..23R 5106:Scientific American 4931:Hoffer (ed.) 2015; 4139:Tricycle Magazine. 3598:Tansen Sen (2003). 3423:Berzin, Alexander. 3249:Scientific American 3208:Yong, Amos. (2005) 2940:Buddhist philosophy 2842:of the atom, said, 2808:teleological theory 2786:anthropic principle 2780:Anthropic principle 2511:positive psychology 2472:meditation research 2436:experience sampling 2372:Buddhist meditation 2353:cognitive therapies 2339:practices (such as 2337:Buddhist meditation 2031:the thing in itself 1996:, a defense of the 1956:quantum nonlocality 1768:Pew Research Center 1703:Donald S. Lopez Jr. 1645:Martin J. Verhoeven 1377:embodied experience 1284:Geshe Thupten Jinpa 1190:Martin J. Verhoeven 1017:Thought experiments 824:Buddhist scriptures 796:Pre-modern Buddhism 738:Buddhist scriptures 501:Buddhism by country 263:Sanskrit literature 5386:Wallace (2003), p. 5031:MIkulas, William. 4960:American Scientist 4592:see: Zajonc (2004) 4298:has generic name ( 4063:Wallace, B. Alan. 3743:10.3390/rel5030560 3615:Trado-Medic Books. 3251:, February 6, 2006 3247:." Christina Reed 2726:Jiddu Krishnamurti 2704:Bernard d'Espagnat 2656:scientific realism 2646:B. Alan Wallace's 2601:History of science 2552:social imaginaries 2544:being-in-the-world 2533:embodied cognition 2476: 2325: 2175: 2121: 2061:transcendent being 2051:Buddhist cosmology 2038:special relativity 1819: 1815:wheel of existence 1691:knowledge is power 1348:The Tao of Physics 1296: 1228:Buddhist Catechism 1107:Buddhist modernism 1102: 1005:natural philosophy 993:Buddhist cosmology 973:Cūḷamālukya Sutta, 956: 755:Buddhist modernism 115:Buddhist modernism 5374:, Springer, 2019. 5220:Sharf, Robert H. 5190:, 47 (2011), p.17 5077:10.1111/jpr.12121 4878:978-1-59030-482-2 4835:978-0-415-29809-4 4390:978-1-78478-680-9 4343:978-1-315-09937-8 4265:978-1-78614-378-5 4229:www.vridhamma.org 3816:. Online.sfsu.edu 3539:978-0-8264-9966-0 3518:978-81-208-0498-2 3310:978-0-262-01604-9 3141:on April 16, 2009 2967:Religious Science 2957:Quantum mysticism 2765:Pratîtyasamutpâda 2672:Hidden Dimensions 2537:cognitive ecology 2470:participating in 2458:Cognitive science 2405:Zen and the Brain 2261:Michael Gazzaniga 2225:personal identity 2142:Tominaga Nakamoto 2015:Oxford physicist 1948:Erwin Schrödinger 1835:natural selection 1775:The Evolving Mind 1675:Newtonian physics 1508:Stephen Jay Gould 1373:The Embodied Mind 1353:Werner Heisenberg 1313:Zen and the Brain 1056:Tibetan astrology 707:scientific method 657: 656: 146:Four Noble Truths 5723: 5660:(Snow Lion 1996) 5596:Ricard, Matthieu 5484: 5481: 5475: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5461: 5446:. Section 5/SM. 5439: 5433: 5430: 5424: 5421: 5415: 5412: 5406: 5396: 5387: 5384: 5375: 5366:Bitbol, Michel. 5364: 5355: 5348: 5339: 5330: 5324: 5321: 5315: 5312: 5303: 5300: 5294: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5261: 5255: 5252: 5246: 5243: 5237: 5234: 5228: 5218: 5212: 5209: 5203: 5200: 5191: 5184: 5173: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5155: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5097: 5091: 5088: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5055: 5049: 5042: 5036: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5015: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4951: 4945: 4942: 4936: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4890: 4884: 4858: 4852: 4843: 4837: 4823: 4817: 4814: 4808: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4790: 4787: 4781: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4763: 4760: 4754: 4751: 4745: 4742: 4736: 4733: 4727: 4724: 4718: 4715: 4709: 4704:Mansfield, Vic. 4702: 4693: 4686: 4680: 4673: 4664: 4657: 4651: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4611: 4608: 4602: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4584: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4548: 4545: 4539: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4521: 4514: 4508: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4477: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4436: 4430: 4427: 4421: 4418: 4412: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4361: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4291: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4249: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4221: 4212: 4211: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4161: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4140: 4131: 4125: 4122: 4116: 4113: 4107: 4104: 4098: 4095: 4089: 4086: 4077: 4074: 4068: 4061: 4050: 4047: 4041: 4038: 4032: 4029: 4023: 4020: 4014: 4008: 4002: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3972: 3969: 3963: 3960: 3951: 3948: 3942: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3924: 3921: 3915: 3912: 3906: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3888: 3885: 3876: 3859: 3853: 3850: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3806: 3800: 3797: 3791: 3784: 3778: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3745: 3721: 3702: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3684: 3681: 3675: 3666: 3643: 3640: 3634: 3631: 3625: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3603: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3569: 3560: 3557: 3551: 3548: 3542: 3527: 3521: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3479: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3421: 3415: 3408: 3402: 3394: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3358: 3345: 3342: 3336: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3298: 3285: 3279: 3272: 3261: 3258: 3252: 3241: 3235: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3213: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3191: 3177: 3171: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3105: 3099: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3069: 3034: 3033: 3025:(January 2020). 3019: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2989: 2972:Secular Buddhism 2826:Modern reception 2803:great watchmaker 2648:Choosing Reality 2585:Francisco Varela 2507:moral psychology 2425:Mingyur Rinpoche 2402:, the author of 2384:Richard Davidson 2275:development and 2196:. These include 2022:Decoding Reality 1960:Mach's principle 1936:intrinsic nature 1931:Trịnh Xuân Thuận 1831:genetic mutation 1653:Buddhist studies 1524:Tibetan Buddhism 1500:Trịnh Xuân Thuận 1471:Social Darwinism 1447:Chinese Buddhism 1431:substance theory 1423:Bertrand Russell 1396:K.N. Jayatilleke 1331:Tibetan Buddhism 1318:Francisco Varela 1301:Bertrand Russell 1288:Richard Davidson 1248:Buddhist Society 1246:and the British 1217:cause and effect 1058:(which includes 1052:Tibetan Medicine 1045:Buddhist tantras 903:'s (725–788 CE) 899:and experience. 863:K.N. Jayatilleke 790:phenomenological 751:Donald Lopez Jr. 711:Buddhist thought 649: 642: 635: 353:Sublime abidings 44: 21: 20: 5731: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5706: 5705: 5681: 5510:Goleman, Daniel 5492: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5469: 5459: 5457: 5440: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5409: 5397: 5390: 5385: 5378: 5365: 5358: 5349: 5342: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5318: 5313: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5240: 5235: 5231: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5194: 5185: 5176: 5171: 5167: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5085: 5056: 5052: 5043: 5039: 5030: 5026: 5013: 5011: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4939: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4917: 4906: 4902: 4891: 4887: 4859: 4855: 4844: 4840: 4824: 4820: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4725: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4703: 4696: 4687: 4683: 4674: 4667: 4658: 4654: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4524: 4515: 4511: 4507:p. 85. OUP USA. 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4480: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4391: 4375: 4371: 4355: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4295: 4294: 4285: 4284: 4278: 4276: 4266: 4250: 4243: 4233: 4231: 4223: 4222: 4215: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4164: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4143: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4087: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4062: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3879: 3874:Wayback Machine 3860: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3798: 3794: 3786:Grimm, George. 3785: 3781: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3722: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3667: 3646: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3610: 3606: 3597: 3593: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3528: 3524: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3482: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3448: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3422: 3418: 3409: 3405: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3359: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3326: 3322: 3311: 3286: 3282: 3273: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3242: 3238: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3178: 3174: 3158: 3154: 3144: 3142: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3070: 3037: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3006: 3000: 2996: 2990: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2925: 2902:14th Dalai Lama 2898: 2873:Albert Einstein 2848:epistemological 2833: 2828: 2823: 2817: 2782: 2738: 2684:implicate order 2660:instrumentalism 2644: 2603: 2598: 2589:Gregory Bateson 2560: 2546:(referring to " 2483:Jay L. Garfield 2479:Various studies 2460: 2452:positive affect 2448:six perfections 2421:Matthieu Ricard 2400:James H. Austin 2321:Thich Nhat Hanh 2299: 2293: 2160: 2154: 2126: 2053: 2047: 1946:). Thuận cites 1940:quantum physics 1925: 1913:quantum physics 1909:Anton Zeilinger 1879:Matthieu Ricard 1875: 1807: 1805:Key differences 1795:David P. Barash 1773:Robin Cooper's 1756: 1750: 1745: 1699: 1618: 1548:B. Alan Wallace 1544:14th Dalai Lama 1520: 1443: 1398:(1920–1970), a 1385: 1358:eastern thought 1308:James H. Austin 1280:14th Dalai Lama 1269: 1188:. According to 1182:Geoffrey Samuel 1180:. According to 1091: 1086: 1081: 1033:Indian Medicine 1011:, medicine and 999:(in modern day 948: 893: 885:Bhikkhu Analayo 880:Vīmaṃsaka Sutta 803: 798: 774:14th Dalai Lama 715:14th Dalai Lama 653: 621:Buddhism Portal 613: 612: 503: 493: 492: 443: 433: 432: 398: 388: 387: 293: 283: 282: 253:Mahayana Sutras 233: 223: 222: 163:Five Aggregates 141: 140: 120: 119: 110:Later Buddhists 75: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5729: 5719: 5718: 5704: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5680: 5679:External links 5677: 5676: 5675: 5668: 5661: 5654: 5640: 5626: 5617: 5610: 5605:Robin Cooper, 5603: 5593: 5586: 5579: 5565: 5558: 5551: 5548: 5541: 5534: 5520:Gyatso, Tenzin 5517: 5507: 5500: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5485: 5476: 5467: 5434: 5425: 5416: 5407: 5388: 5376: 5356: 5350:Unno, Mark T. 5340: 5325: 5316: 5304: 5295: 5286: 5277: 5265: 5256: 5247: 5238: 5229: 5213: 5204: 5192: 5174: 5165: 5156: 5147: 5092: 5083: 5050: 5037: 5024: 4995: 4983: 4974: 4965: 4946: 4937: 4924: 4915: 4900: 4885: 4853: 4838: 4818: 4809: 4800: 4791: 4782: 4773: 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2924: 2921: 2897: 2894: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2816: 2813: 2781: 2778: 2737: 2734: 2688:Wolfgang Pauli 2643: 2640: 2622:Joseph Needham 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2559: 2556: 2521:meta-awareness 2466:Buddhist monk 2459: 2456: 2440:self-reporting 2415:Altered Traits 2361:Jon Kabat-Zinn 2317:Philip Kapleau 2315:teachers like 2306:Jon Kabat-Zinn 2292: 2289: 2233:Daniel Goleman 2156:Main article: 2153: 2150: 2125: 2122: 2046: 2043: 2004:philosophy of 1928:Astrophysicist 1924: 1921: 1886:modern physics 1874: 1871: 1806: 1803: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1698: 1695: 1679:modern science 1617: 1614: 1587:assumption, a 1552:Robert Thurman 1519: 1516: 1504:astrophysicist 1442: 1439: 1419:microbiologist 1384: 1381: 1365:Daniel Goleman 1322:Daniel Goleman 1268: 1265: 1168:and religious 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 985:physical world 947: 944: 906:Tattvasaṃgraha 892: 889: 867:early Buddhism 807:Buddhist texts 802: 799: 797: 794: 778:methodological 766:quantum theory 684:fundamentalism 655: 654: 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2861: 2857: 2851: 2849: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2822: 2811: 2809: 2804: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2777: 2774: 2768: 2766: 2763:and Buddhist 2762: 2758: 2755:and Buddhist 2754: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2741:Michel Bitbol 2733: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2712: 2707: 2705: 2701: 2700:Eugene Wigner 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2668: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2580: 2578: 2577:introspection 2574: 2570: 2564: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2517:Evan Thompson 2514: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2416: 2411: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2396:Tenzin Gyatso 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2273:contemplative 2269: 2266:The field of 2264: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2240: 2239:Robert Wright 2236: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2212:(1927–1997). 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2194:psychotherapy 2190: 2188: 2184: 2183:William James 2180: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2149: 2145: 2143: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2042: 2039: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2027:relationalism 2024: 2023: 2018: 2017:Vlatko Vedral 2013: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1984:Carlo Rovelli 1980: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1929: 1920: 1918: 1917:Arthur Zajonc 1914: 1910: 1906: 1901: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1877:According to 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1859:consciousness 1856: 1852: 1851:consciousness 1848: 1844: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1816: 1811: 1802: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1790: 1785: 1784: 1778: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1733:Evan Thompson 1730: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1704: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1687:enlightenment 1684: 1683:Francis Bacon 1680: 1676: 1669: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1624: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1577:materialistic 1573: 1571: 1568: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1528:Gendun Chopel 1525: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1459:heliocentrism 1456: 1452: 1448: 1438: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1394:For example, 1392: 1390: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1369:psychotherapy 1366: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1343:Fritjof Capra 1338: 1334: 1332: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1316:and works by 1315: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1230:, written by 1229: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 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Retrieved 3139:the original 3132: 3125: 3116: 3112: 3103: 3094: 3077: 3073: 3030: 3026: 3017: 2997: 2987: 2949: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2899: 2890: 2870: 2865: 2853: 2845: 2834: 2799: 2783: 2770: 2750: 2739: 2715: 2708: 2696:George Ellis 2671: 2669: 2647: 2645: 2625: 2619: 2611:Stanley Jaki 2604: 2581: 2568: 2565: 2561: 2541: 2515: 2488: 2477: 2468:Barry Kerzin 2429: 2413: 2403: 2380:neurological 2369: 2326: 2284: 2280: 2265: 2259:defended by 2252: 2242: 2237: 2220: 2214: 2210:Nina Coltart 2205: 2201: 2198:Mark Epstein 2191: 2176: 2146: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2098: 2086: 2078:Cyclic model 2069: 2054: 2035: 2020: 2014: 1992: 1990:in his book 1981: 1963: 1953: 1926: 1902: 1889: 1883: 1876: 1842: 1840: 1820: 1793: 1783:Agañña sutta 1781: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1757: 1736: 1731: 1726:theosophists 1722:superstition 1707: 1700: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1650: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1619: 1609:spirituality 1598: 1585:metaphysical 1574: 1563: 1556: 1541: 1532: 1521: 1498: 1491: 1486: 1479: 1475:renshengguan 1474: 1444: 1434: 1426: 1416: 1407: 1393: 1386: 1372: 1362: 1346: 1339: 1335: 1311: 1305: 1297: 1255: 1251: 1240:theosophical 1232:Henry Olcott 1227: 1225: 1198: 1186:superstition 1166:superstition 1151: 1135:Edwin Arnold 1131:Henry Olcott 1103: 1064:astrological 1060:astronomical 1049: 1024: 1021: 987:, including 982: 972: 968: 957: 940: 933: 919: 914: 912: 904: 901:Śāntarakṣita 894: 878: 844: 839: 829:Kālāma Sutta 827: 821: 811: 804: 782:metaphysical 759: 742:impermanence 735: 696:supernatural 677: 664: 660: 658: 333:Merit making 298:Three Jewels 238:Buddhavacana 168:Impermanence 156:Dharma wheel 18: 4470:Review of " 4322:"Afterword" 3474:Dharmakirti 2790:fine-tuning 2692:unus mundus 2349:mindfulness 2167:Nora Volkow 1855:emergentism 1719:Brahmanical 1593:physicalist 1581:physicalist 1467:materialism 1455:Yang Wenhui 1412:materialism 1205:freethinker 1147:natural law 1127:D.T. Suzuki 1069:creationism 930:Dharmakīrti 855:Revelations 688:clericalism 568:New Zealand 423:Bodhisattva 408:Four Stages 363:Monasticism 343:Mindfulness 313:Perfections 243:Early Texts 5460:August 26, 4880:. Source: 4274:1176361200 3010:References 2840:Bohr Model 2836:Niels Bohr 2819:See also: 2745:Madhyamaka 2730:Dalai Lama 2722:David Bohm 2682:(and his " 2676:ontologies 2664:Madhyamaka 2548:Lifeworlds 2499:perception 2392:Dalai Lama 2329:meditation 2295:See also: 2179:psychology 2171:Dharamsala 2152:Psychology 2131:Mount Meru 2107:Bhutanese 2089:Kalachakra 2082:multiverse 2074:cosmogonic 2049:See also: 2002:Madhyamaka 1972:Heisenberg 1905:David Bohm 1762:, such as 1752:See also: 1668:endlessly. 1570:well-being 1567:eudaimonic 1404:Pali Canon 1201:positivist 1178:empiricism 1162:revelation 1123:Shaku Sōen 1119:Paul Carus 1041:rasaśāstra 817:Pali Canon 731:empiricism 441:Traditions 378:Pilgrimage 318:Meditation 278:Post-canon 258:Pāli Canon 188:Middle Way 85:The Buddha 5572:Donald S. 5568:Lopez Jr. 5070:: 70–84. 4399:957655599 4383:. Verso. 4349:March 18, 4279:March 18, 4234:March 18, 4208:0971-6858 3730:Religions 3580:: 35–61. 3410:Anālayo, 3316:Buddhism. 3118:meditate. 2501:(such as 2491:attention 2444:Śāntideva 2341:vipassana 2119:, Bhutan. 2057:cosmology 2045:Cosmology 2019:, in his 2006:Nāgārjuna 1993:Helgoland 1988:Nagarjuna 1898:emptiness 1847:reductive 1827:Darwinian 1764:evolution 1623:pratyakṣa 1601:scientism 1533:pratyakṣa 1463:scientism 1408:lokadhatu 1400:Sinhalese 1389:Theravada 1278:with the 1260:Victorian 1236:hypnotism 1174:causality 1164:, a God, 1139:evolution 1013:astronomy 1009:cosmology 857:and even 770:cosmology 762:evolution 746:emptiness 727:causality 723:absolutes 680:dogmatism 588:Sri Lanka 578:Singapore 533:Indonesia 473:Vajrayāna 448:Theravāda 403:Awakening 291:Practices 248:Tripiṭaka 218:Cosmology 193:Emptiness 173:Suffering 5710:Category 5635:(2007). 5574:(2009). 5454:Archived 5142:16478020 5134:26061323 5014:June 22, 4358:citation 4288:citation 3870:Archived 3820:March 4, 3291:(2011). 3145:March 4, 3111:(2017). 2923:See also 2879:and the 2615:animized 2525:amygdala 2432:pleasure 2367:(MBSR). 2313:Buddhist 2229:the self 2217:not-self 2070:absolute 2065:Big Bang 1867:morality 1739:(2020). 1711:Sanskrit 1194:Miracles 1029:Vāgbhaṭa 969:avyākṛta 692:devotion 673:theories 669:Buddhism 661:Buddhism 598:Thailand 558:Mongolia 553:Malaysia 518:Cambodia 483:Navayana 463:Hinayana 458:Mahāyāna 368:Lay life 198:Morality 178:Not-self 136:Concepts 95:Councils 80:Timeline 52:Glossary 34:Buddhism 26:a series 24:Part of 5633:B. Alan 5629:Wallace 5490:Sources 5114:Bibcode 2757:Śūnyatā 2632:animism 2550:" and " 2410:Goleman 2221:anatman 2117:Trongsa 2115:Dzong, 2113:Trongsa 2109:thangka 1894:quantum 1873:Physics 1799:biology 1789:kleshas 1760:biology 1748:Biology 1244:Leipzig 1037:alchemy 997:Nālandā 935:pramana 926:Dignāga 815:in the 703:deities 699:spirits 665:science 608:Vietnam 563:Myanmar 478:Tibetan 468:Chinese 396:Nirvāṇa 213:Saṃsāra 208:Rebirth 73:History 62:Outline 5650: 5530: 5274:passim 5140: 5132: 4992:passim 4876: 4868: 4833: 4397: 4387: 4340: 4272: 4262: 4206: 3773: 3537: 3516: 3428:2000). 3307: 3186: 3166: 2634:nor a 2495:memory 2253:anatta 2204:1995, 2173:(2013) 2135:Sumeru 1986:cites 1550:, and 1435:anicca 1170:ritual 1143:Dharma 1133:, and 1073:theism 989:atomic 897:reason 768:, and 713:. The 690:, and 593:Taiwan 573:Russia 513:Brazil 508:Bhutan 428:Buddha 348:Wisdom 131:Dharma 5622:Numen 5225:Numen 5130:JSTOR 3190:p.131 3170:p.718 2979:Notes 2345:zazen 1823:karma 1589:dogma 1494:Taixu 1451:Taixu 1158:faith 1001:Bihar 875:faith 851:dogma 847:faith 603:Tibet 543:Korea 538:Japan 528:India 523:China 488:Newar 413:Arhat 203:Karma 57:Index 5648:ISBN 5528:ISBN 5462:2024 5138:PMID 5016:2020 5009:Time 4874:ISBN 4866:ISBN 4831:ISBN 4395:OCLC 4385:ISBN 4364:link 4351:2023 4338:ISBN 4307:link 4300:help 4281:2023 4270:OCLC 4260:ISBN 4236:2023 4204:ISSN 3822:2013 3771:ISBN 3535:ISBN 3514:ISBN 3305:ISBN 3184:ISBN 3164:ISBN 3147:2013 2900:The 2788:and 2702:and 2686:"), 2680:Bohm 2658:and 2587:and 2509:and 2497:and 2438:and 2423:and 2388:mind 2343:and 2319:and 2227:and 2133:(or 1970:and 1968:Bohr 1958:and 1907:and 1833:and 1715:Pali 1713:and 1579:(or 1469:and 1320:and 1286:and 1238:and 1176:and 1149:"). 1071:and 1062:and 1054:and 958:The 928:and 780:and 744:and 729:and 709:and 701:and 663:and 548:Laos 453:Pāli 5122:doi 5110:294 5072:doi 4330:doi 4196:doi 3738:doi 3582:doi 3082:doi 2732:." 2670:In 2412:'s 2363:'s 2310:Zen 1962:in 1869:). 1865:or 1841:In 1817:"). 1425:'s 1414:." 1345:'s 1310:'s 1290:at 1160:in 1039:or 694:to 5712:: 5631:, 5570:, 5391:^ 5379:^ 5359:^ 5343:^ 5307:^ 5195:^ 5177:^ 5136:. 5128:. 5120:. 5108:. 5104:. 5068:58 5066:. 5062:. 5018:. 5007:. 4958:. 4872:, 4697:^ 4668:^ 4393:. 4360:}} 4356:{{ 4336:, 4324:, 4292:: 4290:}} 4286:{{ 4268:, 4258:, 4244:^ 4227:. 4216:^ 4202:. 4190:. 4186:. 4165:^ 4144:^ 4081:^ 4054:^ 3976:^ 3955:^ 3880:^ 3732:. 3728:. 3706:^ 3647:^ 3578:32 3576:. 3564:^ 3483:^ 3442:^ 3349:^ 3331:, 3313:. 3303:. 3265:^ 3078:72 3076:. 3038:^ 2862:: 2706:. 2694:, 2539:. 2493:, 2394:, 2231:. 2096:. 2084:. 1979:. 1861:, 1681:, 1546:, 1526:. 1465:, 1453:, 1379:. 1360:. 1282:, 1129:, 1125:, 1121:, 1117:, 1113:, 1047:. 1019:. 887:. 849:, 834:AN 764:, 686:, 682:, 583:US 28:on 5464:. 5144:. 5124:: 5116:: 5080:. 5074:: 4935:. 4401:. 4366:) 4332:: 4309:) 4302:) 4238:. 4210:. 4198:: 4192:1 3824:. 3777:. 3746:. 3740:: 3734:5 3588:. 3584:: 3541:. 3520:. 3476:, 3301:4 3243:" 3149:. 3135:" 3088:. 3084:: 2474:. 2417:, 2323:. 2271:( 2219:( 2200:( 1709:( 1485:( 1254:( 1105:" 832:( 648:e 641:t 634:v

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