History of Myanmar

3838: 4010: 1363: 3472:, co-founder of the CPB and former Minister of Defence and deputy prime minister, Bo Yan Naing, and U Thwin, ex-BIA and former Minister of Trade. Another member of the Thirty Comrades, Bohmu Aung, former Minister of Defence, joined later. The fourth, Bo Setkya, who had gone underground after the 1962 coup, died in Bangkok shortly before U Nu arrived. The PDP launched an armed rebellion across the Thai border from 1972 till 1978 when Bo Let Ya was killed in an attack by the Karen National Union (KNU). U Nu, Bohmu Aung and Bo Yan Naing returned to Rangoon after the 1980 amnesty. Ne Win also secretly held peace talks later in 1980 with the KIO and the CPB, again ending in a deadlock as before. 2498: 2913: 2677: 1990: 2027: 2742: 1523: 408: 41: 2333: 1348: 2006: 2628: 1321:. Bronze-decorated coffins and burial sites filled with earthenware remains have been excavated. Archaeological evidence at Samon Valley south of Mandalay suggests rice growing settlements that traded with China between 500 BC and 200 CE. During the Iron Age, archaeological evidence also out of Samon Valley reveal changes in infant burial practices that were greatly influenced by India. These changes include burying infants in jars in which their size depict their family status. 4086: 2192: 3726: 1511: 2039: 7767: 7339: 2314: 2108:(1565–74), and bringing much of western and central mainland Southeast Asia under his rule. Bayinnaung put in place a lasting administrative system that reduced the power of hereditary Shan chiefs, and brought Shan customs in line with low-land norms. But he could not replicate an effective administrative system everywhere in his far flung empire. His empire was a loose collection of former sovereign kingdoms, whose kings were loyal to him as the 7777: 7363: 1151: 344: 1589: 2575: 2555:

Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya's reign, also launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monastic organisation and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to amongst other things Burma's first proper state histories.

1544: 1706:, who had conquered Yunnan, the former homeland of the Bamar, in 1253, began their invasion in 1277 in response to an embassy crisis, and in 1287 sacked Pagan, ending the Pagan Kingdom's 250-year rule of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery when the Pagan king of that time abandoned his palace on the news of the Mongol march. Pagan's rule of central Burma came to an end ten years later in 1297 when it was toppled by the 1928: 1719: 3823:"received reports of malaria outbreaks in the worst-affected area." Yet in the critical days following this disaster, Burma's isolationist regime complicated recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. The government's failure to permit entry for large-scale international relief efforts was described by the United Nations as "unprecedented." 7351: 2144: 3487:

rising debt led to an economic crisis. This led to economic reforms in 1987–1988 that relaxed socialist controls and encouraged foreign investment. This was not enough, however, to stop growing turmoil in the country, compounded by periodic "demonetisation" of certain bank notes in the currency, the last of which was decreed in September 1987, wiping out the savings of the vast majority of people.

1679:, south of Bagan, where the Bamars had built a large number of new weirs and diversionary canals. It also benefited from external trade through its coastal ports. The wealth of the kingdom was devoted to building over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone between 11th and 13th centuries (of which 3000 remain to the present day). The wealthy donated tax-free land to religious authorities. 2673:

be improved through reform. Progressive constitutional reform in the early 1920s led to a legislature with limited powers, a university and more autonomy for Burma within the administration of India. Efforts were also undertaken to increase the representation of Burmese in the civil service. Some people began to feel that the rate of change was not fast enough and the reforms not expansive enough.

2412:(1765–1769). While the Burmese defences held in "the most disastrous frontier war the Qing dynasty had ever waged", the Burmese were preoccupied with another impending invasion by the world's largest empire for years. The Qing kept a heavy military line-up in the border areas for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. 1480:. The earliest external reference to a Mon kingdom in Lower Burma was in 844–848 by Arab geographers. But recent research shows that there is no evidence (archaeological or otherwise) to support colonial period conjectures that a Mon-speaking polity existed in Lower Burma until the late 13th century, and the first recorded claim that the kingdom of Thaton existed came only in 1479. 1313:, Burma's Stone Age, existed at a time thought to parallel the lower and middle Paleolithic in Europe. The Neolithic or New Stone Age, when plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools appeared, is evidenced in Burma by three caves located near Taunggyi at the edge of the Shan plateau that are dated to 10000 to 6000 BC. 1269:(1510–1752) reunified the country, and founded the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a brief period. Later Taungoo kings instituted several key administrative and economic reforms that gave rise to a smaller, more peaceful and prosperous kingdom in the 17th and early 18th centuries. In the second half of the 18th century, the 3363:

were convened between the RC and various armed insurgent groups in 1963, but without any breakthrough, and during the talks as well as in the aftermath of their failure, hundreds were arrested in Rangoon and elsewhere from both the right and the left of the political spectrum. All opposition parties were banned on 28 March 1964. The

2546:(chiefs). Konbaung officials, particularly after 1780, began commercial reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground. In 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the country's first standardised silver coinage. 3426:

who was the greatest Burmese poet and writer and nationalist leader of the 20th century history of Burma. He had inspired a whole generation of Burmese nationalists and writers by his work mainly written in verse, fostering immense pride in their history, language and culture, and urging them to take

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other top leaders in 1947. All these leaders decided to join to form the Union of Burma. Union day celebration is one of the greatest in the history of Burma. The popularity of the AFPFL, now dominated by Aung San and the Socialists, was eventually confirmed when it won an overwhelming victory in the

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The AFPFL opposed the government, leading to political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL between the Communists and Aung San together with the Socialists over strategy, which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and the expulsion of

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Lasting 2 years and costing 13 million pounds, the first Anglo-Burmese War was the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history, but ended in a decisive British victory. Burma ceded all of Bodawpaya's western acquisitions (Arakan, Manipur and Assam) plus Tenasserim. Burma was crushed

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Beginning in the 1480s, Ava faced constant internal rebellions and external attacks from the Shan States, and began to disintegrate. In 1510, Taungoo, located in the remote southeastern corner of the Ava kingdom, also declared independence. When the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava in 1527,

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The kingdom went into decline in the 13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth—by the 1280s, two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivable land had been alienated to the religion—affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in

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Beginning in May 1974, a wave of strikes hit Rangoon and elsewhere in the country against a backdrop of corruption, inflation and food shortages, especially rice. In Rangoon workers were arrested at the Insein railway yard, and troops opened fire on workers at the Thamaing textile mill and Simmalaik

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The situation however became very unstable in parliament, with U Nu surviving a no-confidence vote only with the support of the opposition National United Front (NUF), believed to have 'crypto-communists' amongst them. Army hardliners now saw the 'threat' of the CPB coming to an agreement with U Nu

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Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died. Inter-ethnic tensions were further inflamed during the occupation as many minority ethnic groups such as the Karen and the Kachin remained loyal to the British. This caused further bloodshed as communal violence erupted in several places.

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as the Patriotic Burmese Forces (PBF). At the first meeting, the AFO represented itself to the British as the provisional government of Burma with Thakin Soe as chairman and Aung San as a member of its ruling committee. The Japanese were routed from most of Burma by May 1945. Negotiations then began

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to form a government. During the war in 1942, the BIA had grown in an uncontrolled manner, and in many districts officials and even criminals appointed themselves to the BIA. It was reorganised as the Burma Defence Army (BDA) under the Japanese but still headed by Aung San. While the BIA had been an

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In 1920 the first university students strike in history broke out in protest against the new University Act which the students believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. 'National Schools' sprang up across the country in protest against the colonial education system, and the

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well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. It also reined in the continuous growth of monastic wealth and autonomy, giving a greater tax

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involving insurgent groups representing political and ethnic minority groups and successive central governments. The country was under military rule under various guises from 1962 to 2010 and again from 2021–present, and in the seemingly cyclical process has become one of the least developed nations

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by the military in violent crackdown. These people were residents of Maha Aung Myay Township guarding government shipyard workers involved in the civil disobedience movement from the police who were forcing them back to work. In addition to firing live rounds, the police and military personnel also

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Ne Win retired as president in 1981, but remained in power as Chairman of the BSPP until his sudden unexpected announcement to step down on 23 July 1988. In the 1980s, the economy began to grow as the government relaxed restrictions on foreign aid, but by the late 1980s falling commodity prices and

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A number of protests followed the coup, and initially the military's response was mild. However, on 7 July 1962, a peaceful student protest on Rangoon University campus was suppressed by the military, killing over 100 students. The next day, the army blew up the Students Union building. Peace talks

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leading to the formation of the All Burma Students Union (ABSU). Aung San and Nu subsequently joined the Thakin movement progressing from student to national politics. The British separated Burma from India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, but

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challenged Christianity and British rule on religious grounds. A new generation of Burmese leaders arose in the early 20th century from amongst the educated classes that were permitted to go to London to study law. They came away from this experience with the belief that the Burmese situation could

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After the war, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age whereas its rival Ava gradually went into decline. From the 1420s to the 1530s, Hanthawaddy was the most powerful and prosperous kingdom of all post-Pagan kingdoms. Under a string of especially gifted monarchs, the kingdom enjoyed a long golden age,

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After the fall of Pagan, the Mongols left the searing Irrawaddy valley but the Pagan Kingdom was irreparably broken up into several small kingdoms. By the mid-14th century, the country had become organised along four major power centres: Upper Burma, Lower Burma, Shan States and Arakan. Many of the

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The Burmans who had come down with the early 9th Nanzhao raids of the Pyu states remained in Upper Burma. (Trickles of Burman migrations into the upper Irrawaddy valley might have begun as early as the 7th century.) In the mid-to-late 9th century, Pagan was founded as a fortified settlement along a

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Triggered by brutal police repression of student-led protests causing the death of over a hundred students and civilians in March and June 1988, widespread protests and demonstrations broke out on 8 August throughout the country. The military responded by firing into the crowds, alleging Communist

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In September 1987, Burma's de facto ruler U Ne Win suddenly cancelled certain currency notes, which caused a great down-turn in the economy. The main reason for the cancellation of these notes was superstition on U Ne Win's part, as he considered the number nine his lucky number—he only allowed 45

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on 12 February, celebrated since as 'Union Day'. U Aung Zan Wai, U Pe Khin, Myoma U Than Kywe, Major Aung, Sir Maung Gyi and Dr. Sein Mya Maung. were most important negotiators and leaders of the historical pinlon (panglong) Conference negotiated with Burma national top leader General Aung San and

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The BIA formed a provisional government in some areas of the country in the spring of 1942, but there were differences within the Japanese leadership over the future of Burma. While Colonel Suzuki encouraged the Thirty Comrades to form a provisional government, the Japanese Military leadership had

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In 1535, King Tabinshwehti reunified Burma and founded the second Burmese Empire (Taungû dynasty, 1535–1752). This empire is almost constantly at war with the kingdom of Ayutthaya, in present-day Thailand. Faced with revolts and Portuguese incursions, the Taungû dynasty retreated to central Burma.

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under house arrest again in September 2000 until May 2002, when her travel restrictions outside of Rangoon were also lifted. Reconciliation talks were held with the government, but these came to a stalemate and Suu Kyi was once again taken into custody in May 2003 after an ambush on her motorcade

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During the crackdown, there were rumours of disagreement within the Burmese military, but none were confirmed. At the time, independent sources reported, through pictures and accounts, 30 to 40 monks and 50 to 70 civilians killed as well as 200 beaten. However, other sources reveal more dramatic

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Britain made Burma a province of India in 1886 with the capital at Rangoon. Traditional Burmese society was drastically altered by the demise of the monarchy and the separation of religion and state. Though war officially ended after only a couple of weeks, resistance continued in northern Burma

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Cultural integration continued. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley, with the Mon language and ethnicity completely eclipsed by 1830. The nearer Shan principalities adopted more lowland norms. The evolution and growth of

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in 1429, Arakan was often caught between bigger neighbours, and found itself a battlefield during the Forty Years' War between Ava and Pegu. Mrauk-U went on to be a powerful kingdom in its own right between 15th and 17th centuries, including East Bengal between 1459 and 1666. Arakan was the only

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Coupey, A. S. (2008). Infant and child burials in the Samon valley, Myanmar. In Archaeology in Southeast Asia, from Homo Erectus to the living traditions: choice of papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 25–29 September 2006,

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Rance calmed the situation by meeting with Aung San and convincing him to join the Governor's Executive Council along with other members of the AFPFL. The new executive council, which now had increased credibility in the country, began negotiations for Burmese independence, which were concluded

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were principal powers, came to dominate the landscape, replete with ever-shifting alliances and constant wars. From this time, the history of this region has been characterised by geopolitical struggles between the Bamar ethnic group, and the multitude of smaller ethnic groups surrounding them.

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said that as of early September 2022, 974,000 people had been internally displaced since the coup. In addition, between the February 2021 coup and June 2022 over 40,000 people fled into neighboring countries, including many from communities close to the borders that came under regime attacks.

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to meet in January 1993, but insisted that the assembly preserve a major role for the military in any future government, and suspended the convention from time to time. The NLD, fed up with the interference, walked out in late 1995, and the assembly was finally dismissed in March 1996 without

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Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms first begun in the Restored Taungoo Dynasty period (1599–1752), and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. Konbaung kings tightened control in the low lands and reduced the hereditary privileges of Shan saophas

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The overextended empire unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581. Siam broke away in 1584 and went to war with Burma until 1605. By 1597, the kingdom had lost all its possessions, including Taungoo, the ancestral home of the dynasty. In 1599, the Arakanese forces aided by Portuguese

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Civil war broke out almost immediately following independence, as the Communist Party of Burma withdrew from the government and began its insurrection, while the Karen insurgency began the following year. The first years of Burmese independence were marked by successive insurgencies by the

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through its underground organisation. Although there had inevitably been some underground CPB presence as well as that of ethnic insurgent groups, there was no evidence of their being in charge to any extent. In fact, in March 1989, the CPB leadership was overthrown by a rebellion by the

3323:(the first President of independent Burma 1948–52) and aspiring to a 'loose' federation, was seen as a separatist movement insisting on the government honouring the right to secession in 10 years provided for by the 1947 Constitution. Ne Win had already succeeded in stripping the Shan 1412:

It was a long-lasting civilisation that lasted nearly a millennium to the early 9th century until a new group of "swift horsemen" from the north, the Bamars, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley. In the early 9th century, the Pyu city-states of Upper Burma came under constant attacks by

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Burma accepted foreign assistance in rebuilding the country in these early years, but continued American support for the Chinese Nationalist military presence in Burma finally resulted in the country rejecting most foreign aid, refusing to join the South-East Asia Treaty Organization

1913:, captured Ava itself in 1527. The Confederation defeated its erstwhile ally Prome in 1532, and ruled all of Upper Burma except Taungoo. But the Confederation was marred by internal bickering, and could not stop Taungoo, which conquered Ava in 1555 and all of the Shan States by 1563. 2237:

rebuilt the war-torn country. He ordered the first ever census in Burmese history in 1635, which showed that the kingdom had about two million people. By 1650, the three able kings–Nyaungyan, Anaukpetlun, and Thalun–had successfully rebuilt a smaller but far more manageable kingdom.

3386:(BSPP) in complete control. Commerce and industry were nationalised across the board, but the economy did not grow at first if at all as the government put too much emphasis on industrial development at the expense of agriculture. In April 1972, General Ne Win and the rest of the 1727:

power centres were themselves made up of (often loosely held) minor kingdoms or princely states. This era was marked by a series of wars and switching alliances. Smaller kingdoms played a precarious game of paying allegiance to more powerful states, sometimes simultaneously.

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brought several enduring social, economic, cultural and administrative changes that completely transformed the once-agrarian society. British rule highlighted out-group differences among the country's myriad ethnic groups. Since independence in 1948, the country has been in

4827:. London and New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 49, 91, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58–9, 60, 61, 60, 66, 65, 68, 69, 77, 78, 64, 70, 103, 92, 120, 176, 168–9, 177, 178, 180, 186, 195–7, 193, 202, 204, 199, 200, 270, 269, 275–276, 292–3, 318–320, 25, 24, 1, 4–16, 365, 375–377, 414. 2730:(i.e., the British) – emblazoned on the pennants the rebels carried, required thousands of British troops to suppress along with promises of further political reform. The eventual trial of Saya San, who was executed, allowed several future national leaders, including 3067:

The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma and demands to try Aung San for his involvement in a murder during military operations in 1942. Lord Mountbatten realised that this was an impossibility considering Aung San's popular appeal.

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It may have been designed to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside. Over the next two hundred years, the small principality gradually grew to include its immediate surrounding areas— to about 200 miles north to south and 80 miles from east to west by

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In the middle of the 16th century, King Tabinshwehti, originally from a southern province, and his son succeeded, with the help of the Portuguese, in reunifying the country. From 1599, the Kingdom of Pegu was under the management of the Eastern Portuguese Empire.

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Eighth-century Chinese records identify 18 Pyu states throughout the Irrawaddy valley, and describe the Pyu as a humane and peaceful people to whom war was virtually unknown and who wore silk cotton instead of actually silk so that they would not have to kill

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Over the next 30 years, Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, unifying for the first time the regions that would later constitute the modern-day Burma. Anawrahta's successors by the late 12th century had extended their influence farther south into the upper

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The earliest archaeological evidence suggests that cultures existed in Burma as early as 11,000 BCE. Most indications of early settlement have been found in the central dry zone, where scattered sites appear in close proximity to the Irrawaddy River. The

3413:'s closest advisor in the 1950s and was seen as a symbol of opposition to the military regime. The Burmese people felt that U Thant was denied a state funeral that he deserved as a statesman of international stature because of his association with U Nu. 1316:

About 1500 BCE, people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice, and domesticating chickens and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. By 500 BCE, iron-working settlements emerged in an area south of present-day

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for buses to increase fivefold in less than a week. The protest demonstrations were at first dealt with quickly and harshly by the junta, with dozens of protesters arrested and detained. Starting 18 September, the protests had been led by thousands of

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After the failure of the National Convention to create a new constitution, tensions between the government and the NLD mounted, resulting in two major crackdowns on the NLD in 1996 and 1997. The SLORC was abolished in November 1997 and replaced by the

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who subsequently led an armed rebellion against the British and later the nationalist government after independence, and U Wisara, the first martyr of the movement to die after a protracted hunger strike in prison. (One of the main thoroughfares in

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until 1890, with the British finally resorting to a systematic destruction of villages and appointment of new officials to finally halt all guerrilla activity. The economic nature of society also changed dramatically. After the opening of the

2276:, and by 1745 controlled much of Lower Burma. The Siamese also moved their authority up the Tanintharyi coast by 1752. Hanthawaddy invaded Upper Burma in November 1751, and captured Ava on 23 March 1752, ending the 266-year-old Taungoo dynasty. 1837:

Due to the inexperience of its last ruler, the powerful kingdom was conquered by the upstart Taungoo dynasty in 1539. The kingdom was briefly revived between 1550 and 1552. It effectively controlled only Pegu and was crushed by Taungoo in 1552.

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norms by the late 12th century. By then, the Bamar leadership of the kingdom was unquestioned. The Pyu had largely assumed the Bamar ethnicity in Upper Burma. The Burmese language, once an alien tongue, was now the lingua franca of the kingdom.

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She reunified the country again in 1613 and definitively repelled attempts at Portuguese conquest. But the revolt of the Mons in the south of the country, encouraged by the French in India, weakened the kingdom which finally collapsed in 1752.

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as the new governor, and almost immediately after his appointment the Rangoon Police went on strike. The strike, starting in September 1946, then spread from the police to government employees and came close to becoming a general strike.

1761:(1315–64). In its first years of existence, Ava, which viewed itself as the rightful successor to the Pagan Kingdom, tried to reassemble the former empire. While it was able to pull the Taungoo-ruled kingdom and peripheral Shan states ( 2852:

as an opportunity to extort concessions from the British in exchange for support in the war effort. Other Burmese, such as the Thakin movement, opposed Burma's participation in the war under any circumstances. Aung San co-founded the

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which, against the prevailing opinion in the Dobama movement, identified world fascism as the main enemy in the coming war and called for temporary co-operation with the British in a broad allied coalition which should include the

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figures. In a White House statement President Bush said: "Monks have been beaten and killed ... Thousands of pro-democracy protesters have been arrested". Some news reports referred to the protests as the Saffron Revolution.

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this proved to be a divisive issue as some Burmese felt that this was a ploy to exclude them from any further Indian reforms whereas other Burmese saw any action that removed Burma from the control of India to be a positive step.

1273:(1752–1885) restored the kingdom, and continued the Taungoo reforms that increased central rule in peripheral regions and produced one of the most literate states in Asia. The dynasty also went to war with all its neighbours. The 3578:, daughter of Aung San, were kept under the house arrest imposed on them the previous year. Burma came under increasing international pressure to convene the elected assembly, particularly after Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the 3535:

troops that it had come to depend on after losing its former strongholds in central Burma and re-establishing bases in the northeast in the late 1960s; the Communist leaders were soon forced into exile across the Chinese border.

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The 2011–2012 Burmese democratic reforms were an ongoing series of political, economic and administrative changes in Burma undertaken by the military-backed government. These reforms included the release of pro-democracy leader

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reportedly by a pro-military mob. The government also carried out another large-scale crackdown on the NLD, arresting many of its leaders and closing down most of its offices. The situation in Burma remains tense to this day.

1596:'s reign. Burmese chronicles also claim Kengtung and Chiang Mai. Core areas shown in darker yellow. Peripheral areas in light yellow. Pagan incorporated key ports of Lower Burma into its core administration by the 13th century. 3499:

infiltration. Violence, chaos and anarchy reigned. Civil administration had ceased to exist, and by September of that year, the country was on the verge of a revolution. The armed forces, under the nominal command of General

2881:. After the Dobama organisation called for a national uprising, an arrest warrant was issued for many of the organisation's leaders including Aung San, who escaped to China. Aung San's intention was to make contact with the 3427:

direct action such as strikes by students and workers. It was Hmaing, as leader of the mainstream Dobama (Us Burma) Organization, who sent the Thirty Comrades abroad for military training, which became the origin of modern

1898:, Hsahtung (Thaton), Hsamönghkam (Thamaingkan), Hsawnghsup (Thaungdut), Hsihkip (Thigyit), Hsumhsai (Hsum Hsai), Kehsi Mangam (Kyithi Bansan), Kengcheng (Kyaingchaing), Kenghkam (Kyaingkan), Kenglön (Kyainglon), Kengtawng, 3260:

By 1958, the country was beginning to recover economically, but was beginning to fall apart politically due to a split in the AFPFL into two factions. One faction was led by Thakins Nu and Tin, and the other was led by

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was left to put down British instigated rebellions in Manipur in 1819 and Assam in 1821–1822. Cross-border raids by rebels from the British protected territories and counter-cross-border raids by the Burmese led to the

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as the chief Pyu city-state and informal capital. Archaeologists interpret early Chinese texts detailing the plundering of Halingyi in 832 to detail the capturing of 3000 Pyu prisoners, later becoming Nanzhao slaves at

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Than Shwe released U Nu from prison and relaxed some of the restrictions on Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest, finally releasing her in 1995, although she was forbidden to leave Rangoon. Than Shwe also finally allowed a

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in 1989. It also continued the economic reforms started by the old regime and called for a Constituent Assembly to revise the 1974 Constitution. This led to multiparty elections in May 1990 in which the newly formed

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On 17 February 2005, the government reconvened the National Convention, for the first time since 1993, in an attempt to rewrite the Constitution. However, major pro-democracy organisations and parties, including the

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While Pyu settlements remained in Upper Burma until the advent of the Pagan Empire in the mid 11th century, the Pyu gradually were absorbed into the expanding Burman kingdom of Pagan in the next four centuries. The

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led by Mohnyin captured Ava. The Confederation's rule of Upper Burma, though lasted until 1555, was marred by internal fighting between Mohnyin and Thibaw houses. The kingdom was toppled by Taungoo forces in 1555.

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The 2007 Burmese anti-government protests were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on 15 August 2007. The immediate cause of the protests was mainly the unannounced decision of the ruling

1784:(1385–1424) with Hanthawaddy left Ava exhausted, and its power plateaued. Its kings regularly faced rebellions in its vassal regions but were able to put them down until the 1480s. In the late 15th century, the 2640:, the demand for Burmese rice grew and vast tracts of land were opened up for cultivation. However, to prepare the new land for cultivation, farmers were forced to borrow money from Indian moneylenders called 3688:, to a newly designated capital city. This public action follows a long term unofficial policy of moving critical military and government infrastructure away from Yangon to avoid a repetition of the events of 2785:

Students Union (RUSU), for refusing to reveal the name of the author who had written an article in their university magazine, making a scathing attack on one of the senior university officials. It spread to

2366:'s Konbaung forces had reunited all of Burma (and Manipur), extinguished the Mon-led Hanthawaddy dynasty once and for all, and driven out the European powers who provided arms to Hanthawaddy—the French from 5934: 2644:

at high interest rates and were often foreclosed on and evicted losing land and livestock. Most of the jobs also went to indentured Indian labourers, and whole villages became outlawed as they resorted to

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Anawrahta also implemented a series of key social, religious and economic reforms that would have a lasting impact in Burmese history. His social and religious reforms later developed into the modern-day

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Pires, Tomé (1944). Armando Cortesao (translator) (ed.). A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão (in Portuguese). Cambridge: Hakluyt Society

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as Minister of Land and Agriculture as well as the Socialist leaders Thakins Nu and Mya. When the Japanese declared Burma, in theory, independent in 1943, the Burma Defence Army (BDA) was renamed the

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The Pyu entered the Irrawaddy valley from present-day Yunnan, c. 2nd century BCE, and went on to found city-states throughout the Irrawaddy valley. The original home of the Pyu is reconstructed to be

3431:, and after independence devoted his life to internal peace and national reconciliation until he died at the age of 88 in 1964. Hmaing lies buried in a mausoleum at the foot of the Shwedagon Pagoda. 1389:. The Pyu were the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. During this period, Burma was part of an overland trade route from China to India. Trade with India brought Buddhism from 3861:, general amnesties of more than 200 political prisoners, institution of new labour laws that allow labour unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship, and regulations of currency practices. 2773:— proclaiming that they were the true masters of the country entitled to the term usurped by the colonial masters). The second university students strike in 1936 was triggered by the expulsion of 3043:

with the British over the disarming of the AFO and the participation of its troops in a post-war Burma Army. Some veterans had been formed into a paramilitary force under Aung San, called the

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who came down with the Mongols, stayed and quickly came to dominate much of northern to eastern arc of Burma, from northwestern Sagaing Division to Kachin Hills to the present day Shan Hills.

2199:

While the interregnum that followed the fall of Pagan Empire lasted over 250 years (1287–1555), that following the fall of First Taungoo was relatively short-lived. One of Bayinnaung's sons,

5753: 5099: 2865:

movement in Ireland had been widely circulated and read among political activists. Aung San also co-founded the People's Revolutionary Party (PRP), renamed the Socialist Party after the

3390:

retired from the military, but now as U Ne Win, he continued to run the country through the BSPP. A new constitution was promulgated in January 1974 that resulted in the creation of a

5678:"Coronavirus: Two Rohingya test positive in refugee camp. Two Rohingya refugees have tested positive for coronavirus in the world's largest refugee camp in Bangladesh, officials say." 3669:". There was no timetable or any or independent mechanism for verifying that it is moving forward. Most Western governments and Burma's neighbours have been sceptical of the roadmap. 2354:

to challenge the authority of Hanthawaddy. Over the next 70 years, the highly militaristic Konbaung dynasty went on to create the largest Burmese empire, second only to the empire of

5783: 2653:, and migrants from India. The civil service was largely staffed by the Anglo-Burmese community and Indians, and Bamars were largely excluded almost entirely from military service. 1442:

still existed until the late 12th century. By the 13th century, the Pyu had assumed Bamar ethnicity. The histories/legends of the Pyu were also incorporated to those of the Bamars.

3026:. On 27 March 1945 the Burma National Army rose up in a countrywide rebellion against the Japanese. 27 March had been celebrated as 'Resistance Day' until the military renamed it ' 1830:(1384–1421) cemented the kingdom's existence. Razadarit firmly unified the three Mon-speaking regions together, and successfully held off Ava in the Forty Years' War (1385–1424). 1788:

and its Shan States successfully broke away, and in the early 16th century, Ava itself came under attacks from its former vassals. In 1510, Taungoo also broke away. In 1527, the

4448:

Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.

1362: 5620:"The Biggest Refugee Camp Braces for Rain: 'This Is Going to Be a Catastrophe'; More than half a million Rohingya refugees face looming disaster from floods and landslides...," 3812:. It is estimated that more than 130,000 people died or went missing and damage totalled 10 billion US dollars; it was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history. The 2246:

base. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. Except for a few occasional rebellions and an external war—Burma defeated

5813: 3099:

Agreement on 27 January 1947. The agreement left parts of the communist and conservative branches of the AFPFL dissatisfied, however, sending the Red Flag Communists led by

5873: 2664:, as religious associations were allowed by the colonial authorities. They were later superseded by the General Council of Burmese Associations (GCBA) which was linked with 2501:

British soldiers dismantling cannons belonging to King Thibaw's forces, Third Anglo-Burmese War, Ava, 27 November 1885. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912).

2151:

Despite being a tumultuous time for Myanmar, the Taungoo expansions increased the international reach of the nation. Newly rich merchants from Myanmar traded as far as the

6531: 3199: 2950:

was deceived. As the war turned against the Japanese, they declared Burma a fully sovereign state on 1 August 1943, but this was just another facade. Disillusioned,

1409:. The Chinese records also report that the Pyu knew how to make astronomical calculations, and that many Pyu boys entered the monastic life at seven to the age of 20. 2163:) for Cebuano gold. Filipinos also had merchant communities in Myanmar, historian William Henry Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted that 5926: 2893:

and supporting a national uprising. Aung San briefly returned to Burma to enlist twenty-nine young men who went to Japan with him to receive military training on

2818:

student called Aung Kyaw. In Mandalay, the colonial police shot into a crowd of protesters led by Buddhist monks, killing 17 people. The movement became known as

2128:

mercenaries, and in alliance with the rebellious Taungoo forces, sacked Pegu. The country fell into chaos, with each region claiming a king. Portuguese mercenary

3075:

returned. The restored government established a political program that focused on physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence.

5509: 5452: 1989: 1902:(Kyaington), Kokang (Kho Kan), Kyawkku Hsiwan (Kyaukku), Kyong (Kyon), Laihka (Legya), Lawksawk (Yatsauk), Loi-ai (Lwe-e), Loilong (Lwelong), Loimaw (Lwemaw), 5622: 3464:

U Nu, after his release from prison in October 1966, had left Burma in April 1969, and formed the Parliamentary Democracy Party (PDP) the following August in

2521:

tried to modernise the Burmese state and economy, and made trade and territorial concessions to stave off further British encroachments, including ceding the

6611: 5193: 1796:

The Burmese language and culture came into its own between the last period of the Pagan Kingdom (Old Burmese starts in the XII° century) and the Ava period.

3893:. She led the NLD in winning the by-elections in a landslide, winning 41 out of 44 of the contested seats, with Suu Kyi herself winning a seat representing 5294: 3378:

Ne Win quickly took steps to transform Burma into his vision of a "socialist state" and to isolate the country from contact with the rest of the world. A

1640:

of India. Well into the mid-13th century, most of mainland Southeast Asia was under some degree of control of either the Pagan Empire or the Khmer Empire.

6099:

Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2005). "Min-gyi-nyo, the Shan Invasions of Ava (1524–27), and the Beginnings of Expansionary Warfare in Toungoo Burma: 1486–1539".

4471: 3375:(SSA), led by Sao Shwe Thaik's wife Mahadevi and son Chao Tzang Yaunghwe, launched a rebellion in 1964 as a direct consequence of the 1962 military coup. 5338: 2096:. Tabinshwehti's successor Bayinnaung continued the policy of expansion, conquering Ava in 1555, Nearer/Cis-Salween Shan States (1557), Lan Na (1558), 5373: 2822:(the '1300 Revolution' named after the Burmese calendar year), and 20 December, the day the first martyr Aung Kyaw fell, commemorated by students as ' 1947:

Although Arakan had been de facto independent since the late Pagan period, the Laungkyet dynasty of Arakan was ineffectual. Until the founding of the

1397:

southeast of modern Pyay, also thought to once be the capital city. In March 638, the Pyu of Sri Ksetra launched a new calendar that later became the

5723: 5597: 6493:

The Changing Nature of Conflict Between Burma and Siam as seen from the Growth and Development of Burmese States from the 16th to the 19th Centuries

5535: 4888:(Werner Gruhl is former chief of NASA's Cost and Economic Analysis Branch with a lifetime interest in the study of the First and Second World Wars.) 3398:) that held supreme legislative, executive, and judicial authority, and local People's Councils. Ne Win became the president of the new government. 2443:, but these all resulted in a stalemate. After decades of war, the two countries essentially exchanged Tanintharyi (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam). 1909:

Mohnyin, in particular, constantly raided Ava's territory in the early 16th century. The Monhyin-led Confederation of Shan States, in alliance with

5745: 3035: 2802:

A wave of strikes and protests that started from the oilfields of central Burma in 1938 became a general strike with far-reaching consequences. In

1834:

profiting from foreign commerce. The kingdom, with a flourishing the Mon language and culture, became a Centre of commerce and Theravada Buddhism.

2749:(right) of the British India Steam Navigation Company on the Rangoon river having just arrived from Moulmein. 1895. Photographers: Watts and Skeen 6464: 5210: 3211: 3134:

Thakin Nu, the Socialist leader, was now asked to form a new cabinet, and he presided over Burmese independence which was established under the

5398: 2332: 1393:. By the 4th century, many in the Irrawaddy valley had converted to Buddhism. Of the many city-states, the largest and most important was the 7732: 4842: 3871:

visited Burma on 1 December 2011, to encourage further progress; it was the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years.

3837: 3207: 3191: 2799:

in 1939, who served as prime minister from 1940 until he was arrested on 19 January 1942 by the British for communicating with the Japanese.

1818:

right after Pagan's collapse in 1297. In the beginning, the Lower-Burma-based kingdom was a loose federation of regional power centre in the

5301: 5266: 3438:

conspired with a few fellow officers in 1976 to assassinate Ne Win and San Yu, but the plot was uncovered and the officer tried and hanged.

5775: 3186: 3047:

or People's Volunteer Organisation (PVO), and were openly drilling in uniform. The absorption of the PBF was concluded successfully at the

1181: 372: 4048:(NLD) won 396 out of 476 seats in parliament, an even larger margin of victory than in the 2015 election. The military's proxy party, the 2269:) under an increasingly nominal Burmese rule. Meitei raids intensified in the 1730s, reaching increasingly deeper parts of central Burma. 6535: 3808:

devastated the country when winds of up to 215 km/h (135 mph) touched land in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the

2680:

Vegetable stall on the roadside at the Madras Lancer Lines, Mandalay, January 1886. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912).

2657: 2482: 2253:

The kingdom entered a gradual decline, and the authority of the "palace kings" deteriorated rapidly in the 1720s. From 1724 onwards, the

2203:, immediately began the reunification effort, successfully restoring central authority over Upper Burma and nearer Shan states by 1606. 5125: 4025:

that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017. The crisis forced over a million

2702: 4009: 2718:

in Tharrawaddy quickly grew into first a regional and then a national insurrection against the government. Lasting for two years, the

1652:

in 1057. Supported by royal patronage, the Buddhist school gradually spread to the village level in the next three centuries although

7406: 5011: 3606:

During the 1990s, the military regime had also had to deal with several insurgencies by tribal minorities along its borders. General

3203: 2078: 2073:, would go on to reunify the petty kingdoms that had existed since the fall of the Pagan Empire, and found the largest empire in the 5805: 4934: 3677:, were barred from participating, the military allowing only selected smaller parties. It was adjourned once again in January 2006. 1206:) covers the period from the time of first-known human settlements 13,000 years ago to the present day. The earliest inhabitants of 6798: 6649: 6582: 4980: 3858: 2026: 530: 5865: 3522:, the SLORC Secretary 1, and chief of Military Intelligence Service (MIS), claimed that the uprising had been orchestrated by the 7681: 6818: 5169: 5051: 4140:

have erupted throughout Myanmar. In many villages and towns junta forces attacks drove out tens of thousands of people at least.

3832: 3512: 2979: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2424: 2420: 2241:

More importantly, the new dynasty proceeded to create a legal and political system whose basic features would continue under the

2180: 2089: 1060: 550: 285: 235: 6472: 5077: 4863:

Micheal Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000. 2nd Ed. 2002

3281:

to take over the country. Over 400 'communist sympathisers' were arrested, of which 153 were deported to the Coco Island in the

3131:. Shortly after, rebellion broke out in the Arakan led by the veteran monk U Seinda, and it began to spread to other districts. 2649:' (armed robbery). While the Burmese economy grew, most of the power and wealth remained in the hands of several British firms, 2038: 7742: 7278: 7005: 6165: 4049: 3787: 685: 6593: 6570: 6558: 6546: 6492: 6486: 6424: 6395: 6332: 6294: 6216: 6129: 6025: 5244: 4898: 4885: 4685: 4111:

movement, a red ribbon campaign, public protests, and formal recognition of the election results by elected representatives.

3249:

of 1955. Burma generally strove to be neutral in world affairs, and was one of the first countries in the world to recognise

3138:

on 4 January 1948. The popular sentiment to part with the British was so strong at the time that Burma opted not to join the

2428: 2405: 2247: 2093: 767: 6250: 3711:

of its citizens by the military. According to the ILO, an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar.

3507:, as it became known, the military killed over 3,000 people. The military swept aside the Constitution of 1974 in favour of 2230:

and Lan Na from the Siamese by 1614. He also captured the trans-Salween Shan states (Kengtung and Sipsongpanna) in 1622–26.

7024: 6833: 4137: 4129: 4065: 3269:. And this was despite the unexpected success of U Nu's "Arms for Democracy" offer taken up by U Seinda in the Arakan, the 2005: 565: 6615: 6605: 5680: 5651: 7656: 6943: 6828: 6808: 5843: 5566: 5430: 4133: 3755: 3643: 3545: 2885:

but he was detected by the Japanese authorities who offered him support by forming a secret intelligence unit called the

2592: 2313: 1648:. The most important development was the introduction of Theravada Buddhism to Upper Burma after Pagan's conquest of the 560: 540: 279: 7046: 6897: 2930:

was afterwards declared head of state, and his cabinet included both Aung San as War Minister and the Communist leader

2806:

student protesters, after successfully picketing the Secretariat, the seat of the colonial government, were charged by

6191: 2668:

or National Associations that sprang up in villages throughout Burma Proper. Between 1900 – 1911 the "Irish Buddhist"

7701: 6376: 6313: 5980: 5335:"Aid arrives in Myanmar as death toll passes 22,000, but worst-hit area still cut off – International Herald Tribune" 4968: 4868: 3700: 3234: 2614: 2085: 6504: 5501: 5460: 3786:

On 7 February 2008, SPDC announced that a referendum for the Constitution would be held, and Elections by 2010. The

3402:

dockyard. In December 1974, the biggest anti-government demonstrations to date broke out over the funeral of former

7155: 6409: 5964: 5619: 4164: 3898: 3865: 3368: 3336: 3156: 2631:

Recorder's Court on Sule Pagoda Road, with the Sule Pagoda at the far end, Rangoon, 1868. Photographer: J. Jackson.

2062:

many refugees fled southeast to Taungoo, the only kingdom in peace, and one surrounded by larger hostile kingdoms.

1174: 365: 273: 267: 17: 5190: 1702:

Beginning in the early 13th century, the Shan began to encircle the Pagan Empire from the north and the east. The

241: 7150: 4093:

On 2 February 2021, healthcare workers and civil servants across the country, including in the national capital,

3450: 3383: 2916:

British soldiers on patrol in the ruins of the Burmese town of Bahe during the advance on Mandalay, January 1945.

2926:

irregular force, the BDA was recruited by selection and trained as a conventional army by Japanese instructors.

1472:. By the mid 9th century, the Mon had founded at least two small kingdoms (or large city-states) centred around 6912: 6793: 4459: 3704: 3308:

that returned U Nu's Union Party with a large majority. The situation did not remain stable for long, when the

3229:

After the Communist victory in China in 1949, remote areas of Northern Burma were for many years controlled by

2596: 2409: 1242: 525: 6823: 4061: 3940: 3816:

reported that, "Some villages have been almost totally eradicated and vast rice-growing areas are wiped out."

3342: 555: 7399: 7089: 7034: 6877: 5311: 5151: 4652: 4045: 4041: 3908: 3890: 3882: 3845: 3674: 3599: 3560: 3305: 3112: 5334: 3351:. Sao Shwe Thaik's son, Sao Mye Thaik, was shot dead in what was generally described as a "bloodless" coup. 7491: 7165: 7109: 7017: 6978: 6963: 6917: 6892: 6788: 6763: 6642: 5370: 5359: 4107:

forms of protest, which include acts of civil disobedience, labour strikes, a military boycott campaign, a

3564: 3391: 3371:(KIO) had begun earlier in 1961 triggered by U Nu's declaration of Buddhism as the state religion, and the 3162: 2835: 2397: 2296: 2273: 1285: 520: 495: 291: 247: 205: 5705: 5589: 7801: 7737: 7298: 7223: 7123: 7084: 6882: 6857: 5531: 4186: 4171: 3948: 3387: 3347: 3135: 2415:

The Ayutthaya Kingdom used the Konbaung preoccupation with the Qing to recover their lost territories by

1167: 1130: 1120: 358: 325: 310: 305: 5903: 4697: 7696: 7601: 7303: 7190: 6440:

Englehart, Neil A. "Liberal Leviathan or Imperial Outpost? J. S. Furnivall on Colonial Rule in Burma",

6209:

Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland

3924: 3779:, and those protests had been allowed to proceed until a renewed government crackdown on 26 September. 2656:

By around the start of the 20th century, a nationalist movement began to take shape in the form of the

2408:. But they could not finish off the remaining Siamese resistance as they were forced to defend against 2049: 1135: 1125: 1100: 762: 6470:

University of Washington Library papers by Burmese historians Than Tun, Yi Yi, U Pe Maung Tin, Ba Shin

5218: 4838: 4119:

beat, arrested, used water cannon, and threw various objects such as marbles and stones at civilians.

3958:'s National League for Democracy in 2015 general elections raised hope for a successful transition of 3915:

of seats in both chambers of the Burmese parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become

3345:, arrested U Nu, Sao Shwe Thaik and several others, and declared a socialist state to be run by their 1789: 7041: 6902: 6887: 6862: 5390: 3886: 3820: 3707:– "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous 3492: 3301: 3106:

Aung San also succeeded in concluding an agreement with ethnic minorities for a unified Burma at the

2971: 2074: 1746: 6277: 3990:'s governing National League for Democracy party is seen as a serious blow to the country's fragile 3790:

was held on 10 May and promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy" for the country in the future.

1568:

strategic location on the Irrawaddy near the confluence of the Irrawaddy and its main tributary the

1347: 7706: 7423: 7392: 7355: 7000: 6872: 4159: 3523: 3177: 2854: 2511: 2383: 2179:, were also hired as mercenaries and soldiers for both Siam (Thailand) and Burma (Myanmar), in the 2129: 870: 580: 330: 6227: 2147:

Portuguese ruler and soldiers mounting an Elephant. Philips, Jan Caspar (draughtsman and engraver)

1456:

According to the colonial era scholarship, as early as the 6th century, another people called the

7651: 7616: 7571: 7313: 7185: 7140: 7079: 6968: 6948: 6635: 6166:"A Pyu Homeland in the Samon Valley: a new theory of the origins of Myanmar's early urban system" 4181: 4034: 3872: 3799: 3169: 3139: 3128: 3120: 2906: 2585: 2530: 2491: 1211: 1095: 833: 623: 315: 6498: 7541: 7536: 7431: 7074: 6973: 6245:

Mahmood, Syed S., et al. "The Rohingya people of Myanmar: health, human rights, and identity."

3771: 3435: 3039: 3019: 2999:. Soe had already gone underground to organise resistance against the Japanese occupation, and 2811: 2497: 6062: 5126:"Southeast Asia news and business from Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam" 3889:

held on 1 April 2012 after the government abolished laws that led to the NLD's boycott of the

7661: 7636: 7551: 7531: 7481: 7451: 7441: 7238: 7218: 6953: 6783: 6696: 6519: 4960: 3647: 3072: 2564: 2423:, ending over two centuries of Burmese suzerainty over the region. They went to war again in 1303: 1280: 1233:, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley in the early 9th century. They went on to establish the 988: 907: 899: 875: 796: 515: 428: 223: 50: 3923:

is constitutionally barred from the presidency. However, clashes between Burmese troops and

2912: 2676: 2506:

for years by repaying a large indemnity of one million pounds (then US$ 5 million). In

2175:, a rival to the other Filipino group, the Mindanaoans, who instead came from the island of 1609:

in the east, below the current China border in the farther north, and to the west, northern

7747: 7626: 7621: 7501: 7308: 7170: 7145: 7104: 7029: 6990: 6958: 6845: 6756: 6158: 4089:

Protesters in Yangon carrying signs reading "Free Daw Aung San Suu Kyi" on 8 February 2021.

3916: 3813: 3666: 3403: 3355:

Sawbwa Sao Kya Seng also disappeared mysteriously after being stopped at a checkpoint near

3223: 2946:

It soon became apparent that Japanese promises of independence were merely a sham and that

2650: 1972: 1686:

and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu and

1439: 860: 655: 590: 488: 191: 6260:. Vol. 12. Clemens Dutt (trans.) (1979 ed.). New York: International Publishers. 5019: 3864:

As a consequence of the reforms, ASEAN approved Burma's bid for the chairmanship in 2014.

816: 8: 7721: 7691: 7641: 7596: 7576: 7566: 7466: 7318: 7175: 6931: 6907: 6741: 4930: 3423: 3230: 3107: 2935: 2878: 1805: 1781: 1745:(Inwa) was the successor state to earlier, even smaller kingdoms based in central Burma: 1500: 1250: 838: 801: 788: 660: 473: 165: 116: 6044:

Cooler, Richard M. (2002). "The Art and Culture of Burma". Northern Illinois University.

4988: 7666: 7561: 7446: 7436: 7373: 7283: 7200: 7099: 7062: 7012: 6867: 6813: 6746: 6662: 6265: 6087: 5710: 4678:

Billions entrepreneurs : How China and India Are Reshaping Their Futures and Yours

4114:

On 20 February, two people were shot dead and at least two dozens more were injured in

3902: 3819:

The United Nations estimated that as many as 1 million were left homeless and the

3809: 3720: 3583: 3273:, some Mon and Shan groups, but more significantly by the PVO surrendering their arms. 3246: 2882: 2815: 2782: 2452: 2223: 1922: 1645: 1394: 1274: 1254: 1237:(1044–1297), the first-ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. The 545: 478: 398: 320: 229: 177: 98: 66: 6621: 6070:

Dai, Yingcong (2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty".

6037:

Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752–1885

5165: 5041: 7776: 7711: 7646: 7611: 7546: 7526: 7516: 7476: 7461: 7456: 7362: 7268: 7243: 7160: 6716: 6469: 6420: 6391: 6372: 6328: 6309: 6290: 6212: 6125: 6108: 6091: 6049: 6021: 5976: 5715: 5288: 5145: 5073: 4964: 4881: 4864: 4681: 4176: 4022: 3967: 3912: 3579: 2741: 2393: 2152: 2101: 1750: 1707: 1622: 1618: 993: 448: 135: 6176: 3570:

The military ignored the results and continued to rule. The two leaders of the NLD,

2457:

Faced with a powerful China in the northeast and a resurgent Siam in the southeast,

1695:

a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by Mons, Mongols and

7752: 7671: 7631: 7606: 7586: 7521: 7496: 7486: 7471: 7343: 7293: 7288: 7263: 7248: 7228: 7180: 7135: 6985: 6768: 6526:

Burma Communist Party's Conspiracy to take over State Power and related information

6150: 6079: 4075: 3995: 3955: 3944: 3920: 3854: 3841: 3742: 3738: 3658: 3575: 3550:

The military government announced a change of name for the country in English from

3416:

On 23 March 1976, over 100 students were arrested for holding a peaceful ceremony (

3379: 2823: 2526: 2387: 2323: 2285: 2242: 2120: 1683: 1672: 1398: 1270: 1238: 1207: 1199: 1065: 1007: 983: 975: 939: 921: 865: 757: 712: 633: 598: 500: 389: 211: 6513: 5927:"Mass Exodus: Successive Military Regimes in Myanmar Drive Out Millions of People" 4908: 2689:'. There were further strikes and anti-tax protests in the later 1920s led by the 2525:

to the British in 1875. Nonetheless, the British, alarmed by the consolidation of

7591: 7556: 7511: 7506: 7415: 7273: 7253: 6751: 6726: 6701: 6476: 5684: 5655: 5626: 5377: 5240: 5197: 4626: 4154: 4079: 3868: 3442: 3372: 3195: 3181: 3004: 3000: 2983: 2955: 2931: 2898: 2719: 1961: 1948: 1936: 1823: 1758: 1602: 1354: 1330: 1266: 1215: 1090: 1070: 772: 699: 645: 483: 458: 433: 197: 185: 145: 70: 56: 6614:; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877. 5371:

The Associated Press: Official: UN plane lands in Myanmar with aid after cyclone

3003:

was able to pass on Japanese intelligence to Soe, while other Communist leaders

7367: 7233: 7208: 6778: 6731: 6706: 5677: 5665: 5645: 5631: 5612: 5558: 5420: 3805: 3759: 3751: 3651: 3491:

and 90 kyat notes, because these were divisible by nine. Burma's admittance to

3341:

On 2 March 1962, Ne Win, with sixteen other senior military officers, staged a

3320: 3096: 2843: 2839: 2807: 2522: 2258: 2186: 2015: 1742: 1736: 1676: 1649: 1569: 1522: 1246: 1155: 852: 806: 717: 665: 510: 463: 438: 348: 151: 89: 6083: 5776:"Nay Pyi Taw, Mandalay healthcare staff to join "Civil Disobedience Campaign"" 4078:

and other government members. The military handed power to the military chief

3878:

visited one year later, becoming the first US president to visit the country.

3327:

of their feudal powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959.

2627: 407: 40: 7795: 7770: 7258: 6803: 6736: 6721: 6711: 6598: 6586: 6575: 6563: 6551: 6458: 6112: 5719: 5015: 4984: 4903: 4126:, and at least 423 protesters have been killed by military or police forces. 4014: 3708: 3689: 3680:

In November 2005, the military junta started moving the government away from

3619: 3610:

was able to negotiate cease-fire agreements that ended the fighting with the

3504: 3495:

status by the UN the following December highlighted its economic bankruptcy.

3481: 3446: 3364: 2894: 2706: 2462: 2338: 2254: 2200: 2183:, the same case as the Portuguese, who were also mercenaries for both sides. 1940: 1910: 1785: 1754: 1637: 1610: 1606: 1593: 1532: 1489: 1422: 1234: 932: 707: 650: 535: 468: 453: 443: 157: 139: 129: 110: 2974:(AFO) in August 1944 at a secret meeting of the CPB, the PRP and the BNA in 2921:

never formally accepted such a plan. Eventually the Japanese Army turned to

2171:(Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao, Philippines. The 1628:

By the early 12th century, Pagan had emerged as a major power alongside the

7213: 7094: 6525: 6481: 4103:), in opposition to the coup d'état. Protesters have employed peaceful and 4085: 3875: 3626:

would not negotiate. The military finally captured the main Karen base at

3623: 3428: 3277:

through the NUF, and in the end U Nu 'invited' Army Chief of Staff General

3127:, while meeting in the Secretariat. 19 July has been commemorated since as 3083: 2996: 2870: 2866: 2849: 2686: 2669: 2371: 2191: 2109: 2066: 2011: 1996: 1895: 1876: 1872: 1811: 1777:) into its fold at the peak of its power, it failed to reconquer the rest. 1633: 1629: 1588: 1461: 1451: 1378: 1241:

and culture slowly came to replace Pyu norms during this period. After the

1230: 961: 885: 732: 603: 79: 6612:

The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period

5388: 3857:

from house arrest and subsequent dialogues with her, establishment of the

3725: 3285:. Among them was the NUF leader Aung Than, older brother of Aung San. The 2862: 7780: 6773: 4880:

Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945 Transaction 2007

4104: 3939:

was elected as the first non-military president of the country since the

3763: 3508: 3309: 3282: 2873:

by forging an alliance of the Dobama, ABSU, politically active monks and

2266: 2219: 2156: 2077:. First, the upstart kingdom defeated a more powerful Hanthawaddy in the 1903: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1815: 1696: 1473: 1390: 1258: 826: 722: 505: 171: 5961:

A history of Myanmar since ancient times: Traditions and transformations

4216: 3692:. On Armed Forces Day (27 March 2006), the capital was officially named 1621:, and the Thai chronicles include the lower Malay Peninsula down to the 956: 4108: 4030: 3635: 3607: 3519: 3458: 3312: 3266: 3173: 3100: 2987: 2967: 2959: 2890: 2637: 2599: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2534: 2518: 2363: 2355: 2319: 2262: 2070: 2045: 1614: 1510: 1457: 3935:

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016 and, on 15 March 2016,

3638:, made a deal with the government in December 1995 after US pressure. 2510:, the British unilaterally and easily seized the Pegu province in the 6173:

Myanmar Historical Commission Golden Jubilee International Conference

5484:"Myanmar Lawmakers Name Htin Kyaw President, Affirming Civilian Rule" 5241:"100,000 Protestors Flood Streets of Rangoon in 'Saffron Revolution'" 4094: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3936: 3693: 3627: 3591: 3587: 3500: 3469: 3023: 2795:

served as the first prime minister of Burma, but he was succeeded by

2458: 2143: 1827: 1653: 1577: 1528: 1465: 1223: 737: 6455:

Webproject in English and Myanmar about the history of Burma/Myanmar

3630:

in spring 1995, but there has still been no final peace settlement.

3567:(NUP, the successor to the BSPP) and about a dozen smaller parties. 3518:

At a special six-hour press conference on 5 August 1989, Brig. Gen.

2574: 2396:, which had occupied up the Tanintharyi coast to Mottama during the 2250:—the kingdom was largely at peace for the rest of the 17th century. 2222:

defeated the Portuguese at Thanlyin in 1613. He recovered the upper

1460:

began to enter the present-day Lower Burma from the Mon kingdoms of

6995: 6627: 6454: 6258:

War in Burma—The Russian Question—Curious Diplomatic Correspondence

5689: 5425: 5046: 4115: 4071: 4026: 3963: 3767: 3685: 3646:(SPDC), but it was merely a cosmetic change. Continuing reports of 3615: 3532: 3356: 3316: 3304:

successfully improved the security situation and paved the way for

3215: 3092: 3031: 3027: 3008: 2951: 2787: 2774: 2715: 2714:

is named after U Wisara.) In December 1930, a local tax protest by

2698: 2641: 2486: 2367: 2272:

In 1740, the Mon in Lower Burma began a rebellion, and founded the

2137: 2105: 1899: 1657: 1469: 1406: 1318: 1025: 7384: 5421:"Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy Wins Majority in Myanmar" 2446: 1617:. The Burmese Chronicles claim Pagan's suzerainty over the entire 821: 6658: 6539: 5806:"Myanmar Medics Prepare Civil Disobedience Against Military Rule" 5746:"Myanmar Military Takes Power for One Year, Suu Kyi in Detention" 5660: 5453:"Suu Kyi's novice MPs learn ropes in outgoing Myanmar parliament" 3999: 3987: 3971: 3959: 3776: 3631: 3465: 3454: 3406: 3219: 3119:, a conservative pre-war Prime Minister of Burma, engineered the 2909:(BIA) in anticipation of the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942. 2902: 2858: 2803: 2755: 2646: 2470: 2164: 2132:

promptly rebelled against his Arakanese masters, and established

2097: 2081:. Tabinshwehti moved the capital to newly captured Bago in 1539. 1932: 1927: 1868: 1864: 1819: 1770: 1766: 1703: 1665: 1431: 1414: 1382: 1195: 1035: 1030: 951: 6495:

Pamaree Surakiat, Asia Research Institute, Singapore, March 2006

5671: 4957:

Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia

4217:"Refugees from Burma: Their Backgrounds and Refugee Experiences" 3123:

and several members of his cabinet including his eldest brother

2727: 2693:

s. Prominent among the political activists were Buddhist monks (

1718: 5975:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. 5706:"Myanmar's Leader, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Is Detained Amid Coup" 5639: 4141: 4123: 3975: 3894: 3730: 3681: 3611: 3571: 3528: 3352: 3324: 3278: 3262: 3250: 3124: 3052: 3012: 2963: 2947: 2927: 2922: 2874: 2792: 2731: 2723: 2711: 2351: 2234: 2172: 1884: 1880: 1774: 1553: 1549: 1543: 1477: 1418: 1368:

Bawbawgyi Pagoda at Sri Ksetra, prototype of Pagan-era pagodas.

1020: 880: 811: 727: 638: 6360:

Burma (Myanmar) Since the 1988 Uprising: A Select Bibliography

4653:"Myanmar – Colonialism, Exploitation, Resistance | Britannica" 3650:

led the United States to intensify sanctions in 1997, and the

2400:(1740–1757), and had provided shelter to the Mon refugees. By 5895: 5866:"Two Civilians Killed by Myanmar Security Forces in Mandalay" 5389:

Rachel Stevenson; Julian Borger; Ian MacKinnon (9 May 2008).

5074:"Burma Communist Party's Conspiracy to take over State Power" 4226:. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. p. 5 4002:'s military-drafted Constitution and ushering the country to 3983: 3254: 3242: 3116: 3048: 2796: 2769: 2735: 2478: 2227: 2176: 2168: 1952:

post-Pagan kingdom not to be annexed by the Taungoo dynasty.

1891: 1762: 1661: 1557: 1386: 1040: 1015: 628: 5166:"BBC NEWS – Asia-Pacific – Burma leaders double fuel prices" 3998:

of his perspective as an adviser, particularly on reforming

2187:

Restored Taungoo Kingdom (Nyaungyan Restoration) (1599–1752)

6482:

SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research articles on Burma's history

5994: 3410: 3270: 2990:, while in Insein prison in July 1941, had co-authored the 2975: 2889:

headed by Colonel Suzuki with the objective of closing the

2778: 2661: 2507: 2474: 2466: 2416: 2401: 2359: 1687: 1426: 1219: 944: 6505:

The Bloodstrewn Path:Burma's Early Journey to Independence

6141:

History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824

5835: 3634:, a major opium warlord who nominally controlled parts of 2905:

in December 1941, Aung San announced the formation of the

2759:("We Bamars Association") whose members called themselves 2738:, who participated in his defence, to rise to prominence. 1516:

Principality of Pagan at Anawrahta's accession in 1044 CE.

6507: 5483: 5306: 5271: 4698:"Myanmar – Nationalism, Ethnicity, Politics | Britannica" 3951:, a position similar to Prime Minister, on 6 April 2016. 3503:, staged a coup on 8 August to restore order. During the 2133: 2100:(1560), Farther/Trans-Salween Shan states (1562–63), the 5836:"Myanmar adopts nonviolent approach to resist army coup" 4899:"Who Killed Aung San? — an interview with Gen. Kyaw Zaw" 4310: 3441:

In 1978, a military operation was conducted against the

2481:

in 1817–1819, leading to a long ill-defined border with

1799: 6514:

The Nu-Attlee Treaty and Let Ya-Freeman Agreement, 1947

4244:

Cooler 2002: Chapter 1: Prehistoric and Animist Periods

3515:(SLORC) with Saw Maung as chairman and prime minister. 3190:

or (White Band) People's Volunteer Organisation led by

2341:

is a royal palace built in 1753 CE by King Alaungphaya.

2265:) successfully revolted, leaving just northern Lan Na ( 1879:(split up in a northern and a southern state in 1988), 5267:"U.S. Envoy: Myanmar deaths may top 100,000 - CNN.com" 2540: 6228:"Burma through the fall of Pagan: an outline, part 1" 5973:

The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma

4122:

As of 26 March 2021, at least 3,070 people have been

3417: 3018:

There were informal contacts between the AFO and the

2195:

The restored Taungoo or Nyaungyan dynasty c. 1650 CE.

1292: 4839:"The Statement on the Commemoration of Bo Aung Kyaw" 4082:

and a state of emergency was declared for one year.

3214:– all three of them members of the Thirty Comrades, 3011:

made contact with the exiled colonial government in

2248:

Siam's attempt to take Lan Na and Mottama in 1662–64

6622:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7543347.stm

5100:"ILO seeks to charge Myanmar junta with atrocities" 4484:

Quoting from; Cortes 30, Suma, pp. 376–77, and 362.

4097:, launched a national civil disobedience movement ( 3770:to suddenly rise as much as 100%, and the price of 3665:

In August 2003, Kyin Nyunt announced a seven-step "

3103:underground and the conservatives into opposition. 2404:, the Konbaung armies had subdued much of Laos and 1277:(1824–85) eventually led to British colonial rule. 6674: 6419:(2 ed.). Yale University Press. p. 125. 6156:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. 6149: 5360:The Associated Press: AP Top News at 4:25 p.m. EDT 3911:results gave the National League for Democracy an 3684:to an unnamed location near Kyatpyay just outside 3022:in 1944 and 1945 through the British organisation 2350:Soon after the fall of Ava, a new dynasty rose in 1668:remained heavily entrenched at all social strata. 5953: 5896:"Daily Briefing in Relation to the Military Coup" 3970:. However, internal political turmoil, crumbling 1966: 7793: 6510:Burmese, 30 September 2005, Retrieved 2006-10-28 5293:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 4825:Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity 3986:, a prominent Muslim lawyer and a key member of 3714: 3034:and others subsequently began negotiations with 2124:; Universal Ruler), not the kingdom of Taungoo. 6369:Burma: insurgency and the politics of ethnicity 6124:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. 6002:Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma 5275:. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008 4841:. All Burma Students League. 19 December 1999. 4610: 4215:Ranard, Donald A.; Barron, Sandy, eds. (2007). 3475: 3071:After the war ended, the British Governor, Sir 2447:Westward expansion and wars with British Empire 2279: 1995:Political Map of Burma (Myanmar) in 1530 CE at 6571:Daewoo — A Serial Suitor of the Burmese Regime 6325:The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma 6202:(in Burmese). Yangon: Yangon University Press. 5900:Assistance Association for Political Prisoners 5364: 4519: 4517: 4070:On February 1, 2021, Myanmar's military, the 3079:the CPB from the AFPFL the following October. 2848:Some Burmese nationalists saw the outbreak of 2529:, annexed the remainder of the country in the 1955: 1245:in 1287, several small kingdoms, of which the 7400: 6643: 5959:Aung-Thwin, Michael, and Maitrii Aung-Thwin. 4959:Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 4558: 4556: 4098: 2113: 1175: 366: 5995:online review at http://eh.net/book-reviews 5302:"U.S. envoy: Myanmar deaths may top 100,000" 5132:. Archived from the original on 4 April 2005 4214: 4013:Aerial view of a burned Rohingya village in 3703:(ILO) announced it will be seeking – at the 3468:, Thailand with the former Thirty Comrades, 2461:turned westward for expansion. He conquered 1894:(Wanmaw or Manmaw), Hkamti Long (Kantigyi), 1722:Political Map of Burma (Myanmar) c. 1450 CE. 1265:In the second half of the 16th century, the 5993:(Cambridge University Press, 2013) 229 pp. 4601: 4574: 4514: 4496: 4412: 3978:strife continued to make the transition to 2897:, China, and they came to be known as the " 2869:. He was also instrumental in founding the 2377: 2032:Toungoo Empire under Bayinnaung in 1580 CE. 1671:Pagan's economy was primarily based on the 1583: 1483: 7407: 7393: 6650: 6636: 6579:, 7 December 2006, Retrieved on 2006-12-08 6404:Topich, William J., and Keith A. Leitich. 6388:Burma/Myanmar: what everyone needs to know 5970: 5587: 4553: 4319: 2954:began negotiations with Communist leaders 1841: 1182: 1168: 373: 359: 6385: 6206: 6197: 6147: 6098: 5647:The 2010 – 2020 UN News Decade in Review, 5482:Moe, Wae; Ramzy, Austin (15 March 2016). 5211:"Military junta threatens monks in Burma" 4442: 4426: 4424: 4360: 4358: 4346: 4029:to flee to other countries. Most fled to 3409:. U Thant had been former prime minister 3113:April 1947 constituent assembly elections 3062: 2857:(CPB) with other Thakins in August 1939. 2615:Learn how and when to remove this message 6555:, March–April 2001, Retrieved 2006-10-29 6352:Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) 5999: 5991:Burma's Economy in the Twentieth Century 5481: 4949: 4303: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4084: 4008: 3836: 3724: 3696:(lit. Royal City of the Seat of Kings). 3422:) to mark the centenary of the birth of 2911: 2740: 2675: 2626: 2533:in 1885, and sent the last Burmese king 2496: 2190: 2142: 1926: 1717: 1587: 6465:Factfile: Burma's history of repression 6342:Phayre, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. (1883). 6322: 6303: 6078:. Cambridge University Press: 145–189. 6034: 6015: 6008:Cameron, Ewan. "The State of Myanmar," 4680:, Harvard Business School Press, 2007, 4583: 4565: 4544: 4535: 4505: 4403: 4337: 3848:headquarters shortly after her release. 3800:Cyclone_Nargis § Burma_controversy 3586:. In April 1992 the military replaced 3563:(NLD) won a landslide victory over the 3513:State Law and Order Restoration Council 2767:means "master" in Burmese, rather like 14: 7794: 6341: 6163: 6138: 6043: 5556: 5042:"Asia-Pacific – Burma's 1988 protests" 4818: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4592: 4433: 4421: 4376: 4367: 4355: 4275: 4050:Union Solidarity and Development Party 3947:assumed the newly created role of the 3788:2008 Burmese constitutional referendum 3382:was established with his newly formed 3145: 2861:literature as well as tracts from the 2392:The kingdom then went to war with the 261: 7388: 6631: 6414: 6366: 6357: 6346:(1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta. 6284: 6235:Journal of the Burma Research Society 5876:from the original on 20 February 2021 5703: 5618:Sengupta, Somini and Henry Fountain: 5600:from the original on 13 November 2017 5569:from the original on 11 February 2017 5559:"Hundred days of Myanmar's democracy" 5538:from the original on 11 February 2017 5433:from the original on 13 November 2015 5401:from the original on 2 September 2013 5208: 5184: 4937:from the original on 20 February 2007 4822: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4457: 4385: 4298: 4284: 4247: 3198:, army rebels calling themselves the 2941: 2119: 1916: 1800:Hanthawaddy Pegu (1287–1539, 1550–52) 1286:one of the longest running civil wars 7350: 6657: 6567:, October 2006, Retrieved 2006-10-19 6255: 6225: 6119: 6039:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 5937:from the original on 26 October 2022 5924: 5846:from the original on 4 February 2021 5816:from the original on 3 February 2021 5786:from the original on 3 February 2021 5756:from the original on 1 February 2021 5726:from the original on 31 January 2021 5512:from the original on 12 October 2018 5391:"The UN resumes foreign aid flights" 5341:from the original on 11 October 2008 5247:from the original on 17 October 2020 5158: 5009: 4845:from the original on 25 October 2012 4238: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4037:, the world's largest refugee camp. 2980:Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League 2597:adding citations to reliable sources 2568: 1887:in present-day northern Shan State. 7414: 6809:State Peace and Development Council 6536:Understanding Burma's SPDC Generals 6371:(Illustrated ed.). Zed Books. 6143:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. 6069: 6004:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 4526: 4256: 4042:general election on 8 November 2020 4023:military crackdown against Rohingya 3833:2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms 3756:State Peace and Development Council 3644:State Peace and Development Council 3546:State Peace and Development Council 2685:strike came to be commemorated as ' 2541:Administrative and economic reforms 2065:Taungoo, led by its ambitious king 1863:The most powerful Shan states were 1560:, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom. 541:State Peace and Development Council 124: 24: 6624:Was the uprising of 1988 worth it? 5906:from the original on 27 March 2021 5697: 5590:"Rohingya crisis: How we got here" 5209:Booth, Jenny (24 September 2007). 4715: 4474:from the original on 4 August 2020 3982:a painful one. The 2017 murder of 3297:newspapers were also closed down. 3231:an army of Kuomintang (KMT) forces 2970:which led to the formation of the 2537:and his family to exile in India. 2086:expanded its authority up to Pagan 1730: 1324: 1293:Early history (to the 9th century) 25: 7813: 6448: 6434: 6362:. Australia: Griffith University. 6354:(Rowman & Littlefield, 2017). 6226:Luce, G. H.; et al. (1939). 5704:Beech, Hannah (31 January 2021). 4981:"Thakin Kodaw Hmaing (1876–1964)" 4199: 3793: 3701:International Labour Organization 3082:Dorman-Smith was replaced by Sir 2753:May 1930 saw the founding of the 2079:Taungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41) 1713: 1632:in Southeast Asia, recognised by 7775: 7766: 7765: 7361: 7349: 7338: 7337: 6616:The Packard Humanities Institute 6190:(Oxford University Press, 2016) 5191:UN envoy warns of Myanmar crisis 5172:from the original on 30 May 2017 5054:from the original on 11 May 2011 5018:24 November 2008. Archived from 4933:. Online Burma/Myanmar Library. 4066:Myanmar civil war (2021–present) 3866:United States Secretary of State 3859:National Human Rights Commission 3648:human rights violations in Burma 3369:Kachin Independence Organisation 3202:(RBA) led by Communist officers 2978:. The AFO was later renamed the 2814:wielding batons, which killed a 2658:Young Men's Buddhist Association 2573: 2331: 2312: 2290: 2037: 2025: 2004: 1988: 1542: 1521: 1509: 1361: 1346: 1149: 406: 342: 39: 6618:, Persian Texts in Translation. 6501:a veritable mine of information 6101:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research 5971:Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2005). 5918: 5888: 5858: 5828: 5798: 5768: 5738: 5588:Katie Hunt (13 November 2017). 5581: 5550: 5524: 5502:"A Blow to Myanmar's Democracy" 5494: 5475: 5445: 5413: 5382: 5353: 5327: 5259: 5233: 5202: 5118: 5092: 5080:from the original on 7 May 2005 5066: 5034: 5003: 4973: 4923: 4891: 4874: 4857: 4831: 4690: 4670: 4645: 4619: 4487: 4451: 4394: 4328: 4055: 4033:, resulting in the creation of 3735:non-violence: national movement 3384:Burma Socialist Programme Party 2829: 2820:Htaung thoun ya byei ayeidawbon 2584:needs additional citations for 2558: 2159:where they sold Burmese Sugar ( 1939:, which ruled over what is now 1445: 7733:British Indian Ocean Territory 6308:. Cambridge University Press. 6211:. Cambridge University Press. 6020:. Cambridge University Press. 5954:References and further reading 4931:"The Panglong Agreement, 1947" 4460:"The Mediterranean Connection" 4265: 4074:detained the state counsellor 3994:. Mr. Ko Ni's murder deprived 3705:International Court of Justice 3091:successfully in London as the 2901:". When the Japanese occupied 2421:capture much of Lan Na by 1775 2419:, and in addition, went on to 2088:by 1544 but failed to conquer 1967:First Toungoo Empire (1510–99) 1675:northeast of the capital, and 1494: 1421:). In 832, the Nanzhao sacked 1243:First Mongol invasion of Burma 13: 1: 6327:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 6249:389.10081 (2017): 1841–1850. 6207:Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). 5557:Fisher, Jonah (8 July 2016). 4907:. August 1997. Archived from 4458:Scott, William Henry (1989). 4165:Burmese monarchs' family tree 4046:National League for Democracy 3883:National League for Democracy 3715:2007 anti-government protests 3675:National League for Democracy 3561:National League for Democracy 3434:A young staff officer called 3306:new general elections in 1960 3233:under the command of General 2485:. Bodawpaya's successor King 1890:Minor states included Kalay, 1297: 7018:State Administration Council 6764:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 6606:Pyu Homeland in Samon Valley 6528:Online Burma/Myanmar Library 6522:Online Burma/Myanmar Library 6516:Online Burma/Myanmar Library 6499:Online Burma/Myanmar Library 6386:Steinberg, David I. (2009). 6285:Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). 6188:Myanmar: A political history 6035:Charney, Michael W. (2006). 6016:Charney, Michael W. (2009). 4987:1 March 2000. Archived from 3930: 3826: 3762:, which caused the price of 3539: 3476:Crisis and the 1988 Uprising 3337:History of Burma (1962–1988) 3330: 3163:Internal conflict in Myanmar 3157:History of Burma (1948–1962) 3150: 3142:, unlike India or Pakistan. 2836:Japanese occupation of Burma 2410:four invasions by Qing China 2280:Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885) 2274:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 2261:. In 1727, southern Lan Na ( 1790:Confederation of Shan States 496:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 7: 6819:2011–2015 political reforms 6547:Strangers in a Changed Land 6461:and webdesigners in Myanmar 6390:. Oxford University Press. 6367:Smith, Martin John (1991). 6287:Early Landscapes of Myanmar 5324:. Archived 10 October 2008) 4187:Timeline of Burmese history 4172:List of presidents of Burma 4148: 3418: 3388:Union Revolutionary Council 3348:Union Revolutionary Council 3136:Burma Independence Act 1947 2722:, named after the mythical 2136:-backed Portuguese rule at 1956:Toungoo dynasty (1510–1752) 1214:people who established the 1131:National Library of Myanmar 1121:National Museum (Naypyidaw) 551:2011–2015 political reforms 10: 7818: 6306:The Making of Modern Burma 6164:Hudson, Bob (March 2005), 6012:(May 2020), 70#4 pp 90–93. 5925:Mike (15 September 2022). 5532:"Myanmar under Transition" 5012:"A Coup Against Than Shwe" 4627:"A Short History of Burma" 4059: 3954:The resounding victory of 3830: 3797: 3718: 3614:, hill tribes such as the 3603:producing a constitution. 3543: 3479: 3334: 3255:People's Republic of China 3160: 3154: 3038:and officially joined the 2833: 2562: 2549: 2450: 2381: 2294: 2283: 1970: 1959: 1920: 1845: 1803: 1734: 1673:Kyaukse agricultural basin 1498: 1487: 1449: 1328: 1301: 1136:National Theatre of Yangon 7761: 7720: 7680: 7422: 7333: 7199: 7131: 7122: 7070: 7061: 6939: 6930: 6853: 6844: 6687: 6675:Myanmar is also known as 6673: 6669: 6417:Thailand: A Short History 6148:Htin Aung, Maung (1967). 6084:10.1017/s0026749x04001040 6018:A History of Modern Burma 5150:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4955:Boudreau, Vincent (2004) 4316:Luce et al. 1939: 264–282 4138:National Unity Government 4099: 3821:World Health Organization 3733:with a banner that reads 3121:assassination of Aung San 2972:Anti-Fascist Organisation 2121:[sɛʔtɕàwədémɪ́ɰ̃] 2114: 2075:history of Southeast Asia 1935:, was the capital of the 1826:. The energetic reign of 1814:- kingdom was founded as 1203: 7482:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6944:Administrative divisions 6475:16 February 2009 at the 6415:Wyatt, David K. (2003). 6289:. Bangkok: River Books. 5668:, retrieved May 26, 2020 5654:21 December 2020 at the 5625:24 February 2021 at the 5217:. London. Archived from 5196:28 February 2008 at the 5076:. SLORC. 5 August 1989. 4192: 4160:List of Burmese monarchs 4100:အာဏာဖီဆန်ရေးလှုပ်ရှားမှု 4062:2021 Myanmar coup d'état 3844:addresses crowds at the 3582:in 1991, and also faced 3524:Communist Party of Burma 3457:to flee to neighbouring 3200:Revolutionary Burma Army 2962:, and Socialist leaders 2855:Communist Party of Burma 2660:(YMBA), modelled on the 2512:Second Anglo-Burmese War 2378:Wars with Siam and China 2297:Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War 2257:began raiding the upper 2130:Filipe de Brito e Nicote 1584:Pagan Empire (1044–1297) 1484:Bagan dynasty (849–1297) 1126:National Museum (Yangon) 7743:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 7314:Twelve Auspicious Rites 7095:Myanmar kyat (currency) 6444:(2011) 45#4 pp 759–790. 6323:Myint-U, Thant (2006). 6304:Myint-U, Thant (2001). 6120:Hall, D. G. E. (1960). 6000:Callahan, Mary (2003). 5963:(Reaktion Books, 2013) 4607:Lieberman 2003: 202–206 4580:Htin Aung 1967: 214–215 4523:Lieberman 2003: 184–187 4439:Htin Aung 1967: 117–118 4418:Lieberman 2003: 119–123 4409:Lieberman 2003: 112–119 4182:Prime Minister of Burma 4035:Kutupalong refugee camp 3873:United States President 3741:, in the background is 3654:followed suit in 2000. 3493:Least Developed Country 3140:Commonwealth of Nations 2907:Burma Independence Army 2531:Third Anglo-Burmese War 2492:First Anglo-Burmese War 2322:was the founder of the 2069:and his deputy general 1842:Shan States (1287–1563) 1531:was the founder of the 1218:ranged as far south as 624:Twelve Auspicious Rites 224:British colonial period 6543:, Retrieved 2006-10-31 6406:The history of Myanmar 6358:Selth, Andrew (2012). 6139:Harvey, G. E. (1925). 5694:retrieved May 26, 2020 5636:retrieved May 26, 2020 4823:Smith, Martin (1991). 4502:Liberman 2003: 158–164 4334:See (Aung-Thwin 2005). 4134:People's Defence Force 4090: 4018: 3925:local insurgent groups 3849: 3772:compressed natural gas 3746: 3699:In November 2006, the 3436:Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint 3245:), and supporting the 3063:Following World War II 2917: 2812:Indian Imperial Police 2763:(an ironic name since 2750: 2681: 2632: 2502: 2196: 2148: 1944: 1723: 1597: 1580:'s accession in 1044. 1425:, which had overtaken 1212:Tibeto-Burman-speaking 1198:(also known as Burma; 6159:online free to borrow 5658:, December 27, 2019, 4430:Fernquest 2005: 20–50 4352:Lieberman 2003: 90–91 4088: 4052:, won only 33 seats. 4012: 3941:Military coup of 1962 3891:2010 general election 3881:Suu Kyi's party, the 3840: 3831:Further information: 3728: 3451:King Dragon operation 3178:White Flag Communists 3073:Reginald Dorman-Smith 3030:(Armed Forces) Day'. 2915: 2744: 2679: 2630: 2565:British rule in Burma 2500: 2370:and the English from 2194: 2146: 1980:First Taungoo Empire 1930: 1721: 1592:Pagan Kingdom during 1591: 1304:Prehistory of Myanmar 797:Burmese folk religion 768:Traditional festivals 198:Nyaungyan Restoration 125:Warring states period 51:Prehistory of Myanmar 7657:United Arab Emirates 7151:Environmental issues 7110:Units of measurement 6757:First Toungoo Empire 6487:The Origins of Pagan 6442:Modern Asian Studies 6072:Modern Asian Studies 5872:. 20 February 2021. 5683:2 April 2021 at the 5429:. 13 November 2015. 4911:on 27 September 2007 4631:New Internationalist 4616:Charney 2006: 96–107 3962:from a closely held 3897:Constituency in the 3814:World Food Programme 3667:roadmap to democracy 3657:The military placed 3565:National Unity Party 3404:UN Secretary-General 3302:caretaker government 3224:Karen National Union 2651:Anglo-Burmese people 2593:improve this article 2517:After the war, King 2384:Burmese–Siamese wars 2181:Burmese-Siamese Wars 1973:First Toungoo Empire 1061:World Heritage Sites 489:First Toungoo Empire 242:Nationalist movement 206:Restored Hanthawaddy 192:First Toungoo Empire 168:1287–1539, 1550–1552 7684:limited recognition 6789:Japanese occupation 6742:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 6583:Heroes and Villains 6559:Behold a New Empire 6520:Federalism in Burma 6350:Seekins, Donald M. 6256:Mark, Karl (1853). 6186:Kipgen, Nehginpao. 6182:on 26 November 2013 5842:. 3 February 2021. 5812:. 2 February 2021. 5782:. 2 February 2021. 5752:. 31 January 2021. 5508:. 3 February 2017. 5022:on 17 February 2009 4991:on 16 February 2009 4343:Htin Aung 1967: 329 4307:Myint-U 2006: 51–52 3919:, while NLD leader 3600:National Convention 3424:Thakin Kodaw Hmaing 3170:Red Flag Communists 3146:Independent Myanmar 3108:Panglong Conference 3055:in September 1945. 2936:Burma National Army 2745:The paddle steamer 2726:— the enemy of the 2014:was the founder of 1822:, the Pegu and the 1806:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 1501:Early Bagan Kingdom 1251:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 1229:Another group, the 924:and performing arts 521:Japanese occupation 474:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 274:Ne Win dictatorship 248:Japanese occupation 236:Resistance movement 166:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 117:Early Pagan Kingdom 7802:History of Myanmar 7374:Outline of Myanmar 7090:Telecommunications 7006:commander-in-chief 6799:Socialist Republic 6747:Kingdom of Mrauk U 6408:(ABC-CLIO, 2013). 6198:Kyaw Thet (1962). 6152:A History of Burma 5711:The New York Times 5488:The New York Times 5463:on 27 January 2016 5376:9 May 2008 at the 5314:on 10 October 2008 5168:. 15 August 2007. 5106:. 16 November 2006 4702:www.britannica.com 4657:www.britannica.com 4562:Marx 1853: 201–202 4464:Philippine Studies 4400:Lieberman 2003: 24 4391:Htin Aung 1967: 34 4373:Harvey 1925: 24–25 4130:Armed insurgencies 4091: 4019: 3903:Burmese Parliament 3885:, participated in 3850: 3810:Irrawaddy Division 3747: 3721:Saffron Revolution 3584:economic sanctions 3453:, causing 250,000 3367:insurgency by the 3247:Bandung Conference 3194:, a member of the 3115:. On 19 July 1947 2942:Joining the Allies 2918: 2883:Chinese Communists 2816:Rangoon University 2783:Rangoon University 2751: 2682: 2633: 2503: 2453:Anglo-Burmese Wars 2197: 2149: 2104:(1564, 1569), and 1945: 1923:History of Rakhine 1917:Arakan (1287–1785) 1724: 1654:Vajrayana Buddhist 1646:culture of Myanmar 1625:to Pagan's realm. 1619:Chao Phraya Valley 1605:, at least to the 1598: 1395:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 1275:Anglo-Burmese wars 1255:Kingdom of Mrauk U 1224:Theravada Buddhism 1156:Myanmar portal 531:Socialist Republic 479:Kingdom of Mrauk U 399:Culture of Myanmar 349:Myanmar portal 280:SLORC / SPDC junta 230:Anglo-Burmese Wars 178:Kingdom of Mrauk U 99:Arakanese kingdoms 67:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 33:History of Myanmar 7789: 7788: 7726:other territories 7382: 7381: 7329: 7328: 7166:Human trafficking 7118: 7117: 7057: 7056: 7025:Political parties 6964:Foreign relations 6926: 6925: 6717:Myinsaing Kingdom 6683: 6682: 6426:978-0-300-08475-7 6397:978-0-19-539068-1 6334:978-0-374-16342-6 6296:978-974-9863-31-2 6218:978-0-521-80496-7 6131:978-1-4067-3503-1 6057:Missing or empty 6027:978-0-521-61758-1 5902:. 28 March 2021. 5780:The Myanmar Times 5130:Asia Times Online 4886:978-0-7658-0352-8 4686:978-1-4221-0383-8 4589:Myint-U 2006: 133 4571:Myint-U 2006: 113 4550:Myint-U 2006: 109 4532:Dai 2004: 145–189 4177:Politics of Burma 3968:democratic system 3913:absolute majority 3580:Nobel Peace Prize 3392:People's Assembly 3216:Arakanese Muslims 2781:, leaders of the 2625: 2624: 2617: 2398:Burmese civil war 2394:Ayutthaya Kingdom 2348: 2347: 2304:Konbaung dynasty 2153:Rajahnate of Cebu 2090:Arakan in 1545–47 2059: 2058: 1757:(1297–1364), and 1741:Founded in 1364, 1708:Myinsaing Kingdom 1623:Strait of Malacca 1375: 1374: 1192: 1191: 449:Myinsaing Kingdom 383: 382: 286:Political reforms 59:200 BCE – 1050 CE 16:(Redirected from 7809: 7779: 7769: 7768: 7738:Christmas Island 7424:Sovereign states 7409: 7402: 7395: 7386: 7385: 7365: 7353: 7352: 7341: 7340: 7299:National symbols 7129: 7128: 7085:Opium production 7068: 7067: 6937: 6936: 6851: 6850: 6769:Konbaung dynasty 6671: 6670: 6652: 6645: 6638: 6629: 6628: 6594:Lion City Lament 6430: 6401: 6382: 6363: 6347: 6344:History of Burma 6338: 6319: 6300: 6281: 6275: 6271: 6269: 6261: 6242: 6232: 6222: 6203: 6200:History of Burma 6183: 6181: 6175:, archived from 6170: 6157: 6155: 6144: 6135: 6116: 6095: 6066: 6060: 6055: 6053: 6045: 6040: 6031: 6005: 5986: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5892: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5832: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5821: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5701: 5695: 5675: 5669: 5643: 5637: 5629:March 14, 2018, 5616: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5543: 5534:. 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6333: 6320: 6314: 6301: 6295: 6282: 6253: 6243: 6223: 6217: 6204: 6195: 6184: 6161: 6145: 6136: 6130: 6117: 6096: 6067: 6041: 6032: 6026: 6013: 6006: 5997: 5987: 5981: 5968: 5955: 5952: 5949: 5948: 5917: 5887: 5857: 5827: 5797: 5767: 5737: 5696: 5687:May 14, 2020, 5670: 5666:United Nations 5638: 5632:New York Times 5611: 5580: 5549: 5523: 5506:New York Times 5493: 5474: 5444: 5412: 5381: 5363: 5352: 5326: 5258: 5232: 5221:on 25 May 2010 5201: 5183: 5157: 5117: 5091: 5065: 5033: 5002: 4972: 4948: 4922: 4890: 4873: 4856: 4830: 4714: 4689: 4676:Tarun Khanna, 4669: 4644: 4618: 4609: 4600: 4598:Marx 1853: 656 4591: 4582: 4573: 4564: 4552: 4543: 4534: 4525: 4513: 4504: 4495: 4486: 4470:(2): 131–144. 4450: 4441: 4432: 4420: 4411: 4402: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4366: 4354: 4345: 4336: 4327: 4318: 4309: 4297: 4283: 4274: 4272:Bougon, France 4264: 4262:Hudson 2005: 1 4255: 4246: 4237: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4168: 4167: 4157: 4150: 4147: 4057: 4054: 3932: 3929: 3828: 3825: 3806:Cyclone Nargis 3795: 3794:Cyclone Nargis 3792: 3777:Buddhist monks 3760:fuel subsidies 3729:Protesters in 3719:Main article: 3716: 3713: 3652:European Union 3544:Main article: 3541: 3538: 3480:Main article: 3477: 3474: 3396:Pyithu Hluttaw 3335:Main article: 3332: 3329: 3321:Sao Shwe Thaik 3155:Main article: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3064: 3061: 3051:conference in 2943: 2940: 2844:State of Burma 2840:Burma campaign 2831: 2828: 2808:mounted police 2691:Wunthanu athin 2666:Wunthanu athin 2623: 2622: 2581: 2579: 2572: 2563:Main article: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2523:Karenni States 2459:King Bodawpaya 2451:Main article: 2448: 2445: 2379: 2376: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2318: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2295:Main article: 2292: 2289: 2284:Main article: 2281: 2278: 2259:Chindwin River 2218:His successor 2188: 2185: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2054: 2043: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2016:Toungoo Empire 2010: 2003: 2001: 1994: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1971:Main article: 1968: 1965: 1960:Main article: 1957: 1954: 1921:Main article: 1918: 1915: 1896:Hopong (Hopon) 1875:, followed by 1846:Main article: 1843: 1840: 1804:Main article: 1801: 1798: 1743:Kingdom of Ava 1737:Kingdom of Ava 1735:Main article: 1732: 1729: 1715: 1714:Small kingdoms 1712: 1650:Thaton Kingdom 1585: 1582: 1570:Chindwin River 1548: 1541: 1540: 1539: 1527: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1499:Main article: 1496: 1493: 1488:Main article: 1485: 1482: 1468:in modern-day 1450:Main article: 1447: 1444: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1367: 1360: 1358: 1352: 1345: 1340: 1339: 1329:Main article: 1326: 1323: 1302:Main article: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289:in the world. 1247:Kingdom of Ava 1204:မြန်မာ့သမိုင်း 1190: 1189: 1187: 1186: 1179: 1172: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1057: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1001: 1000: 997: 996: 991: 986: 980: 974: 973: 972: 969: 968: 965: 964: 959: 954: 949: 948: 947: 937: 936: 935: 927: 920: 919: 918: 915: 914: 911: 910: 904: 898: 897: 896: 893: 892: 889: 888: 883: 878: 876:Visual culture 873: 868: 863: 857: 851: 850: 849: 846: 845: 842: 841: 836: 831: 830: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 807:Burmese pagoda 799: 793: 787: 786: 785: 782: 781: 778: 777: 776: 775: 765: 760: 754: 750: 749: 748: 745: 744: 741: 740: 735: 730: 725: 723:Burmese snacks 720: 718:Burmese salads 715: 710: 704: 698: 697: 696: 693: 692: 689: 688: 682: 678: 677: 676: 673: 672: 669: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 642: 641: 631: 626: 620: 616: 615: 614: 611: 610: 607: 606: 601: 595: 589: 588: 587: 584: 583: 577: 576: 571: 570: 569: 568: 563: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 526:Union of Burma 523: 518: 513: 511:Karenni States 508: 503: 498: 493: 492: 491: 481: 476: 471: 466: 464:Kingdom of Ava 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 439:Thaton Kingdom 436: 431: 425: 424: 423: 417: 416: 415: 412: 411: 403: 402: 394: 393: 381: 380: 378: 377: 370: 363: 355: 352: 351: 338: 337: 336: 335: 334: 333: 323: 318: 313: 308: 300: 299: 298: 297: 296: 295: 289: 283: 277: 271: 256: 255: 254: 253: 252: 251: 245: 239: 233: 218: 217: 216: 215: 209: 203: 202: 201: 195: 183: 182: 181: 175: 169: 163: 162: 161: 155: 152:Kingdom of Ava 149: 143: 140:Pinya Kingdoms 122: 121: 120: 105: 104: 103: 102: 95: 94: 90:Thaton Kingdom 84: 83: 76: 75: 61: 60: 54: 53:11,000–200 BCE 45: 44: 36: 35: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7814: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7797: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7772: 7764: 7763: 7760: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7730: 7728: 7723: 7719: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7707:South Ossetia 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7689: 7687: 7685: 7679: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7410: 7405: 7403: 7398: 7396: 7391: 7390: 7387: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7360: 7358: 7357: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7336: 7335: 7332: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7202: 7198: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7156:Ethnic groups 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7121: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7072: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7060: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7043: 7040: 7036: 7033: 7032: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7011: 7007: 7004: 7002: 7001:military rule 6999: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6929: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6873:Deforestation 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6826: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6814:2007 protests 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6804:8888 Uprising 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6737:Prome Kingdom 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6722:Pinya Kingdom 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6712:Pagan Kingdom 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6678: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6653: 6648: 6646: 6641: 6639: 6634: 6633: 6630: 6623: 6620: 6617: 6613: 6610: 6607: 6604: 6601: 6600: 6599:The Irrawaddy 6595: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6587:The Irrawaddy 6584: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6576:The Irrawaddy 6572: 6569: 6566: 6565: 6564:The Irrawaddy 6560: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6552:The Irrawaddy 6548: 6545: 6542: 6541: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6521: 6518: 6515: 6512: 6509: 6506: 6503: 6500: 6497: 6494: 6491: 6489:by Bob Hudson 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6474: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6460: 6459:Thant Myint-U 6456: 6453: 6452: 6443: 6439: 6438: 6428: 6422: 6418: 6413: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6380: 6378:0-86232-868-3 6374: 6370: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6340: 6336: 6330: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6315:0-521-79914-7 6311: 6307: 6302: 6298: 6292: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6267: 6259: 6254: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6229: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6205: 6201: 6196: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6178: 6174: 6167: 6162: 6160: 6154: 6153: 6146: 6142: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6123: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6068: 6064: 6051: 6042: 6038: 6033: 6029: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6011: 6010:History Today 6007: 6003: 5998: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5982:0-8248-2886-0 5978: 5974: 5969: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5936: 5932: 5931:The Irrawaddy 5928: 5921: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5875: 5871: 5870:The Irrawaddy 5867: 5861: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5815: 5811: 5810:The Irrawaddy 5807: 5801: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5771: 5755: 5751: 5750:Bloomberg.com 5747: 5741: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5700: 5693: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5679: 5674: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5657: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5642: 5635: 5633: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5615: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5537: 5533: 5527: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5497: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5432: 5428: 5427: 5422: 5416: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5385: 5379: 5375: 5372: 5367: 5361: 5356: 5340: 5336: 5330: 5313: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5296: 5290: 5274: 5273: 5268: 5262: 5246: 5242: 5236: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5187: 5171: 5167: 5161: 5153: 5147: 5131: 5127: 5121: 5105: 5101: 5095: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5053: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5037: 5021: 5017: 5016:The Irrawaddy 5013: 5006: 4990: 4986: 4985:The Irrawaddy 4982: 4976: 4970: 4969:0-521-83989-0 4966: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4936: 4932: 4926: 4910: 4906: 4905: 4904:The Irrawaddy 4900: 4894: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4870: 4869:0-7864-1204-6 4866: 4860: 4844: 4840: 4834: 4826: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4703: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4595: 4586: 4577: 4568: 4559: 4557: 4547: 4538: 4529: 4520: 4518: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4425: 4415: 4406: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4361: 4359: 4349: 4340: 4331: 4322: 4313: 4304: 4302: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4278: 4268: 4259: 4250: 4241: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4198: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4166: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4146: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4125: 4120: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4096: 4087: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4016: 4015:Rakhine state 4011: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3909:2015 election 3906: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3824: 3822: 3817: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3791: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3712: 3710: 3709:forced labour 3706: 3702: 3697: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3676: 3670: 3668: 3663: 3660: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3601: 3595: 3593: 3590:with General 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3537: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3505:8888 Uprising 3502: 3496: 3494: 3488: 3483: 3482:8888 Uprising 3473: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3449:, called the 3448: 3444: 3439: 3437: 3432: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3419:Hmaing yabyei 3414: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3338: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3315:, started by 3314: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3296: 3295:Rangoon Daily 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3158: 3143: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3074: 3069: 3060: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2914: 2910: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2895:Hainan Island 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2771: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2678: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2629: 2619: 2616: 2608: 2605:December 2011 2598: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2582:This section 2580: 2576: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2556: 2547: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2483:British India 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2435:, 1803–1808, 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2406:defeated Siam 2403: 2399: 2395: 2389: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2340: 2339:Shwebo Palace 2334: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2315: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2291:Reunification 2287: 2277: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2255:Meitei people 2251: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2236: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2202: 2201:Nyaungyan Min 2193: 2184: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2145: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2125: 2122: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2051: 2047: 2040: 2035: 2028: 2023: 2022: 2017: 2013: 2007: 2002: 1999:'s accession. 1998: 1991: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1974: 1963: 1953: 1950: 1942: 1941:Rakhine State 1938: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1914: 1912: 1911:Prome Kingdom 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1849: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1787: 1786:Prome Kingdom 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1755:Pinya Kingdom 1752: 1749:(1287–1318), 1748: 1744: 1738: 1728: 1720: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1641: 1639: 1638:Chola dynasty 1635: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607:Salween River 1604: 1595: 1594:Narapatisithu 1590: 1581: 1579: 1573: 1571: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1545: 1534: 1533:Pagan Kingdom 1530: 1524: 1512: 1502: 1491: 1490:Bagan Kingdom 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1453: 1443: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1364: 1359: 1356: 1349: 1344: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1322: 1320: 1314: 1312: 1305: 1290: 1287: 1282: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1235:Pagan Kingdom 1232: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1201: 1197: 1185: 1180: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1114:Organisations 1110: 1109: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1050: 1049: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1009: 1003: 1002: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 981: 977: 971: 970: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 946: 943: 942: 941: 938: 934: 931: 930: 929: 928: 923: 917: 916: 909: 906: 905: 901: 895: 894: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 858: 854: 848: 847: 840: 837: 835: 832: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 817:Buddhābhiṣeka 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 804: 803: 800: 798: 795: 794: 790: 784: 783: 774: 771: 770: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 755: 747: 746: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 708:Burmese curry 706: 705: 701: 695: 694: 687: 684: 683: 675: 674: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 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Kingdom 156: 153: 150: 147: 144: 141: 137: 134: 133: 131: 130:Upper Myanmar 128: 127: 126: 123: 118: 115: 114: 112: 111:Pagan Kingdom 109: 108: 107: 106: 100: 97: 96: 91: 86: 85: 82:825?–1057? 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