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according to size, strength, speed, frequency of a series, and hardness or softness. The
Byzantine physician John Zacharias Aktouarios states that a physician needs an exceptionally sensitive hand and a clear mind. John Zacharias Aktouarios also had a large impact on the field of urology. In Byzantine diagnostics urine was used to identify different types of illness. John Zacharias Aktouarios created a vial that separated urine into eleven different sections. The section in which the sediments or different colors appeared in the vial correlated to a different body part. For instance, if there were clouds on top of the vial this was thought to represent infections of the head.
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create hospices (xenons) and to expand these institutions into specialized medical centers (iatreons or nosokomeions). Hospitals were usually separated between men and women. Although the remains of these hospitals have not been discovered by archaeologists, recordings of hospitals from the
Byzantine Empire describe large buildings that had the core feature of an open hearth. The establishments of the Byzantine Empire resembled the beginning of what we now know as modern hospitals.
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to a point, let the knob of the probe be applied by which the intestines will be pressed deep down. The prominence, then, of the peritoneum, formed on each side of the knob of the probe, are to be joined together by sutures, and then we extract the probe, neither cutting the peritoneum nor removing the testicle, nor anything else, but curing it with applications used for fresh wounds." Other types of surgery occurred during this time and were described in Paul of Aegina's work,
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312:, survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge. This compendium, written in the late seventh century, remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years. This tradition of compilation continued from around the tenth century into the twentieth through the genre of medical writings known as
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and the dwindling population of
Constantinople due to plague and war. Nevertheless, Byzantine medicine is extremely important both in terms of new discoveries made in that period (at a time when Western Europe was in turmoil), the collection of ancient Greek and Roman knowledge, and its dissemination
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in the 900s. One of the conjoined twins had already died, so surgeons attempted to separate the dead twin from the surviving twin. The result was partly successful as the remaining twin lived for three days after separation. The next case of separating conjoined twins was recorded in 1689 in
Germany
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was at the forefront of surgery. He describes the operation to fix a hernia writing, "After making the incision to the extent of three fingers' breadth transversely across the tumor to the groin, and removing the membranes and fat, and the peritoneum being exposed in the middle where it is raised up
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building new hospitals, all of which were located in
Constantinople. Outside of Constantinople, there is evidence of a hospital in Thessalonica that along with providing beds and shelter for its patients also distributed medicine to walk-in patients in the twelfth century. The 5th century Byzantine
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had hospitals specifically for soldiers and slaves. However, none of these establishments were for the public. The hospitals in
Byzantium were originally started by the church to act as a place for the poor and homeless to have access to basic amenities. Philanthropy provided the initial impulse to
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Throughout the Middle Ages, the actual number of hospitals in the empire is difficult to track. Some experts estimate over 169 hospitals. These hospitals varied tremendously in size. The large hospitals, such as the one in
Constantinople, was estimated to have over two hundred beds. Yet most other
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Byzantine diagnostic techniques centered around physician's observations of patient's pulses and urine. Also, with certain diseases, physicians may have examined excrement, breathing rate, and speech production. In the field of pulses, physicians followed the teachings of Galen, identifying pulse
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Following the influx in hospitals during the mid to late fourth century, hospitals diffused across the empire. By the beginning of the fifth-century hospitals had spread across the
Mediterranean to Ostia, Rome, and Hippo. However, these hospitals did not spark a proliferation of more hospitals in
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played a key role in the building and maintenance of hospitals. Many hospitals were built and maintained by bishops in their respective prefectures. Hospitals were usually built near or around churches, and great importance was laid on the idea of healing through salvation. When medicine failed,
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between the years 344 to 358 and was a place for strangers and migrants to find refuge. Around the same time, a deacon named
Marathonius was in charge of hospitals and monasteries in Constantinople. His main objective was to improve urban aesthetics, illustrating hospitals as a major part of
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laid much of the foundation for later study in urology. However, from the latter 12th
Century to the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, there was very little further dissemination of medical knowledge, largely due to the turmoil the Empire was facing on both fronts, following its
361:, arguably the most prolific Byzantine compiler of medical knowledge, frequently made note of standing medical assumptions that were proved incorrect. Several of his works, along with those of other Byzantine physicians, were translated into Latin, and eventually, during the
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This work references over forty types of surgery and around fifteen surgical instruments. Additionally, there is evidence of people being hired to keep the surgical instruments clean called "akonetes". This exhibits the attention to surgery that Byzantine hospitals had.
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After diagnosing the type of humor through pulse or urinary observations, physicians would then try to expunge the humor by prescribing dietary changes, medicine, or bloodletting. Another way that people were treated was through surgery.
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was still being used as a hospital textbook in Constantinople nearly a thousand years after it was created in that city; marginalia in the manuscript record that it was ordered to be rebound by a Greek nurse named Nathaniel in 1406.
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Byzantine cities. These early hospitals were designed for the poor. In fact, most hospitals throughout the Byzantine Empire were almost exclusively utilized by the poor. This may be due to descriptions of hospitals similar to "
522:. Evidence of the use of ancient Greek medicinal ideas is seen through Byzantine physician's reliance on humors to diagnose illness. Byzantine physicians followed the Hippocratic Theory that the body consisted of four
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exemplify the use of medicine to treat all types of diseases, including what he described as "melancholy" which modern doctors would describe as depression. Some of these pharmaceuticals are still used today such as
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from c. 400 AD to 1453 AD. Byzantine medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors. In preserving medical practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influenced
526:, blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These humors were connected to particular seasons, hot or cold and dry or moist. In order to identify these humors Byzantine physicians relied heavily on Galen's works.
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In the actual practice of medicine, there is evidence of Christian influence. John Zacharias Aktouarios recommends the use of Holy Water mixed with a pellitory plant to act as a way to cure epilepsy.
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documents the availability of clean clothes and sheets for its inhabitants. Additionally, Bishop Rabbula and the hospital in Edessa is known as the first hospital for the sick as well as the poor.
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There is a debate between scholars as to why these institutions were started by the church. Whatever the case for these hospitals, they began to diffuse across the empire. Soon after,
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293:. The concept of the hospital appeared in Byzantine Empire as an institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients because of the ideals of
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Byzantine diagnosis typically relied on the Hippocratic tradition. Insanity, and most importantly "Madness" was typically explained by an imbalance in the humors.
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who called the hospital a stairway to heaven, implying that it aimed only to ease death for the chronically or terminally ill rather than promote recovery".
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and Italy. Also in the fifth century, there is evidence of hospitals sprouting up in Byzantine Egypt and Syria. In Syria, the hospital described in
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After the sixth century, hospitals slowly became a normal part of civic life. Evidence of construction of new hospitals originates from the
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stood out as a center of medicine during the Middle Ages, which was aided by its crossroads location, wealth, and accumulated knowledge.
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Anne McClanan, "“Weapons to Probe the Womb”: The Material Culture of Abortion and Contraception in the Early Byzantine Period," in
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was one of the most important physicians of Byzantium and exemplified how medicine had a large impact on Byzantine life.
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The Byzantine Empire was one of the first empires to have flourishing medical establishments. Prior to that, the united
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606:(professor of ancient Greek and Rome history with a speciality in ancient medicine) "accessible to all and... simple".
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376:, remained the principal pharmaceutical code of the Parisian medical faculty until 1651, while the Byzantine tract of
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From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism & the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity
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Late antiquity ushered in a revolution in medical science, and historical records often mention civilian
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Christianity also played a key role in propagating the idea of charity. Medicine was made, according to
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357:, though Byzantine doctors expanded upon the knowledge preserved from Greek and Roman sources.
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349:. Like most Byzantine physicians, this author drew his material from ancient authorities like
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2004:
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Horden, Peregrine (2005). "The Earliest Hospitals in Byzantium, Western Europe, and Islam".
325:(although battlefield medicine and wartime triage were recorded well before Imperial Rome).
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Innovation in Byzantine medicine: the writings of John Zacharias Aktouarios (c.1275-c.1330)
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304:. Their records tended to include both diagnostic explanations and technical drawings. The
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Bouras-Vallianatos, Petros (25 April 2015). "The Art of Healing in the Byzantine Empire".
388:, in Venice in 1517. Therefore, it could be argued that previous misrepresentations about
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are wrong. It is known, for example, that the late twelfth-century Italian physician (
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developed a place for the sick in which provided refuge for the sick and homeless.
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The medical practices of the Byzantine Empire originated from the Greek physician
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hospitals from this time seem to only have numbers of beds in the tens of people.
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In addition to surgery, pharmaceuticals were also a common way to cure sickness.
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Marie-Hélène Congourdeau, "La médecine byzantine: Une réévaluation nécessaire",
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Miller, Timothy (1985). "The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire".
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Venance Grumel, "La profession médicale à Byzance à l’époque des Comnènes",
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The Henry e. Sigerist Supplements to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine
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wrote of over six hundred drugs that he used to try and cure illnesses. His
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Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into
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911:"The Case of Conjoined Twins in 10th Century Byzantium - Medievalists.net"
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1083:. Munich: Institut fĂĽr Byzantinistik und neugriechische Philologie, 1982.
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doctors would ask their patients to pray. This often involved icons of
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673:
Temkin, Owsei (1962). "Byzantine Medicine: Tradition and Empiricism".
419:, who lived in the early 14th Century in Constantinople. His works on
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was translated and published in Latin by the post-Byzantine humanist
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1128:, 2nd ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
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The material culture of sex, procreation, and marriage in premodern
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753:"The establishment of the hospital-system in the Byzantine Empire"
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Another Byzantine treatise, that of the thirteenth century doctor
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The first record of separating conjoined twins took place in the
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Paul of Aegina: Epitome - On The Fracture of the Thigh and Nose
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Owsei Temkin, "Byzantine Medicine: Tradition and Empiricism",
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Arguably, the first Byzantine physician was the author of the
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Health and Disease in Byzantine Crete (7th-12th Centuries AD)
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being simply a 'carrier' of Ancient Medical knowledge to the
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1260:
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Walking Corpses: Leprosy in Byzantium and the Medieval West
926:"THE UNSPEAKABLE HISTORY OF THORACOPAGUS TWINS' SEPARATION"
400:) was influenced by the treatises of the Byzantine doctors
381:
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and fostered the Western rebirth of medicine during the
1088:
Histoire des lépreux au Moyen-Âge: Une société d’exclus
1036:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 3.
1135:. Ithaca, NY–London: Cornell University Press, 2014.
831:
Mazal, Otto. "Der Wiener Dioscurides" vol. 1, p. 16
732:(10). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins: 142–146.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
853:
1126:The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire
1121:, New York, Palgrave, 2002. ISBN 978-0-312-24001.
429:to both Renaissance Italy and the Islamic world.
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16:Common medical practices of the Byzantine Empire
2016:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
1059:"Christianity: Curing and caring for the sick"
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873:. Leipzig and Berlin: Heiberg. pp. 9–17.
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993:"Insanity in Byzantine and Islamic Medicine"
954:"Insanity in Byzantine and Islamic Medicine"
886:"The Life and Times of Alexander of Tralles"
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595:, patron saints of medicine and doctors.
518:and Roman ethnic Greek Citizen Physician
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
3598:Hospitals established in the 6th century
3593:Hospitals established in the 5th century
3588:Hospitals established in the 4th century
1235:
1057:Jan Pelikan, Jaroslav (13 August 2022).
791:The Journal of Interdisciplinary History
711:. University of Chicago Press. Page 349.
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1131:Timothy S. Miller and John W. Nesbitt,
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415:The last great Byzantine physician was
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1537:Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
1286:Traditional healers of Southern Africa
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484:. In his book, he describes emperors
341:manuscript, created circa 515 AD for
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47:adding citations to reliable sources
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1490:Medieval medicine of Western Europe
644:Medieval medicine of Western Europe
308:, written by the leading physician
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1356:Traditional Alaska Native medicine
1178:", Oxford University Press, 2020.
1081:Das Bad in der byzantinischen Zeit
1073:
445:The first hospital was erected by
14:
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3514:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
1189:
923:
834:
775:
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709:The Beginnings of Western Science
629:Medical Compendium in Seven Books
306:Medical Compendium in Seven Books
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1609:
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1104:54/15 (15 Oct. 2004): 1733–1737.
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1903:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
1725:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
1569:History of alternative medicine
1454:Traditional Vietnamese medicine
1424:Sri Lankan traditional medicine
1140:Symposium on Byzantine Medicine
1050:
1023:
984:
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903:
884:Scarborough, John (July 1997).
578:
34:needs additional citations for
2988:Great Palace of Constantinople
2729:Patriarchate of Constantinople
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1444:Traditional Mongolian medicine
1321:Brazilian traditional medicine
877:
862:
825:
744:
701:
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1:
1616:Category:Traditional medicine
659:
471:The Life of Rabbula of Edessa
332:
3450:University of Constantinople
3031:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
2381:
2181:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
1870:Byzantine successor states (
1449:Traditional Tibetan medicine
1434:Traditional Chinese medicine
1392:Iranian traditional medicine
1326:Chumash traditional medicine
1276:Traditional African medicine
1172:Petros Bouras-Vallianatos, "
869:Aegineta, Paulus (1921–24).
619:Iranian traditional medicine
509:
497:manuscript now known as the
432:
7:
3120:Saint Catherine's Monastery
2176:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
2171:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
1669:
1439:Traditional Korean medicine
1109:Revue des Ă©tudes byzantines
1030:Crislip, Andrew T. (2005).
612:
369:, into English and French.
144:Aristocracy and bureaucracy
10:
3614:
3509:Neo-Byzantine architecture
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2130:Comes sacrarum largitionum
1281:Traditional Hausa medicine
757:Orvostorteneti Kozlemenyek
345:, the daughter of Emperor
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1429:Traditional Thai medicine
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1251:Ancient Egyptian medicine
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572:several centuries later.
2653:Droungarios of the Fleet
1485:Medicine in ancient Rome
803:10.1162/0022195052564243
707:Lindberg, David. (1992)
380:(thirteenth century) on
3167:Early Byzantine mosaics
2529:Domestic of the Schools
1138:John Scarborough, ed.,
1063:Encyclopædia Britannica
600:Oregon State University
424:resurrection after the
276:encompasses the common
3484:Byzantine commonwealth
2246:Praetorian prefectures
2166:Logothetes tou genikou
2140:Quaestor sacri palatii
2135:Comes rerum privatarum
1908:Fall of Constantinople
1847:Sack of Constantinople
1475:Ancient Greek medicine
1382:Georgian folk medicine
991:Dols, Michael (1984).
952:Dols, Michael (1984).
3184:Komnenian renaissance
3179:Macedonian period art
3084:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
3056:Walls of Thessaloniki
2156:Logothetes tou dromou
1771:Twenty Years' Anarchy
1735:Valentinianic dynasty
1730:Constantinian dynasty
1161:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
1144:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
1090:. Paris: Imago, 1988.
997:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
958:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
675:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
459:St. Basil of Caesarea
378:Demetrios Pepagomenos
3381:Units of measurement
3115:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
3008:Pammakaristos Church
2856:Corpus Juris Civilis
2807:Missionary activity
2266:Exarchate of Ravenna
2092:Imperial bureaucracy
1589:Prehistoric medicine
1527:Alternative medicine
1237:Traditional medicine
562:Alexander of Tralles
549:Alexander of Tralles
541:Epitome of Medicine.
406:Alexander of Tralles
58:"Byzantine medicine"
43:improve this article
2905:Culture and society
2768:Ecumenical councils
2271:Exarchate of Africa
2261:Quaestura exercitus
2125:Magister officiorum
2120:Praetorian prefects
1763:Byzantine Dark Ages
1124:Timothy S. Miller,
649:History of medicine
490:Romanos I Lekapenos
447:Leontius of Antioch
3583:Byzantine medicine
3322:Flags and insignia
2968:Baths of Zeuxippus
2851:Codex Theodosianus
2741:Oriental Orthodoxy
1699:Later Roman Empire
1480:Byzantine medicine
1102:Revue du Praticien
1086:Françoise Bériac,
933:denysmontandon.com
751:JĂłzsa, L. (2011).
639:Vienna Dioscurides
499:Vienna Dioscorides
339:Vienna Dioscurides
274:Byzantine medicine
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3110:Nea Moni of Chios
2973:Blachernae Palace
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2861:Code of Justinian
2709:Eastern Orthodoxy
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2224:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2034:
1838:(1204–1453)
1623:
1622:
1256:Tabernanthe iboga
1093:Chryssi Bourbou,
1079:Albrecht Berger,
924:Denys, montadon.
913:. 4 January 2014.
452:Gregory Nazianzen
374:Nicholas Myrepsos
295:Christian charity
278:medical practices
271:
270:
125:Byzantine culture
119:
118:
111:
93:
3605:
3557:
3470:
3469:
3413:Imperial Library
3359:Byzantine Greeks
3100:Daphni Monastery
3051:Panagia Chalkeon
3046:Hagios Demetrios
3013:Prison of Anemas
2963:Basilica Cistern
2921:
2920:
2912:
2911:
2901:
2900:
2756:West Syriac Rite
2746:Alexandrian Rite
2697:
2696:
2690:Religion and law
2686:
2685:
2621:Maritime themata
2577:Palaiologan army
2430:Military manuals
2398:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2378:
2377:
2236:
2235:
2212:Megas logothetes
2063:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2044:
1918:By modern region
1839:
1786:
1785:(717–1204)
1717:
1679:
1678:
1666:
1665:
1657:Byzantine Empire
1650:
1643:
1636:
1627:
1626:
1613:
1612:
1341:Mapuche medicine
1303:
1230:
1223:
1216:
1207:
1206:
1196:Deno Geanakoplos
1111:7 (1949): 42–46.
1097:. Ashgate, 2011.
1067:
1066:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1027:
1021:
1020:
988:
982:
981:
949:
943:
942:
940:
939:
930:
921:
915:
914:
907:
901:
900:
898:
896:
881:
875:
874:
866:
860:
859:
851:
832:
829:
823:
822:
786:
773:
772:
748:
742:
741:
725:
712:
705:
699:
698:
670:
634:Islamic medicine
569:Byzantine Empire
467:Byzantine Africa
398:Roger of Salerno
287:Islamic medicine
282:Byzantine Empire
263:
256:
249:
146:
135:
121:
120:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3613:
3612:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3563:
3528:
3504:Cyrillic script
3475:
3456:
3401:
3385:
3285:
3267:Digenes Akritas
3243:
3188:
3129:
3093:Other locations
3088:
3060:
3017:
2949:
2938:Cross-in-square
2906:
2887:
2837:
2691:
2672:
2598:
2548:
2544:Varangian Guard
2487:
2461:East Roman army
2456:Late Roman army
2444:
2383:
2364:
2327:
2306:
2275:
2221:
2200:
2196:Epi ton deeseon
2186:Epi tou eidikou
2144:
2108:
2050:
2031:
2018:
1921:
1919:
1912:
1898:Palaiologan era
1840:
1837:
1828:
1799:Nikephorian era
1787:
1784:
1775:
1718:
1716:(330–717)
1715:
1706:
1686:
1673:
1660:
1654:
1624:
1619:
1603:
1562:herbs and fungi
1557:Herbal medicine
1510:
1494:
1463:
1419:Siddha medicine
1360:
1351:Navajo medicine
1304:
1295:
1291:Yorùbá medicine
1239:
1234:
1192:
1166::97-115 (1962)
1076:
1074:Further reading
1071:
1070:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1028:
1024:
1009:10.2307/1291501
989:
985:
970:10.2307/1291501
950:
946:
937:
935:
928:
922:
918:
909:
908:
904:
894:
892:
882:
878:
871:Medical Epitome
867:
863:
852:
835:
830:
826:
787:
776:
749:
745:
726:
715:
706:
702:
687:10.2307/1291159
671:
667:
662:
615:
581:
512:
482:Michael Psellos
435:
335:
267:
142:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3611:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3590:
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3477:
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3466:
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3415:
3410:
3404:
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3399:
3396:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3278:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3259:
3253:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3176:
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3169:
3159:
3154:
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3141:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3070:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3036:Byzantine Bath
3033:
3027:
3025:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2955:Constantinople
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2897:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
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2830:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2818:
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2800:
2795:
2790:
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2775:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2714:Byzantine Rite
2705:
2703:
2693:
2692:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2618:
2612:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2594:Grand domestic
2591:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2560:Komnenian army
2556:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2435:Military units
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2405:Battle tactics
2401:
2395:
2385:
2384:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2369:
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2363:
2362:
2357:
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2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2242:
2240:
2233:
2227:
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2223:
2222:
2220:
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2214:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2097:Medieval Greek
2089:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2066:
2060:
2052:
2051:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1924:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1852:Fourth Crusade
1843:
1841:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1809:Macedonian era
1806:
1801:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1742:Theodosian era
1739:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1721:
1719:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1702:
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1496:
1495:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1459:Unani medicine
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1400:
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1389:
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1361:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1316:Aztec medicine
1312:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
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1218:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1191:
1190:External links
1188:
1187:
1186:
1184:978-0198850687
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1129:
1122:
1112:
1105:
1098:
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1043:978-0472114740
1042:
1022:
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902:
876:
861:
833:
824:
797:(3): 361–389.
774:
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624:Paul of Aegina
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580:
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536:Paul of Aegina
511:
508:
494:Constantine IX
434:
431:
417:John Actuarius
410:Paul of Aegina
386:Marcus Musurus
343:Anicia Juliana
334:
331:
327:Constantinople
310:Paul of Aegina
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3408:Encyclopedias
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3332:Hellenization
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3290:Everyday life
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3262:Acritic songs
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3105:Hosios Loukas
3103:
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2778:Monophysitism
2776:
2774:
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2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2751:Armenian Rite
2749:
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2742:
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2730:
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2725:
2722:
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2698:
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2669:
2668:Naval battles
2666:
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2191:Protasekretis
2189:
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1547:Ethnomedicine
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1506:Bush medicine
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1346:Maya medicine
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763:(1–4): 5–24.
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604:Gary Ferngren
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367:Age of Reason
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363:Enlightenment
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99:November 2012
91:
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70:
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63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3422:
3273:
3041:Hagia Sophia
3023:Thessalonica
2998:Hagia Sophia
2978:Chora Church
2916:Architecture
2793:Great Schism
2783:Paulicianism
2761:Miaphysitism
2616:Karabisianoi
1920:or territory
1880:Thessalonica
1864:Latin Empire
1859:Frankokratia
1834:
1794:Isaurian era
1781:
1712:
1697:
1693:Roman Empire
1683:
1614:
1579:Mithridatism
1479:
1377:Dhivehi beys
1174:
1163:
1160:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1108:
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1094:
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1080:
1052:
1032:
1025:
1000:
996:
986:
961:
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947:
936:. Retrieved
932:
919:
905:
893:. Retrieved
889:
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855:
827:
794:
790:
760:
756:
746:
729:
708:
703:
678:
674:
668:
608:
597:
584:Christianity
582:
579:Christianity
574:
566:
553:Twelve Books
552:
546:
540:
532:
528:
513:
504:
477:
475:
470:
463:
456:
444:
439:Roman Empire
436:
426:Latin Empire
414:
371:
336:
320:
313:
299:
273:
272:
219:
160:Architecture
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3524:Megali Idea
3499:Byzantinism
3202:Agriculture
2993:Hagia Irene
2826:Kievan Rus'
2803:Mount Athos
2626:Cibyrrhaeot
2570:Vestiaritai
2425:Mercenaries
2302:Catepanates
2161:Sakellarios
2080:Family tree
2005:Mesopotamia
1824:Angelid era
1804:Amorian era
1584:Naturopathy
1552:Health care
1003:: 135–148.
964:: 135–148.
890:Penn Museum
856:Pera Museum
516:Hippocrates
408:as well as
394:Renaissance
355:Hippocrates
315:iatrosophia
291:Renaissance
3577:Categories
3519:Third Rome
3445:University
3428:Philosophy
3418:Inventions
3281:Historians
3249:Literature
3232:Varangians
3074:San Vitale
3003:Hippodrome
2983:City Walls
2883:Mutilation
2878:Hexabiblos
2798:Bogomilism
2788:Iconoclasm
2658:Megas doux
2648:Greek fire
2631:Aegean Sea
2504:Kleisourai
2481:Excubitors
2471:Bucellarii
2323:Despotates
2292:Kleisourai
2231:Provincial
2075:Coronation
2049:Governance
1814:Doukid era
1747:Leonid era
1532:Apothecary
938:2019-09-15
681:: 97–115.
660:References
602:historian
558:colchicine
333:Background
215:Literature
69:newspapers
3347:Octoechos
3227:Silk Road
2719:Hesychasm
2587:Paramonai
2534:Hetaireia
2466:Foederati
2355:Diplomacy
2350:Diplomats
2256:Provinces
2085:Empresses
1888:Trebizond
1684:Preceding
1594:Shamanism
1542:Electuary
1336:Kallawaya
1331:Curandero
819:145378868
510:Practices
433:Hospitals
390:Byzantium
359:Oribasius
323:hospitals
302:textbooks
190:Diplomacy
3440:Scholars
3433:Rhetoric
3423:Medicine
3398:Learning
3297:Calendar
3174:Painters
2873:Basilika
2811:Bulgaria
2773:Arianism
2724:Hayhurum
2701:Religion
2663:Admirals
2582:Allagion
2514:Droungos
2420:Generals
2382:Military
2345:Treaties
2251:Dioceses
2070:Emperors
1983:Sardinia
1963:Dalmatia
1943:Bulgaria
1933:Anatolia
1892:Theodoro
1886: /
1882: /
1874: /
1574:Humorism
1372:Ayurveda
1309:Americas
1271:Saltigue
1168:at JSTOR
895:21 April
769:22533247
613:See also
347:Olybrius
220:Medicine
165:Calendar
3549:Outline
3494:Museums
3394:Science
3371:Slavery
3327:Gardens
3307:Cuisine
3239:Dynatoi
3207:Coinage
3194:Economy
3162:Mosaics
3125:Mystras
3066:Ravenna
2928:Secular
2816:Moravia
2565:Pronoia
2539:Akritai
2524:Tagmata
2499:Themata
2440:Revolts
2410:Battles
2318:Kephale
2287:Themata
2217:Mesazon
2059:Central
1995:Maghreb
1948:Corsica
1938:Armenia
1928:Albania
1671:History
1599:Theriac
1522:Alchemy
1499:Oceania
1397:Ancient
1149:(1985)
1017:1291501
978:1291501
811:3657030
738:3902734
695:1291159
486:Basil I
280:of the
235:Science
205:Gardens
200:Economy
180:Cuisine
175:Coinage
83:scholar
3559:Portal
3474:Impact
3354:People
3302:Cities
3152:Enamel
2933:Sacred
2868:Ecloga
2734:Saints
2643:Dromon
2519:Bandon
2509:Tourma
2492:Middle
2415:Beacon
2297:Bandon
2280:Middle
2149:Middle
2104:Senate
2027:Thrace
2010:Serbia
1988:Sicily
1973:Greece
1958:Cyprus
1876:Epirus
1872:Nicaea
1782:Middle
1659:topics
1468:Europe
1414:Ramuan
1266:Nganga
1244:Africa
1182:
1153:
1119:Europe
1040:
1015:
976:
817:
809:
767:
736:
693:
593:Damian
589:Cosmas
524:humors
492:, and
402:AĂ«tius
230:People
170:Cities
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3544:Index
3376:Death
3366:Women
3337:Music
3317:Dress
3312:Dance
3257:Novel
3217:Trade
3212:Mints
3157:Glass
3147:Icons
2943:Domes
2821:Serbs
2636:Samos
2449:Early
2239:Early
2113:Early
2022:Syria
2000:Malta
1978:Italy
1968:Egypt
1953:Crete
1884:Morea
1713:Early
1515:Other
1409:Kampo
1387:Hilot
1013:JSTOR
974:JSTOR
929:(PDF)
815:S2CID
807:JSTOR
691:JSTOR
654:Unani
520:Galen
421:urine
351:Galen
225:Music
195:Dress
185:Dance
90:JSTOR
76:books
3342:Lyra
3222:silk
2833:Jews
2608:Navy
2553:Late
2393:Army
2360:Wars
2311:Late
2205:Late
1835:Late
1404:Jamu
1365:Asia
1261:Muti
1180:ISBN
1151:ISBN
1038:ISBN
897:2016
765:PMID
734:PMID
591:and
404:and
382:gout
365:and
353:and
150:Army
62:news
3139:Art
2843:Law
1005:doi
966:doi
799:doi
683:doi
560:.
480:by
210:Law
155:Art
45:by
3579::
1164:16
1147:38
1142:,
1061:.
1011:.
1001:38
999:.
995:.
972:.
962:38
960:.
956:.
931:.
888:.
836:^
813:.
805:.
795:35
793:.
777:^
761:57
759:.
755:.
716:^
689:.
679:16
677:.
488:,
412:.
318:.
297:.
1894:)
1890:–
1878:–
1765:"
1761:"
1649:e
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1635:v
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1007::
980:.
968::
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858:.
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801::
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740:.
697:.
685::
262:e
255:t
248:v
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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