5337:
which shattered the foundations of the
Byzantine state, was due in large part to the absolute defencelessness of the Empire at sea. This process was initiated by Byzantium itself in the 9th century, when the Italians were increasingly employed by the Empire to compensate for its own naval weakness in the West. The Italian republics also profited from their role as intermediaries in the trade between the Empire and Western Europe, marginalizing the Byzantine merchant marine, which in turn had adverse effects on the availability of Byzantine naval forces. Inevitably however, as the Italian republics slowly moved away from the Byzantine orbit, they began pursuing their own policies, and from the late 11th century on, they turned from protection of the Empire to exploitation and sometimes outright plunder, heralding the eventual financial and political subjugation of Byzantium to their interests. The absence of a strong navy was certainly keenly felt by the Byzantines at the time, as the comments of Kekaumenos illustrate. Strong and energetic emperors like Manuel Komnenos, and later Michael VIII Palaiologos, could revive Byzantine naval power, but even after landing heavy strokes against the Venetians, they merely replaced them with the Genoese and the Pisans. Trade thus remained in Latin hands, its profits continued to be siphoned off from the Empire, and after their deaths, their achievements quickly evaporated. After 1204, and with the brief exception of Michael VIII's reign, the fortunes of the now small Byzantine navy were more or less tied to the shifting alliances with the Italian maritime republics.
4968:). The sailing season was therefore usually restricted from mid-spring to September. The maintainable cruising speed of a galley, even when using sails, was limited, as were the amount of supplies it could carry. Water in particular, being essentially a galley's "fuel" supply, was of critical importance. There is no evidence that the navy operated dedicated supply ships to support the warships. With consumption levels estimated at 8 litres a day for every oarsman, its availability was a decisive operational factor in the often water-scarce and sun-baked coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean. Smaller dromons are estimated to have been able to carry about four days' worth of water. Effectively, this meant that fleets composed of galleys were confined to coastal routes, and had to make frequent landfall to replenish their supplies and rest their crews. This is well attested in Byzantine overseas endeavours, from Belisarius' campaign against the Vandals to the Cretan expeditions of the 9th and 10th centuries. It is for these reasons that Nikephoros Ouranos emphasizes the need to have available "men with accurate knowledge and experience of the sea , which winds cause it to swell and which blow from the land. They should know both the hidden rocks in the sea, and the places which have no depth, and the land along which one sails and the islands adjacent to it, the harbours and the distance such harbours are the one from the other. They should know both the countries and the water supplies."
4975:" as it is understood today. Furthermore, following the abandonment of the ram, the only truly "ship-killing" weapon available prior to the advent of gunpowder and explosive shells, sea combat became, in the words of John Pryor, "more unpredictable. No longer could any power hope to have such an advantage in weaponry or the skill of crews that success could be expected." It is no surprise therefore that the Byzantine and Arab manuals emphasize cautious tactics, with the priority given to the preservation of one's own fleet, and the acquisition of accurate intelligence, often through the use of spies posing as merchants. Emphasis was placed on achieving tactical surprise and, conversely, on avoiding being caught unprepared by the enemy. Ideally, battle was to be given only when assured of superiority by virtue of numbers or tactical disposition. Importance is also laid on matching one's forces and tactics to the prospective enemy: Leo VI, for instance, contrasted (
495:
2398:(1282–1328) assumed that, by relying on the naval strength of his Genoese allies, he could do without the maintenance of a fleet, whose particularly heavy expenditure the increasingly cash-strapped treasury could no longer afford. At the same time, Andronikos was less concerned with the West and more with affairs in Asia Minor and his—eventually futile—attempt to stop the Turkish advance there, a policy where the fleet lacked a role. Consequently, the entire fleet was disbanded, its crews dismissed and the ships are broken up or left to rot. The results were quick to follow: during Andronikos' long reign, the Turks gradually took permanent possession of the Aegean coasts of Anatolia, with the Empire unable to reverse the situation, while the Venetian fleet was able to attack Constantinople and raid its suburbs at will during the
3665:
1874:, and 308 transports, carrying an overall force of 77,000 men, to subdue the island. Although the navy ultimately had a limited combat role in the campaign, it was essential for keeping the sea-lanes open after a disastrous attack into the interior of the island required supplies to be brought in by sea. The conquest of Crete removed the direct threat to the Aegean, Byzantium's naval heartland, while Phokas' subsequent operations led to the recovery of Cilicia (in 963), Cyprus (in 968), and the northern Syrian coast (in 969). These conquests removed the threat of the once mighty Muslim Syrian fleets, effectively re-establishing Byzantine dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean so that Nikephoros Phokas could boast to
2063:(1118–1143). Like his father, John II concentrated on the army and regular land-based campaigns, but he took care to maintain the navy's strength and provisioning system. In 1122, however, John refused to renew the trading privileges that Alexios had granted to the Venetians. In retaliation, the Venetians plundered several Byzantine islands, and, with the Byzantine fleet unable to confront them, John was forced to renew the treaty in 1125. Evidently, the Byzantine navy at this point was not sufficiently powerful for John to successfully confront Venice, especially since there were other pressing demands on the Empire's resources. Not long after this incident, John II, acting on the advice of his finance minister
5325:. Galley fleets were confined to coastal operations, and were not able to play a truly independent role. Furthermore, as the alternation of Byzantine victories and defeats against the Arabs illustrates, no side was able to permanently gain the upper hand. Although the Byzantines pulled off a number of spectacular successes, such as Nasar's remarkable night-time victory in 880 (one of a handful of similar engagements in the Middle Ages), these victories were balanced off by similarly disastrous losses. Reports of mutinies by oarsmen in Byzantine fleets also reveal that conditions were often far from the ideal prescribed in the manuals. Combined with the traditional predominance of the great
5318:. In addition, shipping was always the quickest and cheapest way of transport, and the Empire's major urban and commercial centres, as well as most of its fertile areas, lay close to the sea. Coupled with the threat posed by the Arabs in the 7th to 10th centuries, this necessitated the maintenance of a strong fleet. The navy was perhaps at its most significant in the successful defence of Constantinople from the two Arab sieges, which ultimately saved the Empire. Throughout the period however, naval operations were an essential part of the Byzantine effort against the Arabs in a game of raids and counter-raids that continued up to the late 10th century.
1514:
1809:
4907:, by the Byzantine cleric Sylvester Syropoulos and the Greek-Venetian captain Michael of Rhodes, mention that most of the ships were Venetian or Papal, but also record that Emperor John VIII travelled on an "imperial ship". It is unclear whether that ship was Byzantine or had been hired, and its type is not mentioned. It is, however, recorded as having been faster than the Venetian great merchant galleys accompanying it, possibly indicating that it was a light war galley. Michael of Rhodes also wrote a treatise on shipbuilding, which provided construction instructions and illustrations of the main vessels, both
2651:
professional and well-maintained force. Because of the absence of any naval threat, however, the navy of the late 6th century was relatively small, with several small flotillas in the Danube and two main fleets maintained at
Ravenna and Constantinople. Additional flotillas must have been stationed at the other great maritime and commercial centres of the Empire: at Alexandria, providing the escort to the annual grain fleet to Constantinople, and at Carthage, controlling the western Mediterranean. Justinian also stationed troops and ships at the more remote outposts of the Empire, at Septem (
5018:
2572:, forcing him to relinquish all his holdings in the Morea to the Byzantines. The last appearance of the Byzantine navy was in the final Ottoman siege of 1453, when a mixed fleet of Byzantine, Genoese and Venetian ships (varying numbers are provided by the sources, ranging from 10 to 39 vessels) defended Constantinople against the Ottoman fleet. During the siege, on 20 April 1453, the last naval engagement in Byzantine history took place when three Genoese galleys escorting a Byzantine transport fought their way through the huge Ottoman blockade fleet and into the Golden Horn.
31:
1148:
3955:) that supplied the fleet. Under John II, the Aegean islands also became responsible for the maintenance, crewing and provision of warships, and contemporary sources took pride in the fact that the great fleets of Manuel's reign were crewed by "native Romans", although use continued to be made of mercenaries and allied squadrons. However, the fact that the fleet was now exclusively built and based around Constantinople, and that provincial fleets were not reconstituted, did have its drawbacks, as outlying areas, in particular Greece, were left vulnerable to attack.
2209:
1684:
2307:
2685:
980:
774:, they were composed to a great extent of newly built or -commandeered ships from the port cities of the Eastern Mediterranean. The civil wars of the 4th and early 5th centuries, however, did spur a revival of naval activity, with fleets mostly employed to transport armies. Considerable naval forces continued to be employed in the Western Mediterranean throughout the first quarter of the fifth century, especially from North Africa, but Rome's mastery of the Mediterranean was challenged when Africa was overrun by the
4540:
882:). These were largely amphibious operations, made possible by the control of the Mediterranean waterways, and the fleet played a vital role in carrying supplies and reinforcements to the widely dispersed Byzantine expeditionary forces and garrisons. This fact was not lost on the Byzantines' enemies. Already in the 520s, Theodoric had planned to build a massive fleet directed against the Byzantines and the Vandals, but his death in 526 limited the extent to which these plans were realized. In 535, the
5066:
1341:
5184:
2026:(1081–1118), was forced to call upon the assistance of the Venetians, who in the 1070s had already asserted their control of the Adriatic and Dalmatia against the Normans. In 1082, in exchange for their help, he granted them major trading concessions. This treaty, and subsequent extensions of these privileges, practically rendered the Byzantines hostage to the Venetians (and later also the Genoese and the Pisans). Historian John Birkenmeier notes that:
14168:
1987:, writing in c. 1078, laments that "on the pretext of reasonable patrols, are doing nothing else but ferrying wheat, barley, pulse, cheese, wine, meat, olive oil, a great deal of money, and anything else" from the islands and coasts of the Aegean, while they "flee before they have even caught sight of them, and thus become an embarrassment to the Romans". By the time Kekaumenos wrote, new and powerful adversaries had risen. In the West, the
1756:, all while the Empire's fleet remained passive in the face of the Arabs' superior numbers. Furthermore, the Cretan corsairs' raids reached such intensity, that by the end of Leo's reign, most of the southern Aegean islands were either abandoned or forced to accept Muslim control and pay tribute to the pirates. It is no surprise that a defensive and cautious mindset was prevalent in Leo's contemporary instructions on naval warfare (
743:
2859:
themes or independent commands termed "droungariates", and a greater number of local squadrons charged with purely defensive and police tasks and subordinate to the local provincial governors. Unlike the earlier Roman navy, where the provincial fleets were decidedly inferior in numbers and included only lighter vessels than the central fleets, the
Byzantine regional fleets were probably formidable formations in their own right.
2537:, when Byzantium sided with various rival Ottoman princes in turn. Manuel used his ships to ferry the rival pretenders and their forces across the Straits. With Genoese assistance, Manuel's fleet was also able to muster a fleet of eight galleys and capture Gallipoli in May 1410, albeit for a brief time; and in August 1411, the Byzantine fleet was instrumental in the failure of a siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman prince
4439:) were divided by the deck, with the first oar bank was situated below, whilst the second oar bank was situated above deck; these rowers were expected to fight alongside the marines in boarding operations. Makrypoulias suggests 25 oarsmen beneath and 35 on the deck on either side for a dromon of 120 rowers. The overall length of these ships was probably about 32 meters. Although most contemporary vessels had a single mast (
1021:
about the specifics of the early Muslim warships, although it is usually assumed that their naval efforts drew upon the existing
Mediterranean maritime tradition. Given a largely shared nautical nomenclature, and the centuries-long interaction between the two cultures, Byzantine and Arab ships shared many similarities. This similarity also extended to tactics and general fleet organization; translations of
1852:, notably through the use of divers bearing incendiary devices. Both powers focusing their attention elsewhere, a truce was concluded between Byzantium and the Fatimids in 967, which curbed Byzantine naval activity in the West: the seas of Italy were left to the local Byzantine forces and the various Italian states until after 1025, when Byzantium again actively intervened in southern Italy and Sicily.
5242:. Contemporary sources make clear that it could not be extinguished by water, but rather floated and burned on top of it; sand could extinguish it by depriving it of oxygen, and several authors also mention strong vinegar and old urine as being able to extinguish it, presumably by some sort of chemical reaction. Consequently, felt or hides soaked in vinegar were used to provide protection against it.
2485:, which controlled the trade passing through Constantinople, and of securing the control of the Dardanelles against passage by the Turks. To that end, he enlisted the aid of the Venetians, but in March 1349, his newly built fleet of nine warships and about 100 smaller vessels were caught in a storm off the southern shore of Constantinople. The inexperienced crews panicked, and the ships were either
1980:(1042–1055), both the army and navy were reduced as military service was increasingly commuted in favour of cash payments, resulting in an increased dependency upon foreign mercenaries. The large thematic fleets declined and were replaced by small squadrons subject to the local military commanders, geared more towards the suppression of piracy than towards confronting a major maritime foe.
4768:
1125:, and 1,000 Coptic shipwrights were brought to construct a new fleet, which would challenge Byzantine control of the western Mediterranean. Thus, from the early 8th century on, Muslim raids unfolded unceasingly against Byzantine holdings in the Western Mediterranean, especially Sicily. In addition, the new fleet would allow the Muslims to complete their conquest of the
3468:) in return for pay or land estates. In the first half of the 10th century, the latter were calculated to be of the value of 2–3 pounds (0.91–1.36 kg) of gold for sailors and marines. Use was however made of prisoners of war and foreigners as well. Alongside the Mardaites, who formed a significant part of the fleet's crews, an enigmatic group known as the
2261:, was accused by Niketas Choniates of enriching himself by selling off the equipment of the imperial fleet, while by the early 13th century the authority of the central government had weakened to such an extent that various local potentates began seizing power in the provinces. The general atmosphere was one of lawlessness, which enabled men like
5208:). Although the use of incendiary chemicals by the Byzantines has been attested to since the early 6th century, the actual substance known as Greek fire is believed to have been created in 673 and is attributed to an engineer from Syria, named Kallinikos. The most common method of deployment was to emit the formula through a large bronze tube (
3381:, and were organized along similar lines. The Aegean thematic fleet numbered 2,610 oarsmen and 400 marines, the Cibyrrhaeot fleet stood at 5,710 oarsmen and 1,000 marines, the Samian fleet at 3,980 oarsmen and 600 marines, and finally, the Theme of Hellas furnished 2,300 oarsmen with a portion of its 2,000 thematic soldiers doubling as marines.
1775:. Appointed admiral in 904, he was unable to prevent the sack of Thessalonica, but he scored the first victory in 905 or 906, and in 910, he led a successful attack on Laodicea. The city was sacked and its hinterland plundered and ravaged without the loss of any ships. A year later, however, a huge expedition of 112 dromons and 75
5273:
against an unprepared enemy, its great destructive ability and psychological impact could prove decisive, as displayed repeatedly against the Rus'. Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, but the
Byzantines failed to use it against the Fourth Crusade, possibly because they had lost access to the areas (the
1256:
Umayyad state shortly thereafter and the increasing fragmentation of the Muslim world, the
Byzantine navy was left as the sole organized naval force in the Mediterranean. Thus, during the latter half of the 8th century, the Byzantines enjoyed a second period of complete naval superiority. It is no coincidence that in the many
4660:, and must therefore be used with care when trying to apply it to the warships of the middle Byzantine period. The existence of trireme vessels is, however, attested in the Fatimid navy in the 11th and 12th centuries, and references made by Leo VI to large Arab ships in the 10th century may also indicate trireme galleys.
2430:. As Gregoras commented, "if had remained masters of the seas, as they had been, then the Latins would not have grown so arrogant , nor would the Turks ever have gazed upon the sands of the sea, nor would we have to pay to everyone tribute every year." After 1305, bowing to popular pressure and the need to contain the
2490:
the Aegean, and scored some successes over
Turkish pirates, they were never able to stop their activities, let alone challenge the Italian navies for supremacy at sea. Lack of funds condemned the fleet to a mere handful of vessels maintained at Constantinople. It is characteristic that in his 1418 pamphlet to the
2387:), and defeated a Latin fleet of 20 galleys. This marked the first successful independent Byzantine naval operation and the beginning of an organized naval campaign in the Aegean that would continue throughout the 1270s and would result in the recapture, albeit briefly, of many islands from the Latins.
4606:
is said to have an even larger crew of 230 rowers and 70 marines; naval historian John H. Pryor considers them as supernumerary crews being carried aboard, while the Greek scholar
Christos Makrypoulias suggests that the extra men correspond to a second rower on each of the upper-bank oars. A smaller,
4415:
or early Roman period. Not only the triangular, but also the quadrilateral version were known, used for centuries (mostly on smaller craft) in parallel with square sails. Belisarius' invasion fleet of 533 was apparently at least partly fitted with lateen sails, making it probable that by the time the
3491:
gives the fleet lists for the expeditions against Crete of 911 and 949. These references have sparked a considerable debate as to their interpretation: thus the numbers given for the entire
Imperial Fleet in 949 can be interpreted as either 100, 150 or 250 ships, depending on the reading of the Greek
2413:
dwell long on the disastrous long-term effects of this short-sighted decision: piracy flourished, often augmented by the crews of the disbanded fleet who took service under
Turkish and Latin masters, Constantinople was rendered defenceless towards the Italian maritime powers, and more and more Aegean
4295:
are explicit in their references to the speed of these vessels. During the next few centuries, as the naval struggle with the Arabs intensified, heavier versions with two or possibly even three banks of oars evolved. Eventually, the term was used in the general sense of 'warship', and was often used
2370:
Following the recapture of Constantinople a few months later however, Michael VIII was able to focus his attention on building up his own fleet. In the early 1260s, the Byzantine navy was still weak and depended still greatly on Genoese aid. Even so, the allies were not able to stand up to Venice in
2159:
and settled for negotiations. Manuel sent a fleet of 150 ships under Kontostephanos to confront them there and employed delaying tactics, until, weakened by disease, the Venetians began to withdraw and were pursued by Kontostephanos' fleet. It was a remarkable reversal of fortunes, compared with the
2006:, barely a hundred miles south of Constantinople. Soon after, Turkish as well as Christian pirates appeared in the Aegean. The Byzantine thematic fleets, which once policed the seas, were by then so depleted by neglect and the successive civil wars that they were incapable of responding effectively.
1020:
of Egypt), which until a few years previously had provided ships and crews for the Byzantines. There is, however, evidence that in the new naval bases in Palestine shipwrights from Persia and Iraq were also employed. The lack of illustrations earlier than the 14th century means that nothing is known
5272:
Despite the somewhat exaggerated accounts of Byzantine writers, it was by no means a "wonder weapon", and did not avert some serious defeats. Given its limited range, and the need for a calm sea and favourable wind conditions, its usability was limited. Nevertheless, in favourable circumstances and
2787:'the Ships' Men') was created. The exact date is unknown, with suggestions ranging from the 650s/660s, in response to the Battle of the Masts, or following the first Arab siege of Constantinople in 672–678. Its origin is also unknown: it was recruited possibly from the remainders of the old
421:
fleets, while a central Imperial Fleet was maintained at Constantinople, guarding the city and forming the core of naval expeditions. By the late 8th century, the Byzantine navy, a well-organized and maintained force, was again the dominant maritime power in the Mediterranean. Conflicts with navies
5336:
It is clear nevertheless that the gradual decline of the indigenous Byzantine naval power in the 10th and 11th centuries, when it was eclipsed by the Italian city-states, chiefly Venice and later Genoa, was of great long-term significance for the fate of the Empire. The sack of the Fourth Crusade,
5251:
were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying. And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy
5081:
Unlike the warships of Antiquity, Byzantine and Arab ships did not feature rams, and the primary means of ship-to-ship combat were boarding actions and missile fire, as well as the use of inflammable materials such as Greek fire. Despite the fearsome reputation of the latter, it was only effective
4105:
At the same time, Michael and his successors continued the well-established practice of using foreigners in the fleet. Alongside the mistrusted Italian city-states, with whom alliances shifted regularly, mercenaries were increasingly employed in the last centuries of the Empire, often rewarded for
4003:
Despite their efforts, the Nicaean emperors failed to successfully challenge the Venetian domination of the seas, and were forced to turn to the Genoese for aid. After regaining Constantinople in 1261 however, Michael VIII initiated a great effort to lessen this dependence by building a "national"
3540:
warships, a number which was increased to 307 for the Cretan expedition of 960–961. According to Treadgold, the latter number probably represents the approximate standing strength of the entire Byzantine navy (including the smaller flotillas) in the 9th and 10th centuries. It is however noteworthy
3367:
Just as with its land counterpart, the exact size of the Byzantine navy and its units is a matter of considerable debate, owing to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. One exceptions are the numbers for the late 9th and early 10th century, for which we possess a more detailed
2489:
by the Genoese. Undeterred, Kantakouzenos launched another effort at building a fleet, which allowed him to re-establish Byzantine authority over Thessalonica and some coastal cities and islands. A core of this fleet was maintained at Constantinople, and although Byzantine ships remained active in
2220:
The period also saw the rise of piracy across the Eastern Mediterranean. The pirate activity was high in the Aegean, while pirate captains frequently offering themselves as mercenaries to one or the other of the region's powers, providing for the latter a quick and cheap way of raising a fleet for
393:
and later Africa, the Mediterranean was transformed from a "Roman lake" into a battleground between the Byzantines and a series of Muslim states. In this struggle, the Byzantine fleets were critical, not only for the defence of the Empire's far-flung possessions around the Mediterranean basin, but
4963:
When examining ancient and medieval naval operations, it is necessary to first understand the technological limitations of galley fleets. Galleys did not handle well in rough waters and could be swamped by waves, which would be catastrophic in the open sea; history is replete with instances where
4882:
The bireme Italian-style galleys remained the mainstay of Mediterranean fleets until the late 13th century, although again, contemporary descriptions provide little detail on their construction. From that point on, the galleys universally became trireme ships, i.e. with three men on a single bank
2095:
and into the Aegean almost unopposed. In the next year, with Venetian aid, an army accompanied by a very large fleet (allegedly 500 warships and 1,000 transports) was sent to recapture Corfu and the Ionian Islands from the Normans. In retaliation, a Norman fleet of 40 ships reached Constantinople
1352:
The Byzantine naval predominance lasted until the early 9th century when a succession of disasters at the hands of the resurgent Muslim fleets spelled its end and inaugurated an era that would represent the zenith of Muslim ascendancy. Already in 790, the Byzantines suffered a major defeat in the
1255:
The Byzantines followed this up with the destruction of the North African flotillas and coupled their successes at sea with severe trading limitations imposed on Muslim traders. Given the Empire's new ability to control the waterways, this strangled Muslim maritime trade. With the collapse of the
5026:
On the approach to and during an actual battle, a well-ordered formation was critical: if a fleet fell into disorder, its ships would be unable to lend support to each other and probably would be defeated. Fleets that failed to keep an ordered formation or that could not order themselves into an
3374:
of the Imperial Fleet. These four thousand marines were professional soldiers, first recruited as a corps by Basil I in the 870s. They were a great asset to the Imperial Fleet, for whereas previously it had depended on thematic and tagmatic soldiers for its marines, the new force provided a more
1601:
In the West, the Muslims continued to make steady advances, as the local Byzantine forces proved inadequate: the Empire was forced to rely on the aid of their nominal Italian subjects, and had to resort to the transfer of the eastern fleets to Italy to achieve any progress. Following the fall of
804:
Rome in 455. The Vandal raids continued unabated over the next two decades, despite repeated Roman attempts to defeat them. The Western Empire was impotent, its navy having dwindled to almost nothing, but the eastern emperors could still call upon the resources and naval expertise of the eastern
4328:
The appearance and evolution of medieval warships is a matter of debate and conjecture: until recently, no remains of an oared warship from either ancient or early medieval times had been found, and information had to be gathered by analyzing literary evidence, crude artistic depictions and the
2858:
however proved inadequate and were replaced in the early 8th century by a more complex system composed of three elements, which with minor alterations survived until the 11th century: a central imperial fleet based at Constantinople, a small number of large regional naval commands, either naval
2358:
in 1241, the Nicaeans were again routed. Nicaean efforts during the 1230s to support a local rebellion in Crete against Venice were also only partially successful, with the last Nicaean troops being forced to leave the island in 1236. Aware of the weakness of his navy, in March 1261 the Emperor
2192:
After the death of Manuel I and the subsequent demise of the Komnenian dynasty in 1185, the navy declined swiftly. The maintenance of galleys and the upkeep of proficient crews were very expensive, and neglect led to a rapid deterioration of the fleet. Already by 1182 the Byzantines had to pay
1243:
fleets, largely motivated by resentment against the Emperor's iconoclasm, was put down by the imperial fleet through the use of Greek fire. Despite the losses this entailed, some 390 warships were reportedly sent to attack Damietta in 739, and in 746 the Byzantines decisively defeated the
2585:
Very little is known about the organization of the Roman fleets of late Antiquity, from the gradual break-up of the large provincial fleets into smaller squadrons in the 3rd century to the formation of a new navy at the onset of the Muslim conquests. Despite the evidence of considerable naval
1959:
Throughout most of the 11th century, the Byzantine navy faced few challenges. The Muslim threat had receded, as their navies declined and relations between the Fatimids, especially, and the Empire were largely peaceful. The last Arab raid against imperial territory was recorded in 1035 in the
458:
even dissolved the navy completely, allowing Venice to defeat the Byzantines in two wars, the first of which resulted in a humiliating treaty that saw the Venetians keep multiple islands captured from Byzantine forces during the war and forced the latter to repay Venice for the destruction of
5160:
in Greek) became increasingly important in Mediterranean warfare, remaining the most deadly weapon available until the advent of fully rigged ships with gunpowder artillery. The Byzantines made infrequent use of the weapon, chiefly in sieges, although its use is recorded in some sea battles.
4798:
continued in use until the late 12th century, although Byzantine writers were indiscriminate in their use of it. Contemporary Western writers used the term to denote large ships, usually transports, and there is evidence to support the idea that this usage had also spread to the Byzantines.
2650:
basis and then disbanded. The first permanent Byzantine fleet can be traced to the early 6th century and the revolt of Vitalian in 513–515, when Anastasius I created a fleet to counter the rebels' own. This fleet was retained and under Justinian I and his successors it was developed into a
1618:, in the early 880s they established bases along the western Italian coast, from where they would not be completely dislodged until 915. In 878, Syracuse, the main Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, was attacked again and fell, largely because the Imperial Fleet was occupied with transporting
5049:, XIX.52), a crescent formation seems to have been the norm, with the flagship in the centre and the heavier ships at the horns of the formation, in order to turn the enemy's flanks. A range of variants and other tactics and counter-tactics was available, depending on the circumstances.
2205:(1185–1195 and 1203–1204) with Venice the next year, in which the Republic would provide 40–100 galleys at six months' notice in exchange for favourable trading concessions, is a telling indication that the Byzantine government was aware of the inadequacy of its own naval establishment.
4803:'s description of the Byzantine fleet in 1169, where "dromons" are classed as very large transports, and the warships with two oar banks are set apart from them, may thus indeed indicate the adoption of the new bireme galley types by the Byzantines. From the 13th century on, the term
3459:
were not used as oarsmen, either by the Byzantines or the Arabs, or by their Roman and Greek predecessors. Throughout the existence of the Empire, Byzantine crews consisted of mostly lower-class freeborn men, who were professional soldiers, legally obliged to perform military service
2334:, each claiming the Byzantine imperial title. The former did not maintain a fleet, the Trapezuntine navy was minuscule and mostly used for patrols and transporting troops, while the Nicaeans initially followed a policy of consolidation and used their fleet for coastal defence. Under
1404:
exiles. Three successive Byzantine recovery attempts failed over the next few years, and the island became a base for Muslim piratical activity in the Aegean, radically upsetting the balance of power in the region. Despite some Byzantine successes over the Cretan corsairs, and the
3368:
breakdown, dated to the Cretan expedition of 911. These lists reveal that during the reign of Leo VI the Wise, the navy reached 34,200 oarsmen and perhaps as many as 8,000 marines. The central Imperial Fleet totalled some 19,600 oarsmen and 4,000 marines under the command of the
5021:
The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941. Boarding actions and hand-to-hand fighting determined the outcome of most naval battles in the Middle Ages. Here the Byzantine dromons are shown rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their
2442:
in 1453. Several emperors after Andronikos II also tried to re-build a fleet, especially in order to secure the security and hence the independence of Constantinople itself from the interference of the Italian maritime powers, but their efforts produced only short-term results.
1500:
During the course of the later 9th and the 10th century, as the Caliphate fractured into smaller states and Arab power became weakened, the Byzantines launched a series of successful campaigns against them. This "Byzantine Reconquest" was overseen by the able sovereigns of the
5224:) are also mentioned as a method of pouring combustibles onto enemy ships. Usually the mixture would be stored in heated, pressurized barrels and projected through the tube by some sort of pump while the operators were sheltered behind large iron shields. A portable version (
5129:) for protection and fought with bows and crossbows. The importance and volume of missile fire during sea combat can be gauged from the fleet manifests for the Cretan expeditions of the 10th century, which mention 10,000 caltrops, 50 bows and 10,000 arrows, 20 hand-carried
4821:, meaning 'detailed to/owing a service'), a late-11th century term which originally applied to the crews, who were drawn from populations detailed to military service. During the latter period of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine ships were based on Western models: the term
4402:
construction method, against which rams had been designed, into the skeleton-first method, which produced a stronger and more flexible hull, less susceptible to ram attacks. Certainly by the early 7th century, the ram's original function had been forgotten, if we judge by
2621:, IV.31) and even the remaining western provincial fleets appear to have been seriously understrength and incapable of countering any significant barbarian attack. In the East, the Syrian and Alexandrian fleets are known from legal sources to have still existed in c. 400 (
1415:"During that time the Muslims gained control over the whole Mediterranean. Their power and domination over it was vast. The Christian nations could do nothing against the Muslim fleets, anywhere in the Mediterranean. All the time, the Muslims rode its wave for conquest."
932:, the Byzantines maintained control of the seas around the peninsula. As the Lombards rarely ventured to sea, the Byzantines were able to retain several coastal strips of Italian territory for centuries. The only major naval action of the next 80 years occurred during the
1878:
with the words "I alone command the sea". A few raids and naval clashes occurred as antagonism with the Fatimids mounted in the late 990s, but peaceful relations were restored soon after, and the Eastern Mediterranean remained relatively calm for several decades to come.
2586:
activity in this period, earlier scholars believed that the Roman navy had all but vanished by the 4th century, but more recent work has altered this picture towards a transformation into a mainly fluvial and coastal force, designed for close co-operation with the army.
1844:, but another expedition in 956 and the loss of an Ifriqiyan fleet in a storm in 958 temporarily stabilized the situation in the peninsula. In 962, the Fatimids launched an assault on the remaining Byzantine strongholds on Sicily; Taormina fell on Christmas Day 962 and
3963:
With the decline of the Byzantine fleet in the latter 12th century, the Empire increasingly relied on the fleets of Venice and Genoa. Following the sack of 1204 however, sources suggest the presence of a relatively strong fleet already under the first Nicaean emperor,
3541:
that a significant drop in the numbers of ships and men attached to the thematic fleets is evident between 911 and 949. This drop, which reduced the size of thematic fleets from a third to a quarter of the total navy, was partly due to the increased use of the lighter
3027:. Being located closest to the Muslim Levant, it remained the Empire's principal naval fleet for centuries, until it was reduced with the decline of the Arab naval threat. The fleet is last mentioned in 1043, and thereafter the theme became a purely civilian province.
3508:
however, it can also be read simply as "unit" or "ship". The number of 150 seems more compatible with the numbers recorded elsewhere, and is accepted by most scholars, although they differ as to the composition of the fleet. Makrypoulias interprets the number as 8
1708:. The Bulgarian war produced several costly defeats, while at the same time the Arab naval threat reached new heights, with successive raids devastating the shores of Byzantium's naval heartland, the Aegean Sea. In 891 or 893, the Arab fleet sacked the island of
3983:) as well as the transport and supply of armies fighting in the Balkans, and the Sea of Marmara, where the Nicaeans aimed to interdict Latin shipping and threaten Constantinople. Smyrna provided the main shipyard and base for the Aegean, with a secondary one at
2042:
Alexios inevitably realized the importance of having his own fleet, and despite his preoccupation with land operations, he took steps to re-establish the navy's strength. His efforts bore some success, especially in countering the attempts by Turkish emirs like
2671:. The long-established naval tradition and infrastructure of those areas made the maintenance of the fleet easier, and, in the event of a naval expedition, a large fleet could be quickly and inexpensively assembled by impressing the numerous merchant vessels.
5277:
and the eastern coast of the Black Sea) where the primary ingredients were to be found. The Arabs fielded their own 'liquid fire' after 835, but it is unknown if they used the Byzantine formula, possibly obtained through espionage or through the defection of
817:, and the financial cost of 130,000 pounds of gold and 700,000 pounds of silver nearly bankrupted the Empire. This forced the Romans to come to terms with Geiseric and to sign a peace treaty. After Geiseric's death in 477, however, the Vandal threat receded.
2168:
and many important nobles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem refused to participate in the campaign. However, by the end of Manuel's reign, the strains of constant warfare on all fronts and the Emperor's various grandiose projects had become evident: the historian
897:, created a fleet of 400 warships with which to deny the seas around Italy to the Empire. Two Byzantine fleets were destroyed near Naples in 542, and in 546, Belisarius personally commanded 200 ships against the Gothic fleet that blockaded the mouths of the
2083:(1143–1180), who used it extensively as a powerful tool of foreign policy in his relations with the Latin and Muslim states of the Eastern Mediterranean. During the early years of his reign, the Byzantine naval forces were still weak: in 1147, the fleet of
2450:(1328–1341), immediately after his accession, with the help of contributions from various magnates, assembled a large fleet of reportedly 105 vessels. This he personally led in the last major foray of a Byzantine navy in the Aegean, recovering Chios and
5057:, which decided the outcome. Once the enemy strength was judged to have been reduced sufficiently, the fleets closed in, the ships grappled each other, and the marines and upper bank oarsmen boarded the enemy vessel and engaged in hand-to-hand combat.
5333:, all this meant that, as in the Roman Empire, the navy, even at its height, was still regarded largely as an adjunct to the land forces. This fact is clearly illustrated by the relatively lowly positions its admirals held in the imperial hierarchy.
5123:, XIX.61–65). Marines and the upper-bank oarsmen were heavily armoured in preparation for battle (Leo referred to them as "cataphracts") and armed with close-combat arms such as lances and swords, while the other sailors wore padded felt jackets (
4407:'s comments that they were used to protect against collision with underwater rocks. As for the lateen sail, various authors have in the past suggested that it was introduced into the Mediterranean by the Arabs, possibly with an ultimate origin in
746:
By the late 5th century, the Western Mediterranean had fallen into the hands of barbarian kingdoms. The conquests of Justinian I restored Roman control over the entire sea, which would last until the Muslim conquests in the latter half of the 7th
2462:
on the Sea of Marmara, from where they raided the coasts of Thrace. To defend against this new threat, towards the end of Andronikos III's reign a fleet of some 70 ships was built at Constantinople to oppose the Turkish raids, and headed by the
2030:
Byzantium's lack of a navy meant that Venice could regularly extort economic privileges, determine whether invaders, such as the Normans or Crusaders entered the Empire, and parry any Byzantine attempts to restrict Venetian commercial or naval
2437:
In the 14th century, recurrent civil wars, attacks from Bulgaria and Serbia in the Balkans and the devastation caused by ever-increasing Turkish raids hastened the collapse of the Byzantine state, which would culminate in its final fall to the
4644:
in particular seems to have been strongly associated with the Mardaites, and Christos Makrypoulias even suggests that the ship was exclusively used by them. Three-banked ('trireme') dromons are described in a 9th-century work dedicated to the
3770:. Although some of these senior officers were professional seamen, having risen from the ranks, most fleet commanders were high court officials, who would have relied on their more experienced professional subordinates for nautical expertise.
763:(264 to 146 BC), no longer occurred, and the Roman fleets comprised relatively small vessels, best suited to their new tasks. By the early 4th century AD, the permanent Roman fleets had dwindled, so that when the fleets of the rival emperors
1230:
and an army driving the Arabs from Asia Minor. For the next three decades, naval warfare featured constant raids from both sides, with the Byzantines launching repeated attacks against the Muslim naval bases in Syria (Laodicea), and Egypt
4451:), the larger bireme dromons probably needed at least two masts in order to manoeuvre effectively, assuming that a single lateen sail for a ship this size would have reached unmanageable dimensions. The ship was steered by means of two
3923:
After the decline of the navy in the 11th century, Alexios I rebuilt it on different lines. Since the thematic fleets had all but vanished, their remnants were amalgamated into a unified imperial fleet, under the new office of the
1687:
The sack of Thessalonica by the Arabs under Leo of Tripoli in 904, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. It was the most serious of a renewed wave of piratical raids by the Muslim navies in the Aegean Sea during Leo VI's
459:
Constantinople's Venetian quarter at the hands of the city's Genoese residents. By the mid-14th century, the Byzantine fleet, which once could put hundreds of warships to sea, was limited to a few dozen at best, and control of the
3358:
and "Bulgaria" (whose area of control is identified by Ahrweiler with the mouths of the Danube). These vanished by the end of the 9th century, either succumbing to Arab attacks or being reformed or incorporated into themes.
5340:
When viewing the entire course of Byzantine history, the waxing and waning of the navy's strength closely mirrors the fluctuation of the Empire's fortunes. It is this apparent interrelation that led the French Byzantinist
2508:
Henceforth, the impoverished Byzantine state became a pawn of the great powers of the day, trying to survive by exploiting their rivalries. Thus, for instance, in 1351, Kantakouzenos was induced to side with Venice in its
2119:
Alexios Komnenos Bryennios, the expedition was ultimately defeated in 1156, and 4 Byzantine ships were captured. By 1169, the efforts of Manuel had evidently borne fruit, as a large and purely Byzantine fleet of about 150
4152:) was introduced. The term had already entered Byzantine usage through contact with the Kingdom of Naples and other Western nations, but was rarely used; it was adopted as part of the imperial hierarchy, coming after the
4122:(successor of de lo Cavo in Rhodes) and Benedetto Zaccaria (lord of Chios and Phocaea), were Genoese, the Byzantines' major ally in the period. Under Michael VIII, for the first time a foreigner, the Italian privateer
999:
created a new threat to Byzantium. Not only did the Arabs conquer significant recruiting and revenue-producing areas, but, after the utility of a strong navy was demonstrated by the short-lived Byzantine recapture of
429:
During the 11th century, the navy, like the Empire itself, began to decline. Faced with new naval challenges from the West, the Byzantines were increasingly forced to rely on the navies of Italian city-states such as
3750:, the commander of the imperial bodyguard. His title is still found in the Komnenian era, albeit as commander of the imperial escort squadron, and survived until the Palaiologan era, being listed in the 14th-century
2743:, each theme maintained its own, locally levied forces. Following a series of revolts by thematic forces, under Constantine V the larger early themes were progressively broken up, while a central imperial army, the
2193:
Venetian mercenaries to crew some of their galleys, but in the 1180s, as the bulk of the Komnenian naval establishment persisted, expeditions of 70–100 ships are still recorded in contemporary sources. Thus Emperor
384:
galley in the same period also marks the point when the Byzantine navy began departing from its late Roman roots and developing its own characteristic identity. This process would be furthered with the onset of the
2434:, the Emperor belatedly tried to rebuild the navy of 20 vessels, but although a few ships were built and a small fleet appears to have been active over the next couple of years, it eventually was disbanded again.
2039:, a veteran naval commander of previous decades. Together with the Venetians, he initially prevailed over the Norman fleet, but the joint fleet was caught off guard and defeated by the Normans off Corfu in 1084.
5052:
Once the fleets were close enough, exchanges of missiles began, ranging from combustible projectiles to arrows and javelins. The aim was not to sink ships, but to deplete the ranks of the enemy crews before the
3881:
in the imperial barges, and later assumed still higher offices; Emperor Romanos Lekapenos being the most successful example. There were also a number of specialists on board, such as the two bow oarsmen and the
1409:
of Damietta by a Byzantine fleet of 85 ships in 853, Arab naval power in the Levant was steadily reviving under Abbasid rule. Further Byzantine attempts to recover Crete, in 843 and 866, were complete failures.
1462:
failed to dislodge the Muslims from Italy, while two large-scale Byzantine attempts to recover Sicily were heavily defeated in 840 and 859. By 850, the Muslim fleets, together with large numbers of independent
1529:. His patronage of the fleet resulted in several successes and was long remembered by the sailors, forming strong ties of loyalty to the Macedonian dynasty that was felt up until the reign of his grandson,
5008:) of sailing vessels and oared transports, which would be sent away in the event of battle. The battle fleet was divided into squadrons, and orders were transmitted from ship to ship through signal flags (
2280:. When Alexios III and Stryphnos were alerted to the fact that the Crusade was sailing for Constantinople, only 20 "wretched and decayed" vessels could be found, according to Niketas Choniates. During the
1070:
of 655. This catastrophic Byzantine defeat opened up the Mediterranean to the Arabs and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways. From the reign of
1651:. At the same time, another Byzantine squadron scored a significant victory at Naples. These successes allowed a short-lived Byzantine counter-offensive to develop in the West in the 870s and 880s under
1396:, which attracted the support of a large part of the Byzantine armed forces, including the thematic fleets. Despite its suppression, the revolt had severely depleted the Empire's defences. As a result,
3553:
proper, and partly due to financial and manpower difficulties. It is also indicative of a general trend that would lead to the complete disappearance of the provincial fleets by the late 11th century.
759:
in 31 BC, in the absence of any external threat in the Mediterranean, the Roman navy performed mostly policing and escort duties. Massive sea battles, like those fought centuries before in the
4392:
manuscript may well illustrate that the ram had already been replaced by a spur in late antique galleys. One possibility is that the change occurred because of the gradual evolution of the ancient
1308:) to shift the fleet from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea during his campaigns against the Bulgars in the 760s. In 763, a fleet of 800 ships carrying 9,600 cavalries and some infantry sailed to
3375:
reliable, better trained and immediately available force at the Emperor's disposal. The high status of these marines is illustrated by the fact that they were considered to belong to the imperial
3561:
Although naval themes were organized much the same way as their land counterparts, there is some confusion in the Byzantine sources as to the exact rank structure. The usual term for admiral was
4346:
The accepted view is that the main developments which differentiated the early dromons from the liburnians, and that henceforth characterized Mediterranean galleys, were the adoption of a full
2635:), while a fleet is known to have been stationed at Constantinople itself, perhaps created out of the remnants of the praetorian fleets. In 400 it was sufficient to slaughter a large number of
1848:
was besieged. In response, a major Byzantine expedition was launched in 964 but ended in disaster. The Fatimids defeated the Byzantine army before Rametta and then annihilated the fleet at the
4554:
By the 10th century, there were three main classes of bireme (two oar-banks) warships of the general dromon type, as detailed in the inventories for the Cretan expeditions of 911 and 949: the
3504:) is also a subject of confusion: traditionally, it is held to have been a standard complement of 108 men, and that more than one could be present aboard a single ship. In the context of the
2379:, by 1270 Michael's efforts had produced a strong navy of 80 ships, with several Latin privateers sailing under imperial colours. In the same year, a fleet of 24 galleys besieged the town of
4516:
ships uncovered in the Yenikapi excavations, dating to the 10th–11th centuries, are of uniform design and construction, suggesting a centralized manufacturing process. They have a length of
2055:, Alexios was able to regain the coasts of Western Anatolia and expand his influence eastwards: in 1104, a Byzantine squadron of 10 ships captured Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as
3241:). Once the bastion of Byzantine naval strength in the West, by the late 9th century it had greatly diminished in strength and disappeared after the final loss of Taormina in 902. Distinct
12337:
4094:
of Gallipoli formed the bulk of the crews of the first Ottoman fleets after the Ottomans captured the area. Throughout the Palaiologan period, the fleet's main base was the harbour of
2541:, when it defeated Musa's attempt to blockade the city by sea as well. Likewise, in 1421, 10 Byzantine warships were engaged in support of the Ottoman pretender Mustafa against Sultan
1079:
of Constantinople, the Byzantine fleet proved instrumental to the survival of the Empire: the Arab fleets were defeated through the use of its newly developed secret weapon, known as "
12009:
Christides, Vassilios (1995), "Byzantine Dromon and Arab Shini: The Development of the Average Byzantine and Arab Warships and the Problem of the Number and Function of the Oarsmen",
5314:
It is not easy to assess the importance of the Byzantine navy to the Empire's history. On one hand, the Empire, throughout its life, had to defend a long coastline, often with little
3863:). In actual terms, there probably were several of each kind of officer upon each ship, working in shifts. Most of these officers rose from the ranks, and there are references in the
2931:
dated the fleet's creation to the early 9th century. From that point on, the Imperial Fleet formed the main naval reserve force and provided the core of various expeditionary fleets.
2014:
At this point, the sorry state of the Byzantine fleet had dire consequences. The Norman invasion could not be forestalled, and their army seized Corfu, landed unopposed in Epirus and
1171:. They did react with raids of their own in the East, such as the one in 709 against Egypt which captured the local admiral, but they also were aware of a coming onslaught: as Caliph
2240:, finally forced the Angeloi to action. The fleet tax was once again levied from the coastal regions and a navy of 30 ships was equipped, which was entrusted to the Calabrian pirate
2173:
attributes the rise of piracy in the latter years of Manuel's reign to the diversion of the funds intended for the maintenance of the fleet for other needs of the imperial treasury.
4927:. Despite their sometimes antiquarian terminology, these texts form the basis of our knowledge on Byzantine naval affairs. The main surviving texts are the chapters on sea combat (
2310:
Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. He restored the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople, and was responsible for the last flourishing of Byzantium as a major naval power.
1994:, which had expelled the Byzantines from Southern Italy and had conquered Sicily, was now casting its eye on the Byzantine Adriatic coasts and beyond. In the East, the disastrous
1983:
By the last quarter of the 11th century, the Byzantine navy was a shadow of its former self, having declined through neglect, the incompetence of its officers, and lack of funds.
1972:, no major naval expeditions were undertaken either. Inevitably, this long period of peace and prosperity led to complacency and neglect of the military. Already in the reign of
5033:) to match that of the enemy, often avoided, or broke off from battle. Tactical manoeuvres were therefore intended to disrupt the enemy formation, including the use of various
13047:
4411:. However, the discovery of new depictions and literary references in recent decades has led scholars to antedate the appearance of the lateen sail in the Levant to the late
3202:. Justinian settled 6,500 Mardaites there, who provided oarsmen and garrisons. While not exclusively a naval theme, it maintained its own fleet. It was split in 809 into the
4168:
and Andrea Morisco, both from 1303 to 1305, although the rank continued to be mentioned in various lists of offices long after that. Thus, according to the mid-14th century
2521:(1391–1425) was able to gather only five galleys and four smaller vessels (including some from the Hospitallers of Rhodes) to recapture Constantinople and rescue his father
1943:
of the fleet should investigate with rigor the slightest thing which is done to the fleet. For when the fleet is reduced to nothingness, you shall be overthrown and fall."
3474:(possibly Dalmatians) appears in the Cretan expeditions, as well as many Rus', who were given the right to serve in the Byzantine armed forces in a series of 10th-century
1226:
In the aftermath of the siege, the retreating remains of the Arab fleet were decimated in a storm, and Byzantine forces launched a counter-offensive, with a fleet sacking
5321:
On the other hand, the nature and limitations of the maritime technology of the age meant that the neither the Byzantines nor any of their opponents could develop a true
4066:), apart as a separate corps. All these groups received small grants of land to cultivate in exchange for their service, and were settled together in small colonies. The
4971:
Medieval Mediterranean naval warfare was therefore essentially coastal and amphibious in nature, carried out to seize coastal territory or islands, and not to exercise "
3728:, and ahead of various senior military and civil officials. He was also notable in not being classed with the other military commanders, whether of the themes or of the
805:
Mediterranean. A first Eastern expedition in 448, however, went no further than Sicily, and in 460, the Vandals attacked and destroyed a Western Roman invasion fleet at
2513:, but, abandoned by the Venetian admirals, his fleet was easily defeated by the Genoese and he was forced to sign an unfavourable peace. During the brief usurpation of
4578:( πάμφυλον), crewed with up to 120–160 men, its name either implying an origin in the region of Pamphylia as a transport ship or its crewing with "picked crews" (from
4419:
The dromons that Procopius describes were single-banked ships of probably 50 oars, arranged with 25 oars on each side. Again unlike Hellenistic vessels, which used an
2201:. However, the subsequent peace treaty included a clause that required the Normans to furnish a fleet for the Empire. This, together with a similar agreement made by
673:
2867:
The capital's navy had played a central role in the repulsion of the Arab sieges of Constantinople, but the exact date of the establishment of the Imperial Fleet (
1930:
5194:"Greek fire" was the name given by Western Europeans to the flammable concoction used by the Byzantines, so called because the Europeans viewed the Byzantines as
4873:, although for a time both continued to be used. No construction differences are mentioned between the two, with both terms referring to horse-carrying vessels (
2839:
in Cilicia, the Aegean islands and the imperial holdings in southern Greece. Its headquarters was initially perhaps at Samos, with a subordinate command under a
12010:
5165:
were introduced in the latter half of the 14th century, but they were rarely used by the Byzantines, who only had a few artillery pieces for the defence of the
1724:
as prisoners. These losses denuded Byzantine defences, opening the Aegean up to raids by the Syrian fleets. The first heavy blow came in 901, when the renegade
2973:
fleet, and assigned to the administration and defence of the southern coasts of Asia Minor. The exact date of its creation is unclear, with one view proposing
1820:
manuscript. Nikephoros Phokas led a huge amphibious operation which recovered Crete for the Empire, thus securing the Aegean Sea from the Muslim pirate threat.
13280:
6768:
4495:), on which marines could hang their shields, ran around the sides of the ship, providing protection to the deck crew. Larger ships also had wooden castles (
3155:). They played an intermediate role between the large thematic fleets and the central Imperial Fleet: they were permanent squadrons with professional crews (
2375:
of a combined Byzantine–Genoese fleet of 48 ships by a much smaller Venetian fleet in 1263. Taking advantage of the Italians' preoccupation with the ongoing
2160:
humiliation of 1125. In 1177, another fleet of 70 galleys and 80 auxiliary ships under Kontostephanos, destined for Egypt, returned home after appearing off
4489:), below which the siphon for the discharge of Greek fire projected, although secondary siphons could also be carried amidships on either side. A pavesade (
4257:
of the imperial Roman fleets, the term first appears in the late 5th century, and was commonly used for a specific kind of war-galley by the 6th. The term
2593:(284–305), the navy's strength reportedly increased from 46,000 men to 64,000 men, a figure that represents the numerical peak of the late Roman navy. The
1785:, not only failed to recover the island, but on its return voyage, it was ambushed and comprehensively defeated by Leo of Tripoli off Chios (October 912).
5252:
through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire."
11674:
Pryor, John H. (2003), "Byzantium and the Sea: Byzantine Fleets and the History of the Empire in the Age of the Macedonian Emperors, c. 900–1025 CE", in
4501:) on either side between the masts, similar to those attested for the Roman liburnians, providing archers with elevated firing platforms. The bow spur (
2405:
Andronikos' decision aroused considerable opposition and criticism from contemporary scholars and officials almost from the outset, and historians like
3851:
were helmsmen, in charge of the steering oars in the stern, as well as of the rowers on either side of the ship. The senior of the two was the "first
2849:. As its name suggests, it comprised most of the Empire's standing navy, and faced the principal maritime threat, the Arab fleets of Egypt and Syria.
2639:
who had built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe. Its size, however, is unknown, and it does not appear in the
12260:
11363:
McMahon, Lucas (2021). "Logistical modelling of a sea-borne expedition in the Mediterranean: the case of the Byzantine invasion of Crete in AD 960".
4098:
on the Marmara shore of Constantinople, dredged and refortified by Michael VIII. Among the provincial naval centres, probably the most important was
10950:]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). Vol. I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 535–562.
12144:
Kollias, Taxiarchis G. (1999), "Die byzantinische Kriegsmarine. Ihre Bedeutung im Verteidigungssystem von Byzanz", in Chrysos, Evangelos K. (ed.),
2064:
890:. Byzantine control of the sea was of great strategic importance, allowing the smaller Byzantine army to successfully occupy the peninsula by 540.
2035:
In the clashes with the Normans through the 1080s, the only effective Byzantine naval force was a squadron commanded, and possibly maintained, by
1474:
The same period, when a battered Byzantium defended itself against enemies on all fronts, also saw the emergence of a new, unexpected threat: the
886:
began with a double-pronged Byzantine offensive, with a fleet again carrying Belisarius' army to Sicily and then Italy, and another army invading
2505:
advises against the maintenance of a navy, on the grounds that resources were insufficient to adequately maintain both it and an effective army.
2273:(1195–1203) is said to have licensed one of his commanders, Constantine Phrangopoulos, to launch pirate raids against commerce in the Black Sea.
4751:
had a single mast, four oars and a rudder. In the earlier years of the empire, shipbuilding wood for transport and supply ships was mainly from
2481:(1347–1354) tried to restore the navy and merchant fleet, as a means of both reducing the Empire's economic dependency on the Genoese colony of
1606:
in 855, the Byzantines were confined to the eastern shore of Sicily, and under increasing pressure. A relief expedition in 868 achieved little.
1193:) prepared the capital, and mounted an unsuccessful pre-emptive strike against the Muslim naval preparations. Anastasios was soon overthrown by
14200:
14156:
12510:
12411:
12159:
5234:. The means of its production was kept a state secret, and its components are only roughly guessed or described through secondary sources like
4890:
2454:
from the Genoese and forcing various smaller Latin and Turkish principalities to come to terms with him. His campaigns against the Ottomans in
2301:
451:
2764:
A similar process was followed in the fleet, which was organized along similar lines. In the second half of the 7th century, the fleet of the
1800:, coupled with the death of Damian during a siege of a Byzantine fortress in the next year, marked the beginning of the Byzantine resurgence.
13844:
12421:
12354:
3475:
2632:
2221:
particular expeditions, without the costs of a standing navy. Thus a Byzantine fleet of 66 vessels sent by Isaac II to recapture Cyprus from
1495:
1038:
which ignited the Arab ships and burned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea fire."
494:
4903:
Little is known on particular Byzantine ships during the period. The accounts of the 1437 journey by sea of the Byzantine delegation to the
4656:. However, this treatise, which survives only in fragments, draws heavily upon references on the appearance and construction of a Classical
3949:
was also appointed as overall governor of southern Greece, the old themes of Hellas and the Peloponnese, which were divided into districts (
3533:
squadron. As for the total size of the Byzantine navy in this period, Warren Treadgold extrapolates a total, including the naval themes, of
2628:
2216:
to the Fourth Crusade marked the triumph of the Latin West, and especially the Venetian maritime power, over the enfeebled Byzantine Empire.
12369:
12364:
2699:
In response to the Arab conquests during the 7th century, the whole administrative and military system of the Empire was reformed, and the
2241:
974:
714:
1454:. Venetian operations against them were unsuccessful, and throughout the 840s, the Arabs were freely raiding Italy and the Adriatic, even
1062:
in 649 and raiding Rhodes, Crete and Sicily, the young Arab navy decisively defeated the Byzantines under the personal command of Emperor
13445:
12431:
12406:
5345:
to remark: "The epochs of dominion are those in which it held control of the sea, and it was when it lost it, that its reverses began."
4923:
The Byzantines took care to codify, preserve and pass on the lessons of warfare at land and sea from past experience, through the use of
3720:, 'grand'). Originally very lowly ranked, the office rose quickly in the hierarchy: by 899 he was placed immediately before or after the
3161:), maintained by resources from the imperial treasury and not the province they were stationed in, but subordinate to the local thematic
2565:
1907:
1142:
443:
3597:, corresponding to 'rear admiral'). Until the mid-9th century, the governors of the themes of the Aegean and Samos are also recorded as
3384:
The following table contains estimates, by Warren T. Treadgold, of the number of oarsmen over the entire history of the Byzantine navy:
2751:, was created, stationed at or near Constantinople, serving as a central reserve that henceforth formed the core of campaigning armies.
2529:; twenty years later, he personally commanded 4 galleys and 2 other vessels carrying some infantry and cavalry, and saved the island of
2248:. A second fleet, augmented by Pisan vessels and again commanded by Steiriones, was finally able to defeat Kaphoures and end his raids.
848:
revolted against Anastasius. The rebels assembled a fleet of 200 ships which, despite some initial successes, were destroyed by admiral
13796:
13779:
12436:
12416:
12031:
10621:
4416:
lateen had become the standard rig for the dromon, with the traditional square sail gradually falling from use in medieval navigation.
2399:
2187:
1705:
1159:. Together, they spearheaded a revival of Byzantine fortunes against the Arabs, but also caused great internal strife because of their
302:
3336:
Isolated regions of particular importance for the control of the major sea-lanes were covered by separate officials with the title of
1675:
in 888, however, signalled the virtual disappearance of major Byzantine naval activity in the seas around Italy for the next century.
426:
continued with alternating success, but in the 10th century, the Byzantines were able to gain supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean.
13495:
13341:
13313:
12957:
12949:
12426:
12359:
4507:) was intended to ride over an enemy ship's oars, breaking them and rendering it helpless against missile fire and boarding actions.
4337:(modern Yenikapi) uncover the remains of over 36 Byzantine ships from the 6th to 10th centuries, including four light galleys of the
1864:
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tarsiot fleet, opening the way for another grand expedition to recover Crete. It was entrusted to
1471:
raiders, had emerged as the major power of the Mediterranean, putting the Byzantines and the Christians in general on the defensive.
1167:
The Byzantines were unable to respond effectively to the Muslim advance in Africa because the two decades between 695 and 715 were a
1219:. The use of Greek fire, which devastated the Arab fleet, was again instrumental in the Byzantine victory, while a harsh winter and
13691:
13052:
683:
645:
4042:), were used as marines, forming the bulk of Byzantine naval manpower in the 1260s and 1270s. Michael also set the rowers, called
13540:
3766:
is also mentioned for the Imperial Fleet, but his role is unclear from the sources. He may have held a post similar to that of a
2486:
1887:
1392:
The Byzantines, on the other hand, were weakened by a series of catastrophic defeats against the Bulgars, followed in 820 by the
2695:. The scattered and isolated imperial possessions around the Mediterranean were defended and reinforced by the Byzantine fleets.
14020:
13545:
2927:; and as there is little evidence for major fleets operating from Constantinople during the 8th century, the Greek Byzantinist
1886:
in 941 was destroyed by 15 hastily assembled old ships equipped with Greek fire, and the navy played an important role in the
1434:
The situation was even worse in the West. A critical blow was inflicted on the Empire in 827, as the Aghlabids began the slow
13944:
12704:
12697:
12253:
12109:
Seekrieg und Seepolitik zwischen Islam und Abendland: das Mittelmeer unter byzantinischer und arabischer Hegemonie (650-1040)
11959:
11911:
11771:
11705:
11597:
11551:
11530:
11509:
11488:
11451:
11321:
11301:
11283:
11220:
11136:
11098:
11044:
11017:
10788:
10667:
10569:
10461:
5330:
3702:
The Imperial Fleet was a different case, as it was not tied to the thematic administration, but was considered as one of the
1541:(867–886) heralded this revival, as he embarked on an aggressive foreign policy. Continuing the policies of his predecessor,
1216:
1113:
in the 680s and 690s. The last Byzantine stronghold, Carthage, fell in 698, although a Byzantine naval expedition managed to
1083:". The Muslim advance in Asia Minor and the Aegean was halted, and an agreement to a thirty-year truce concluded soon after.
1076:
353:, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than its earlier iteration. While the fleets of the
11978:
11251:
10885:
5238:, so that its exact composition remains to this day unknown. In its effect, the Greek fire must have been rather similar to
5082:
under certain circumstances, and not the decisive anti-ship weapon that the ram had been in the hands of experienced crews.
3979:), the navy had two main strategic areas of operations: the Aegean, entailing operations against the Greek islands (chiefly
2151:
Following the Empire-wide seizure and imprisonment of all Venetians in March 1171, the Byzantine fleet was strong enough to
13696:
13555:
12843:
10501:
5169:
of Constantinople. Unlike the Venetians and Genoese, there is no indication that the Byzantines ever mounted any on ships.
2474:
2338:(1222–1254), a more energetic foreign policy was pursued, and in 1225, the Nicaean fleet was able to occupy the islands of
1919:"Strive at all time to have the fleet in top condition and to have it not want for anything. For the fleet is the glory of
2617:, IV.46). In the West, several fluvial fleets are mentioned, but the old standing praetorian fleets had all but vanished (
12687:
4676:
2125:
1545:(842–867), he showed great care to the fleet, and as a result, successive victories followed. In 868, a fleet under the
409:
Initially, the defence of the Byzantine coasts and the approaches to Constantinople was borne by the great fleet of the
14025:
13438:
10499:
Bashear, Suliman (1991), "Apocalyptic and Other Materials on Early Muslim-Byzantine Wars: A Review of Arabic Sources",
4685:), which were either sailing ships or galleys, the latter certainly modified to accommodate the horses. Given that the
3207:
2796:
2152:
1479:
2510:
2100:
and raiding its suburbs. On its return voyage however it was attacked and destroyed by a Byzantine or Venetian fleet.
14126:
12692:
12198:
12176:
12044:
12019:
11929:
11884:
11862:
11835:
11816:
11729:
11687:
11664:
11639:
11615:
11470:
11427:
11404:
11344:
11238:
11202:
11181:
11159:
11116:
11070:
10977:
10875:
10848:
10688:
10548:
10481:
5037:, such as dividing one's force and carrying out flanking manoeuvres, feigning retreat or hiding a reserve in ambush (
3773:
In the lower levels of organization, there was more uniformity: squadrons of three or five ships were commanded by a
365:
became vital to the very existence of the Byzantine state, which several historians have called a "maritime empire".
5284:
Euphemios in 827, or whether they independently created a version of their own. A 12th-century treatise prepared by
4088:. These corps remained extant, albeit in a diminished form, throughout the last centuries of the Empire; indeed the
1264:
are preceded by a seaborne Byzantine invasion. Many traditions from the period stress that manning the guard posts (
14205:
13189:
12246:
3708:, the professional central reserve forces. Consequently, the commander of the Imperial Fleet remained known as the
1965:
1106:
707:
653:
547:
403:
10405:
Byzance et la mer. La marine de guerre, la politique et les institutions maritimes de Byzance aux VIIe–XVe siècles
1075:(661–680), raids intensified, as preparations were made for a great assault on Constantinople itself. In the long
14161:
13983:
12515:
12283:
10490:
Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.),
3070:
exercised both civil and military authority over them. Eventually, they were raised to full maritime themes, the
2355:
2276:
The Byzantine state and its fleet were thus in no state to resist the naval might of Venice, which supported the
1883:
1483:
12030:
Christides, Vassilios (1997), "Military Intelligence in Arabo-Byzantine Naval Warfare", in Tsiknakis, K. (ed.),
10604:
The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos
5002:) along the coast, the fleet consisted of the main body, composed of the oared warships, and the baggage train (
4691:
appear originally to have been oared horse-transports, this would imply differences in construction between the
3270:, was established in the mid- to late 8th century, to protect imperial communications with Italy and defend the
2111:, launching the last Byzantine bid to regain Southern Italy. Despite initial successes and reinforcements under
14131:
14121:
13993:
13914:
13732:
13600:
13172:
13116:
13037:
12904:
11150:
10998:
4776:
4675:). These appear to have been mostly sailing vessels, rather than oared. The Byzantines and Arabs also employed
2549:
2419:
2351:
2315:
2281:
2244:. Despite scoring a few early successes, Steiriones' fleet was destroyed in a surprise attack by Kaphoures off
2213:
2097:
1720:(military governor) prisoner, and in 898, the eunuch admiral Raghib carried off 3,000 Byzantine sailors of the
1586:
became a major base for land and seaborne attacks against Byzantine territory, especially under the famed emir
1324:
emperors undermined Byzantium's naval strength: with the Arab threat gone for the moment, and with the largely
534:
446:
was followed by another period of decline, which culminated in the disastrous dissolution of the Empire by the
3058:('Gulf'), which was based at Samos and comprised the southern Aegean including the Cyclades. Unlike the other
13988:
13978:
13893:
13648:
13433:
2713:
1788:
The tide began to turn again after 920. Coincidentally, the same year witnessed the ascension of an admiral,
1571:
1559:
933:
12868:
1696:(886–912), the Empire again faced serious threats. In the north, a war broke out against the Bulgarian Tsar
813:, reputedly numbering 1,113 ships and 100,000 men, but it failed disastrously. About 600 ships were lost to
14062:
14030:
13934:
13643:
13615:
13423:
12962:
3488:
2015:
1968:
in 1043 was beaten back with ease, and with the exception of a short-lived attempt to recover Sicily under
1130:
918:
849:
298:
10697:
Christides, Vassilios (1981), "The Raids of the Moslems of Crete in the Aegean Sea: Piracy and Conquest",
5202:. The Byzantines themselves used various descriptive names for it, but the most common was 'liquid fire' (
357:
faced few great naval threats, operating as a policing force vastly inferior in power and prestige to the
13786:
13428:
13275:
13032:
12783:
10712:
The Conquest of Crete by the Arabs (ca. 824): A Turning Point in the Struggle between Byzantium and Islam
5045:, XIX.36) against direct confrontation and advocates the use of stratagems instead. According to Leo VI (
2165:
2138:
1652:
700:
616:
564:
10415:"Woods of byzantine trade ships of Yenikapi (Istanbul) and changes in wood use from 6th to 11th century"
2284:
of the city in 1203, the attempts of the Byzantine ships to oppose the Crusader fleet from entering the
2022:, starting a decade of war which consumed the scant resources of the embattled Empire. The new emperor,
14106:
14052:
13791:
13663:
13653:
13353:
13233:
13111:
13042:
12930:
12899:
12742:
12682:
10940:(1967). "Le Drongaire de la flotte, le Grand drongaire de la flotte, le Duc de la flotte, le Mégaduc".
10715:
4948:
4924:
3621:(chief secretary) who headed the civilian administration of the theme. Further staff officers were the
2646:
For operations in the Mediterranean during the 5th century, fleets appear to have been assembled on an
2447:
2364:
1882:
During the same period, the Byzantine fleet was active in the Black Sea as well: a Rus' fleet that was
1749:
1240:
1022:
983:
Map of the main Byzantine-Muslim naval operations and battles in the Mediterranean, 7th–11th centuries.
678:
517:
418:
380:
in the 6th century. The re-establishment of a permanently maintained fleet and the introduction of the
314:
82:
10779:
Delgado, James P (2011), "Ships on Land", in Catsambis, Alexis; Ford, Ben; Hamilton, Donny L. (eds.),
4715:
would have had to have a special compartment amidships to accommodate a row of horses, increasing its
1513:
13966:
13490:
13346:
13131:
13022:
12909:
12209:
11854:
10732:
6782:
3906:). Since the marine infantry were organized as regular army units, their ranks followed those of the
3767:
3064:, who headed subordinate commands, these two circumscriptions were completely independent, and their
3030:
The Cibyrrhaeots were complemented by two independent naval commands in the Aegean, each headed by a
2395:
2197:(1183–1185) could still gather 100 warships in 1185 to resist and later defeat a Norman fleet in the
2134:
2067:, is reported to have cut funding to the fleet and transferred it to the army, equipping ships on an
1998:
in 1071 had resulted in the loss of Asia Minor, the Empire's military and economic heartland, to the
1950:
1836:(945–959) against the Emirate of Crete, ended in disaster, due to the incompetence of its commander,
1808:
1435:
1393:
1313:
806:
649:
455:
306:
11028:
Armies of the Middle Ages, Volume 2: The Ottoman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Near East, 1300–1500
4915:, used by Venice and the other maritime states of the region in the first half of the 15th century.
4912:
4908:
2899:, considered it "not improbable" that the Imperial Fleet existed as a subordinate command under the
1824:
The Empire's growing might be displayed in 942, when Emperor Romanos I dispatched a squadron to the
1796:) and last time in the Empire's history. Finally, in 923, the decisive defeat of Leo of Tripoli off
844:) is reported to have sent a fleet of 100 warships to raid the coasts of Italy. In 513, the general
751:
The Byzantine navy, like the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire itself, continued the systems of the
13265:
13017:
12504:
12383:
11649:
Pryor, John H. (1995). "The Geographical Conditions of Galley Navigation in the Mediterranean". In
6773:
6771:
5285:
3943:, once the overall naval commander, was subordinated to him, acting now as his principal aide. The
3865:
3664:
3203:
2906:
2360:
2222:
2148:. The invasion failed, however, and the Byzantines lost half the fleet in a storm on the way back.
2048:
1381:, which was further entrenched by the repulsion of a Byzantine attack in 809. At the same time, in
1168:
1114:
1044:
883:
771:
668:
620:
12012:
Tropis III, 3rd International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Athens 1989 proceedings
10494:(in French), Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85
4663:
For cargo transport, the Byzantines usually commandeered ordinary merchantmen as transport ships (
2229:, who was in the employ of the Normans of Sicily. The depredations of the pirates, especially the
1389:
dynasty was established, which immediately engaged in raids throughout the central Mediterranean.
905:. In 550, Totila invaded Sicily, and over the next year, his 300-ship fleet captured Sardinia and
14195:
14171:
13595:
13321:
13141:
13027:
12018:, Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 111–122, archived from
11247:
4935:
4858:
2498:
2367:
with the Genoese, securing their aid against Venice at sea, in return for commercial privileges.
2104:
1737:
1668:
1614:
fell to the Aghlabids. Muslim corsairs raided the Adriatic, and although they were driven out of
1183:
687:
574:
294:
76:
49:
10769:
10492:
Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings
1008:. In this effort the new Muslim elite, which came from the inland-oriented northern part of the
14096:
13686:
13528:
12972:
12778:
12752:
12747:
12520:
12496:
12492:
12459:
11789:
11715:
11650:
11625:
11056:
10834:
5214:) onto enemy ships. Alternatively, it could be launched in jars fired from catapults; pivoting
4965:
4334:
2773:
2704:
2234:
2226:
1526:
1455:
1406:
1220:
1097:) paid attention to the needs of the navy, strengthening it by the resettlement of over 18,500
988:
834:
641:
468:
386:
11608:
Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571
10859:
3615:. As the thematic admirals also doubled as governors of their themes, they were assisted by a
13814:
13668:
12858:
12768:
12732:
12617:
12347:
12342:
5017:
4703:
proper, terms which otherwise are often used indiscriminately in literary sources. While the
4208:. Pseudo-Kodinos also records that, while the other warships flew "the usual imperial flag" (
3723:
2928:
2557:
2518:
2478:
2194:
1849:
1770:
764:
439:
290:
12050:
11624:
Pryor, John H. (1995). "From Dromōn to Galea: Mediterranean Bireme Galleys AD 500–1300". In
10636:
3137:
Some of the other, 'land' themes also maintained sizeable squadrons, usually placed under a
921:
marked the beginning of the final Imperial ascendancy. With the final conquest of Italy and
14057:
14040:
13861:
13620:
13585:
13468:
13405:
13400:
12935:
12878:
12116:
Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship – Square or Lateen Sail?",
12039:, National Hellenic Research Foundation – Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 269–281,
11751:
11128:
The Sons of Bayezid: Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402-13
10993:. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 26. Translated by Michael Bonner. Leiden: Brill.
3969:
3251:
2526:
2514:
2493:
2372:
2145:
1875:
1837:
1697:
1636:
1329:
1205:
1160:
1152:
1147:
1005:
402:", the Byzantine navy's best-known and feared secret weapon, Constantinople was saved from
11354:
Makrypoulias, Christos G. (1995), "The Navy in the Works of Constantine Porphyrogenitus",
5105:) that launched stones, arrows, javelins, pots of Greek fire or other incendiary liquids,
4638:
men as crew, was used for scouting missions but also in the wings of the battle line. The
4165:
4164:, with the arrival of the mercenaries of the Catalan Company. Only two holders are known,
855:
In 533, taking advantage of the absence of the Vandal fleet, sent to suppress a revolt in
820:
8:
12967:
12883:
12873:
12737:
12500:
12488:
12375:
11539:
11518:
11497:
11055:
Hocker, Frederick M. (1995). "Late Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic Galleys and Fleets". In
10921:
Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations
10602:
4904:
4524:
4111:
3992:
3965:
3286:
2790:
2782:
2656:
2569:
2534:
2423:
2410:
2327:
2323:
2270:
1995:
1664:
1257:
1110:
1067:
941:
830:
826:
220:
11755:
5230:) also existed, reputedly invented by Leo VI, making it the direct analogue to a modern
2688:
The Byzantine Empire between the 6th and late 9th centuries, including the themes as of
2458:
were failures, however, and soon the Ottomans had established their first naval base at
2269:, to use their ships for their own purposes, launching raids of their own. Even Emperor
2208:
1316:, but in 766, a second fleet, allegedly of 2,600 ships, again bound for Anchialus, sank
1204:), who in turn was replaced, just as the Muslim army was advancing through Anatolia, by
825:
The 6th century marked the rebirth of Roman naval power. In 508, as antagonism with the
271:
30:
14045:
14035:
13909:
13580:
13463:
13380:
13243:
12595:
12575:
12555:
12545:
12311:
12226:
12133:
11998:
11947:
11777:
11719:
11654:
11629:
11577:
11380:
11060:
10838:
10822:
10814:
10757:
10526:
10518:
4940:
4404:
4221:
3329:
3071:
2603:
2522:
2415:
2376:
2084:
2023:
1764:
1502:
1439:
1378:
1362:
1361:(786–809). Around the Mediterranean, new powers were rising, foremost amongst them the
1245:
902:
845:
801:
431:
362:
40:
10659:
The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times
3332:
and provided with their own naval squadrons, possibly as a defence against Rus' raids.
14167:
14101:
14006:
13939:
13919:
13887:
13819:
13806:
13727:
13722:
13473:
13238:
13088:
12607:
12560:
12550:
12540:
12230:
12194:
12172:
12153:
12137:
12129:
12082:
12040:
12002:
11955:
11925:
11907:
11880:
11858:
11831:
11812:
11767:
11725:
11701:
11683:
11660:
11635:
11611:
11593:
11581:
11573:
11547:
11526:
11505:
11484:
11466:
11447:
11423:
11400:
11384:
11340:
11317:
11297:
11279:
11234:
11216:
11198:
11177:
11155:
11145:
11132:
11112:
11094:
11087:
11066:
11040:
11013:
10994:
10973:
10951:
10937:
10925:
10871:
10844:
10826:
10784:
10761:
10749:
10719:
10684:
10663:
10608:
10565:
10544:
10530:
10477:
10457:
10414:
5054:
4756:
4399:
4396:
4329:
remains of a few merchant vessels. Only in 2005–2006 did archaeological digs for the
4018:), who were men of mixed Greek-Latin descent living around the capital; and men from
3930:. The first known occupant of the office was Alexios' brother-in-law John Doukas, in
2952:
2916:
2896:
2623:
2470:
2335:
2258:
2237:
2230:
2170:
2088:
2080:
1991:
1861:
1683:
1587:
1442:
and the island's thematic fleet. In 838, the Muslims crossed over into Italy, taking
1249:
1102:
1009:
454:
attempted to revive the navy, but their efforts only had a temporary effect. Emperor
435:
369:
275:
255:
194:
136:
69:
4827:
is used indiscriminately for both Byzantine and Latin ships, and the horse-carrying
2684:
13971:
13764:
13712:
13658:
13625:
13575:
13368:
13358:
13136:
12824:
12716:
12639:
12622:
12600:
12585:
12570:
12484:
12269:
12218:
12125:
11990:
11893:
11872:
11844:
11781:
11759:
11569:
11372:
11263:
10915:
10897:
10806:
10741:
10591:
10587:
10578:
Bryer, Anthony Applemore Mornington (1966), "Shipping in the empire of Trebizond",
10510:
10399:
5166:
5085:
Like their Roman predecessors, Byzantine and Muslim ships were equipped with small
4254:
3278:
were added to it in the 870s, before they were made into a separate theme (that of
2746:
2502:
2477:, in which its commander played a prominent role. Following the civil war, Emperor
2391:
2331:
2202:
2060:
2056:
2051:
was subsequently used to suppress revolts in Crete and Cyprus. With the aid of the
1891:
1782:
1725:
1644:
1607:
1591:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1475:
1321:
782:
756:
569:
522:
346:
263:
247:
235:
198:
180:
12146:
Griechenland und das Meer. Beiträge eines Symposions in Frankfurt im Dezember 1996
12073:. A Short History and a Proposed Reconstruction of their Uniforms and Equipment".
11376:
10860:"Venice, Genoa and Control of the Seas in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries"
10557:
5342:
2735:), which were regional civil and military administrations. Under the command of a
2306:
14116:
13949:
13929:
13924:
13879:
13869:
13829:
13824:
13774:
13769:
13550:
13156:
13073:
13068:
12808:
12798:
12634:
12628:
12612:
12590:
12580:
12565:
11897:
11848:
11806:
11739:
11675:
11441:
11417:
11334:
11311:
11126:
10988:
10967:
10941:
10919:
10863:
10657:
10538:
10471:
10451:
10403:
5215:
5116:
4994:
On campaign, following the assembly of the various squadrons at fortified bases (
4895:
4800:
4747:), which was a boat carried along by the bigger ships. The kind described in the
4716:
4653:
4317:
3172:
3042:('Aegean Sea'), covering the northern half of the Aegean and the Dardanelles and
2431:
2394:
in 1285 and the end of the threat of an invasion from Italy, Michael's successor
2142:
2044:
1969:
1833:
1693:
1530:
1451:
1358:
1354:
1118:
937:
584:
559:
509:
267:
202:
169:
12169:
The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century
12094:
Dolley, R. H. (1953), "Naval tactics in the heyday of Byzantine thalassocracy",
4539:
3894:(trumpeter) is also recorded in the sources, who conveyed orders to the rowers (
1566:
in the area. A few years later, he twice heavily defeated the Cretan pirates at
979:
737:
13954:
13834:
13567:
13326:
13206:
13005:
12709:
12464:
12222:
11802:
11330:
11190:
9563:
5188:
4955:
of Constantine Porphyrogennetos and other works by Byzantine and Arab writers.
4648:
4528:
4387:
4365:
4119:
3907:
3755:
3745:
3567:, the same term used for the generals that governed the land themes. Under the
3527:
proper, the latter including the two imperial vessels and the ten ships of the
3344:, who in some cases may have commanded detachments of the Imperial Fleet. Such
3318:
3267:
3218:
2613:
2354:
in 1235, the Nicaean navy was defeated by a far smaller Venetian force, and in
2277:
2198:
2092:
2036:
1977:
1895:
1825:
1741:
1640:
1520:
1466:
1345:
1194:
992:
579:
486:
472:
447:
395:
126:
44:
10929:
10612:
10514:
5065:
5034:
4393:
2538:
1976:(976–1025), the defence of the Adriatic was entrusted to the Venetians. Under
1340:
14189:
13874:
13751:
13717:
13455:
13390:
13363:
13248:
12863:
12803:
12086:
11195:
Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II, 1282–1328
10955:
10753:
10676:
10653:
5383:
5322:
5183:
4360:
on the bow in favour of an above-water spur, and the gradual introduction of
3630:
3483:
3106:
2668:
2561:
2439:
2052:
1938:
1865:
1574:, temporarily securing the Aegean. Cyprus also was temporarily recovered and
1368:
1298:
1156:
953:
259:
190:
11994:
11721:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11656:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11631:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11267:
11062:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
10901:
10840:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
10723:
10438:. The Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity of the University of Birmingham
2703:
established. According to this, the Empire was divided into several themes (
1260:
composed and transmitted during the first and second Islamic centuries, the
463:
definitively passed to Italian navies and, in the 15th century, the nascent
13635:
13610:
13590:
13395:
13373:
13228:
12476:
12471:
12305:
11714:
Rankov, Boris (1995). "Fleets of the Early Roman Empire, 31 BC–AD 324". In
11437:
11413:
9187:
9185:
5264:
5235:
5231:
4095:
3793:('centurion'), although literary sources also used more archaic terms like
3456:
2767:
2700:
2322:
between the Crusaders, while three Greek successor states were set up, the
2319:
1999:
1922:
1828:. Using Greek fire, the squadron destroyed a fleet of Muslim corsairs from
1793:
1753:
1721:
1623:
1281:
1182:) readied his forces for a renewed assault against Constantinople, Emperor
1087:
868:
800:), immediately launched raids against the coasts of Italy and Greece, even
752:
589:
464:
423:
412:
354:
279:
239:
12238:
11313:
George Akropolites: The History – Introduction, Translation and Commentary
11276:
Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, A.D. 300–900
10745:
9551:
7056:
5384:"Other Byzantine flags shown in the "Book of All Kingdoms" (14th century)"
4900:", which was an enlarged galley capable of carrying more cargo for trade.
2318:
of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Byzantine Empire was
1489:
14136:
14111:
13605:
13415:
13182:
12788:
12773:
11392:
11082:
10963:
5119:
to choke the enemy or, as Emperor Leo VI suggests, scorpions and snakes (
5014:) and lanterns. The navy played key role in supplying land-based forces.
4972:
4964:
galley fleets were sunk by bad weather (e.g. the Roman losses during the
4720:
4412:
4347:
4249:
The primary warship of the Byzantine navy until the 12th century was the
3987:, while the main base for operations in the Marmara Sea was Holkos, near
3761:
3737:
3679:
3351:
3279:
3140:
3043:
3008:
2285:
2262:
2161:
2019:
1745:
1660:
1648:
1542:
1420:
1261:
1063:
1049:
872:
377:
10833:
Dotson, John E. (1995). "Economics and Logistics of Galley Warfare". In
10522:
9182:
7793:
3809:. Each ship's crew, depending on its size, was composed of one to three
1332:, the emperors reduced the navy's size and downgraded the naval themes.
450:
in 1204. After the Empire was restored in 1261, several emperors of the
13410:
13270:
13260:
13093:
13083:
12793:
11808:
The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century
11292:
MacGeorge, Penny (2002), "Appendix: Naval Power in the Fifth Century",
11169:
10598:
9284:
8735:
5315:
5178:
4299:
4099:
4031:
3788:
3271:
2892:
2601:) with its attendant legionary flotillas is still well attested in the
2590:
2406:
2233:
captain Kaphoures, described by Niketas Choniates and his brother, the
2114:
1984:
1829:
1700:, and a part of the Imperial Fleet was used in 895 to ferry an army of
1425:
1401:
1172:
1080:
1072:
1035:
1001:
860:
821:
Sixth century – Justinian restores Roman control over the Mediterranean
810:
760:
625:
606:
460:
399:
358:
350:
327:
96:
10818:
9782:
9428:
9158:
4384:) are unclear. Depictions of upward-pointing beaks in the 4th-century
3635:(chief messenger), who acted as chief of staff, and a number of staff
2059:. By 1118, Alexios was able to pass on a small navy to his successor,
1832:. In 949, however, another expedition of about 100 ships, launched by
1740:. The greatest disaster, however, came in 904, when another renegade,
13959:
13839:
13331:
13199:
13146:
13078:
11791:
Byzantine Naval Power and Trade: The Collapse of the Western Frontier
11763:
5303:
5279:
5225:
5219:
5209:
5155:
5136:
5130:
5124:
5110:
5100:
5090:
5028:
5009:
5003:
4995:
4986:
4980:
4928:
4846:
4834:
4828:
4822:
4810:
4804:
4793:
4787:
4730:
4724:
4710:
4704:
4698:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4670:
4664:
4646:
4639:
4620:
4608:
4601:
4591:
4585:
4573:
4567:
4555:
4511:
4502:
4496:
4490:
4484:
4478:
4472:
4466:
4460:
4446:
4440:
4434:
4424:
4420:
4385:
4379:
4351:
4338:
4311:
4297:
4292:
4258:
4230:
flew an image of the emperor on horseback as his distinctive ensign.
4225:
4215:
4203:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4159:
4153:
4133:
4127:
4089:
4079:
4073:
4067:
4055:
4043:
4029:
4023:
4007:
4005:
3988:
3950:
3944:
3938:
3925:
3901:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3876:
3870:
3858:
3852:
3846:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3794:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3759:
3743:
3735:
3729:
3721:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3693:
3685:
3677:
3671:
3669:
3656:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3628:
3622:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3548:
3542:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3493:
3469:
3461:
3376:
3369:
3355:
3345:
3337:
3312:
3296:
3261:
3242:
3228:
3194:
by Justinian II, it encompassed the imperial possessions of southern
3182:
3167:
and charged mainly with local defence and police duties. These were:
3162:
3156:
3146:
3138:
3116:
3100:
3094:
3081:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3037:
3031:
3018:
3006:
2998:
2988:
2968:
2962:
2946:
2907:
2900:
2886:
2874:
2853:
2846:
2840:
2832:
2806:
2800:
2765:
2756:
2744:
2738:
2736:
2730:
2553:
2491:
2464:
2427:
2289:
2266:
2252:
2129:
2112:
2103:
In 1155, a Byzantine squadron of 10 ships in support of Norman rebel
1936:
1928:
1920:
1869:
1856:
1813:
1789:
1776:
1768:
1729:
1715:
1713:
1692:
Despite the successes under Basil, during the reign of his successor
1627:
1546:
1459:
1357:, and raids against Cyprus and Crete recommenced during the reign of
1325:
1101:
along the southern coasts of the Empire, where they were employed as
1098:
945:
925:
under Justinian, the Mediterranean once again became a "Roman lake".
814:
809:
in Spain. Finally, in 468, a huge Eastern expedition assembled under
527:
438:, with disastrous effects on the Empire's economy and sovereignty. A
410:
231:
144:
94:
87:
85:
74:
43:, carried by Byzantine warships in the 14th century, as described by
10431:
10371:
Bréhier, Louis (1949), "La marine de Byzance du VIII au XI siècle",
9238:
9236:
7400:
4132:
and was given Euboea as a fief. In 1303, another high rank, that of
4072:
were settled near the sea throughout the northern Aegean, while the
1643:. He then proceeded to raid Sicily, carrying off much booty, before
1105:
and rowers. Nevertheless, the Arab naval threat intensified as they
852:, who employed a sulphur-based incendiary substance to defeat them.
394:
also for repelling seaborne attacks against the imperial capital of
13485:
13385:
13336:
13194:
13126:
12914:
10810:
10730:
Cosentino, Salvatore (2008), "Constans II and the Byzantine navy",
6801:
6174:
5326:
5274:
5199:
5145:
5096:
5086:
4997:
4951:
and other earlier works), complemented by relevant passages in the
4330:
4253:
and other similar ship types. Apparently an evolution of the light
3687:
3463:
3238:
3211:
3014:
3000:
2608:
2542:
2459:
2455:
2009:
1973:
1961:
1841:
1733:
1656:
1447:
1386:
1382:
1232:
957:
947:
929:
887:
856:
790:
786:
768:
742:
552:
310:
206:
11419:
Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations
9308:
8699:
7119:
3984:
2525:. Six years later, Manuel promised to arm ten ships to assist the
2003:
952:
was intercepted by the Byzantine fleet and destroyed, denying the
349:. Like the state it served, it was a direct continuation from its
13851:
13737:
13678:
13177:
13151:
12829:
12207:
Morgan, Gareth (1976). "The Venetian Claims Commission of 1278".
11942:(in French). Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
11463:
Medieval Warfare Source Book: Christian Europe and its Neighbours
10280:
10256:
10220:
10208:
10124:
10112:
10088:
9968:
9956:
9905:
9893:
9881:
9869:
9821:
9635:
9623:
9611:
9599:
9515:
9452:
9404:
9260:
9233:
9170:
9146:
9110:
9086:
9074:
8810:
8564:
5299:
5289:
5259:
5106:
5074:
5070:
4857:, in Greek). A similar process is seen in surviving sources from
4752:
4657:
4357:
4296:
interchangeably with another Byzantine term for a large warship,
4135:
4123:
4019:
3796:
3302:
3199:
2994:
2836:
2828:
2451:
1988:
1845:
1701:
1672:
1595:
1579:
1538:
1443:
1309:
1227:
1126:
1031:
906:
775:
539:
467:. The diminished Byzantine navy continued to be active until the
373:
251:
228:
224:
216:
10886:"L'inscription de l'amiral dans la liste des dignités palatines"
10797:
Dolley, R. H. (1948), "The Warships of the Later Roman Empire",
10453:
IImperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium, 1204–1330
10328:
9799:
9797:
9719:
9488:
9296:
8839:
8837:
8653:
8651:
8624:
8612:
8600:
7520:
7201:
7199:
7197:
7085:
7083:
7022:
7020:
7018:
3888:, who worked the siphons used for discharging the Greek fire. A
2548:
The last recorded Byzantine naval victory occurred in 1427 in a
1012:, largely relied on the resources and manpower of the conquered
406:
and numerous naval engagements resulted in Byzantine victories.
13480:
13255:
13121:
9038:
6849:
6789:
6744:
6662:
6513:
6402:
5666:
5239:
5195:
5162:
4883:
located above deck, each rowing a different oar; the so-called
4780:
4772:
4544:
4452:
4430:
4361:
4250:
4244:
4085:
3980:
3833:, 'first ship-man'), sometimes also referred to archaically as
3339:
3275:
3234:
3195:
3126:
2660:
2594:
2530:
2482:
2414:
islands fell under foreign rule—including Chios to the Genoese
2384:
2347:
2339:
2245:
2121:
2108:
1797:
1619:
1615:
1583:
1236:
1059:
1013:
922:
914:
894:
864:
611:
390:
381:
140:
10100:
8588:
8397:
8303:
8301:
8033:
7805:
7730:
6616:
6614:
6612:
6438:
6390:
6368:
6366:
6201:
6191:
6189:
6129:
6127:
6112:
6088:
6078:
6076:
6061:
5938:
5928:
5926:
5911:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5830:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5654:
5618:
3585:, effectively 'vice admiral'), in turn overseeing a number of
2079:
The navy enjoyed a major comeback under the ambitious emperor
1840:. A renewed offensive in Italy in 951–952 was defeated by the
376:
in the 5th century, but their threat was ended by the wars of
12184:
12167:
Makris, George (2002), "Ships", in Laiou, Angeliki E. (ed.),
11560:
Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail",
10316:
10268:
10244:
10196:
10148:
10052:
10040:
10004:
9992:
9980:
9929:
9917:
9845:
9833:
9794:
9647:
9539:
9476:
9380:
9356:
9344:
9320:
9134:
8902:
8900:
8873:
8834:
8822:
8798:
8759:
8747:
8648:
8636:
8445:
7949:
7877:
7706:
7619:
7568:
7544:
7508:
7436:
7336:
7334:
7295:
7283:
7271:
7259:
7247:
7235:
7194:
7146:
7080:
7015:
6991:
6936:
6902:
6900:
6479:
6477:
5513:
5511:
5509:
5203:
5149:
4852:
4816:
4742:
4736:
4626:
4614:
4579:
4561:
4456:
4408:
4373:
4305:
4270:
4264:
4209:
4147:
4141:
4115:
4061:
4049:
4037:
4013:
3499:
3306:
3290:
3255:
3222:
3176:
3122:
3110:
3075:
2956:
2940:
2880:
2868:
2724:
2664:
2652:
2636:
2533:
from an invasion. Byzantine ships were active throughout the
2380:
2350:. It was, however, no match for the Venetians: attempting to
2343:
2156:
1709:
1632:
1611:
1397:
1291:
1275:
1267:
1122:
1017:
996:
910:
898:
738:
Civil wars and barbarian invasions: the 4th and 5th centuries
243:
9857:
9575:
9464:
8941:
8939:
8912:
8711:
8506:
8504:
8502:
8477:
8475:
8462:
8460:
8233:
7672:
7670:
7585:
7583:
7496:
7448:
7307:
6885:
6861:
6825:
6713:
6691:
6689:
6561:
6462:
6100:
5523:
3968:, although specific details are lacking. Under John III and
2292:
failed due to the Venetians' skill at handling their ships.
1803:
1781:
with 43,000 men, that had sailed under Himerios against the
1578:
occupied. At the same time, however, the Muslim presence in
1505:(867–1056), and marked the noontide of the Byzantine state.
13759:
12096:
Atti dell' VIII Congresso internazionale di Studi bizantini
10969:
Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204
9587:
9416:
9122:
9050:
8576:
8433:
8421:
8385:
8349:
8313:
8298:
8286:
8274:
8264:
8262:
8260:
8221:
8194:
8182:
8170:
8110:
8098:
8057:
7961:
7913:
7901:
7781:
7068:
6638:
6609:
6597:
6573:
6537:
6489:
6450:
6363:
6339:
6329:
6327:
6249:
6237:
6186:
6124:
6073:
6049:
5979:
5977:
5923:
5890:
5878:
5801:
5630:
5606:
5559:
5547:
5248:
4107:
2718:
2674:
1763:
The most distinguished Byzantine admiral of the period was
1603:
1575:
1272:) on the coasts of Syria is tantamount to partaking in the
342:
12061:
D’Amato, Raffaele (2010). "The Last Marines of Byzantium:
11446:(Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10805:(1–2), Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 47–53,
9809:
9707:
9671:
9440:
9272:
9002:
8951:
8897:
7985:
7817:
7694:
7375:
7373:
7331:
7211:
7182:
6897:
6501:
6474:
6302:
6300:
5950:
5678:
5506:
5494:
4433:
dromons of the 9th and 10th centuries, the two oar banks (
2047:
of Smyrna to launch fleets in the Aegean. The fleet under
1816:, the main Muslim stronghold in Crete, as depicted in the
10292:
10184:
10016:
9221:
9209:
8936:
8885:
8663:
8516:
8499:
8487:
8472:
8457:
8409:
8373:
8361:
8045:
7973:
7925:
7865:
7682:
7667:
7631:
7595:
7580:
7556:
7358:
7136:
7134:
7095:
7044:
7032:
6756:
6686:
6674:
6626:
6426:
6312:
6225:
5989:
5854:
5818:
5482:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5366:
5364:
5362:
4767:
4364:
sails. The exact reasons for the abandonment of the ram (
4004:
navy, forming a number of new corps to this purpose: the
3024:
2580:
2181:
1792:(920–944), to the imperial throne, for the second (after
944:
and Slavs in 626. During that siege, the Slavs' fleet of
10304:
9946:
9944:
9062:
9014:
8990:
8849:
8786:
8776:
8774:
8675:
8337:
8325:
8257:
8245:
8211:
8209:
8143:
8133:
8131:
8129:
8127:
8125:
8086:
8076:
8074:
8072:
8021:
7997:
7889:
7853:
7829:
7754:
7718:
7158:
7107:
6981:
6979:
6977:
6975:
6813:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6728:
6585:
6378:
6351:
6324:
6273:
6213:
6162:
6037:
5974:
5962:
5789:
5736:
5734:
5690:
5431:
5309:
4979:, XIX.74–77) the Arabs with their heavy and slow ships (
4958:
4792:-derived ships of Italian origin is uncertain. The term
4762:
3603:, since their commands were split off from the original
2891:) as a distinct command is unclear. The Irish historian
1744:, raided the Aegean. His fleet penetrated even into the
1678:
1478:
made their first appearance in Byzantine history with a
11899:
The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of
10352:
9758:
9736:
9734:
9505:
9503:
9197:
9026:
8978:
8968:
8966:
8160:
8158:
7771:
7769:
7742:
7655:
7424:
7412:
7370:
7346:
7223:
6924:
6912:
6873:
6701:
6650:
6414:
6297:
6152:
6150:
6148:
6146:
6144:
6142:
6025:
5842:
5755:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5709:
5707:
5705:
5584:
5582:
5580:
5578:
5576:
5574:
5472:
5470:
5455:
4543:
Depiction of a sea battle, from a 13th-century copy of
4429:), these extended directly from the hull. In the later
3821:('banner bearer'), who acted as executive officer, two
2390:
This revival did not last long. Following the death of
2265:
in southern Greece and the imperial governor of Samos,
1626:, Basil's new church. In 880, Ooryphas' successor, the
1490:
Byzantine Reconquest: the era of the Macedonian dynasty
1344:
The Saracen pirate fleet sails towards Crete. From the
11698:
The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204
11168:
10924:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
10136:
10076:
9770:
9746:
9695:
9683:
9659:
9527:
9392:
9368:
9098:
8861:
8687:
8552:
8528:
7841:
7390:
7388:
7131:
7003:
6777:
6549:
6525:
6285:
6261:
5866:
5594:
5535:
5414:
5397:
5359:
3734:, but in the special class of military officials, the
2827:), and included the southern coast of Asia Minor from
1868:, who in 960 set out with a fleet of 100 dromons, 200
168:
warships in 9th–10th centuries. c. 150 warships under
11172:; Tsoungarakis, Dimitris (Ed. & Transl.) (1996),
10232:
10160:
10064:
9941:
9332:
8771:
8206:
8122:
8069:
8009:
7937:
7643:
7607:
7532:
7472:
7460:
7319:
7170:
6972:
6960:
6837:
6725:
5777:
5731:
5719:
5642:
3237:
and the imperial possessions in south-western Italy (
968:
871:, the first of the wars of the reconquest of Emperor
863:
was transported to Africa by an invasion fleet of 92
417:. Progressively however it was split up into several
11811:. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.
11081:
10430:
Andriopoulou, Vera; Kondyli, Fotini (19 June 2008).
10408:(in French), Paris: Presses Universitaires de France
10172:
10028:
9731:
9500:
9248:
8963:
8924:
8723:
8540:
8155:
7766:
7484:
6948:
6180:
6139:
6013:
5746:
5702:
5571:
5467:
5293:
4889:
system. The Venetians also developed the so-called "
4862:
4840:
2754:
2295:
1464:
1438:, aided by the defection of the Byzantine commander
1285:
1273:
1265:
928:
Despite the subsequent loss of much of Italy to the
11659:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 206–217.
11634:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 101–116.
10843:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 218–223.
10473:
The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453
10432:"Ships on the Voyage from Constantinople to Venice"
10429:
10340:
9725:
7385:
6001:
5765:
5443:
4786:The exact period when the dromon was superseded by
4723:depth. In addition, Byzantine sources refer to the
2939:
The first and for a long time only maritime theme (
2905:already in the 7th century. On the other hand, the
2288:were repulsed, and the Byzantine attempt to employ
1133:most of the Visigoth-controlled Iberian Peninsula.
12185:Michalopoulos, Dimitris; Milanos, Antonis (1994),
11828:The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People
11229:Lewis, Archibald Ross; Runyan, Timothy J. (1985),
11086:
11065:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 86–100.
4291:, thus meaning 'runner'; 6th-century authors like
2607:, and its increased activity is commented upon by
1912:
12118:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
11724:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 78–85.
11680:War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
11590:The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople
11562:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
10990:The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids
10868:War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
4320:'), which first appeared during the 8th century.
4084:were settled mostly around Constantinople and in
3274:from Arab raids. The new imperial possessions in
1655:, expanding the Byzantine foothold in Apulia and
1215:). It was Leo III who faced the second and final
14187:
11154:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
10540:The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180
5077:from Crete, dated to the 10th and 12th centuries
4238:
3609:fleet, but they were then raised to the rank of
2074:
2010:Attempts at recovery under Alexios I and John II
1290:more pious an act than a night of prayer in the
1223:attacks further sapped the besiegers' strength.
12115:
11696:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006),
11252:"Notes d'histoire et de chronologie byzantines"
11085:; Rosenthal, Franz (Ed. & Transl.) (1969),
4759:, possibly from forests in what is now Turkey.
4709:was developed exclusively as a war galley, the
3121:) in the late 9th century. It comprised it the
2002:, who by 1081 had established their capital at
398:itself. Through the use of the newly invented "
12629:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
11176:, Athens: Kanakis Editions, pp. 268–273,
11109:Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610–1071
10412:
9593:
4631:, from which the term 'galley' derives), with
2302:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
2096:itself, demonstrating in the Bosporus off the
1136:
389:in the 7th century. Following the loss of the
12254:
11695:
11231:European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500
10783:, Oxford University Press, pp. 182–191,
10413:Akkemik, Ünal; Kocabas, Ufuk (January 2014).
10286:
10274:
10262:
10250:
10226:
10214:
10202:
10154:
10130:
10118:
10058:
10046:
10010:
9998:
9986:
9974:
9962:
9935:
9923:
9911:
9899:
9887:
9875:
9851:
9839:
9827:
9803:
9788:
9653:
9641:
9629:
9617:
9605:
9569:
9557:
9545:
9521:
9482:
9458:
9434:
9410:
9386:
9362:
9350:
9326:
9314:
9290:
9266:
9242:
9176:
9164:
9152:
9140:
9116:
9092:
9080:
8843:
8828:
8816:
8804:
8765:
8753:
8741:
8657:
8642:
8239:
7205:
7152:
7125:
7089:
7062:
7026:
6997:
6942:
6891:
6867:
6855:
6831:
6807:
6795:
6750:
6719:
6668:
6644:
6620:
6603:
6579:
6495:
6456:
6444:
6408:
6396:
6372:
6345:
6255:
6243:
6207:
6195:
6133:
6118:
6094:
6082:
6067:
6055:
5944:
5932:
5917:
5905:
5884:
5836:
5812:
5672:
5660:
5636:
5624:
5612:
5565:
5553:
5517:
5500:
5488:
5306:base, with sulphur and various resins added.
5041:, XIX.52–56). Indeed, Leo VI openly advised (
4884:
4809:fell into gradual disuse and was replaced by
1964:, and was defeated in the next year. Another
1496:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
963:
960:and eventually forcing the Avars to retreat.
708:
11952:The fall of Rome and the end of civilization
11946:
11922:Byzantium and the Crusader States: 1096–1204
11850:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
11353:
11034:
10106:
9581:
9494:
9470:
9302:
8630:
8618:
8606:
8570:
7919:
4991:, chiefly monoxyla), of the Slavs and Rus'.
4879:) capable of carrying from 20 to 40 horses.
4868:
3247:are attested for Sicily proper and Calabria.
2371:a direct confrontation, as evidenced by the
1335:
1030:"At that time Kallinikos, an artificer from
975:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
12268:
11983:Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations
11228:
10914:
10781:The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology
10536:
10322:
9044:
8906:
7991:
7955:
7907:
7406:
7188:
6906:
6231:
5995:
5860:
5824:
5437:
4874:
4276:
3913:
3627:in charge of the fleet administration, the
2812:
2788:
2560:(1425–1448) defeated the superior fleet of
1908:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
1518:
1366:
1248:in Cyprus, breaking the naval power of the
1143:Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty
12261:
12247:
12158:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
12029:
12008:
11892:
11443:The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453
11336:The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180
11273:
11124:
11089:The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History
10943:Recherches sur les institutions byzantines
10709:
10696:
10509:(2), Cambridge University Press: 173–207,
10419:Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry
10190:
9863:
8594:
7823:
7811:
7799:
6632:
6591:
6543:
6519:
6432:
6318:
6168:
6106:
6043:
5795:
5187:Depiction of the use of Greek fire in the
3918:
2188:Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty
715:
701:
368:The first threat to Roman hegemony in the
11871:
11843:
11481:Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium
11422:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11339:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11329:
11291:
10729:
10681:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World
10398:
8945:
8891:
8879:
8681:
8669:
8522:
8510:
8493:
8481:
8466:
8451:
8439:
8427:
8415:
8391:
8379:
8367:
8355:
8331:
8319:
8307:
8292:
8280:
8251:
8227:
8200:
8188:
8176:
8116:
8104:
8092:
8063:
8051:
8039:
8027:
8003:
7979:
7931:
7895:
7883:
7736:
7712:
7676:
7637:
7625:
7601:
7589:
7574:
7550:
7514:
7442:
7301:
7289:
7277:
7265:
7253:
7241:
7164:
7101:
7050:
7038:
6762:
6680:
6567:
6468:
6420:
6357:
6333:
6279:
5983:
5968:
5848:
5529:
5425:
5408:
4323:
3046:, and the command variously known as the
1894:(969–976) sent 300 ships to blockade the
1804:Recovery of Crete and the northern Levant
12106:
11937:
11738:
11587:
11309:
11246:
10936:
10619:
10469:
10358:
10310:
10094:
9215:
9068:
9032:
9008:
8996:
8984:
8957:
8918:
8717:
8149:
7859:
7760:
7748:
7724:
7700:
7502:
7418:
7379:
7352:
7313:
7113:
6306:
6031:
5696:
5370:
5292:records a version of Greek fire, called
5182:
5141:, 'flies') and 100 javelins per dromon.
5064:
5016:
4766:
4566:), so named because it was manned by an
4538:
3663:
2683:
2675:Middle period (late 7th century – 1070s)
2473:. This fleet was very active during the
2305:
2300:Further information on this period:
2207:
2186:Further information on this period:
1906:Further information on this period:
1807:
1682:
1639:over the Aghlabids who were raiding the
1512:
1494:Further information on this period:
1339:
1328:naval themes staunchly opposed to their
1146:
1141:Further information on this period:
978:
973:Further information on this period:
917:. However, a defeat in a sea battle off
893:In 541 however, the new Ostrogoth king,
741:
13517:
12148:(in German), Mannheim, pp. 133–140
12143:
12060:
11976:
11825:
11787:
11538:
11517:
11496:
11478:
11460:
11362:
11144:
11106:
10883:
10778:
10556:
10498:
10449:
10382:
10370:
10334:
9776:
9422:
9128:
9056:
9020:
8855:
8792:
8582:
8403:
8343:
8268:
7967:
7871:
7847:
7787:
7661:
7526:
7229:
7074:
7009:
6879:
6707:
6695:
6555:
6531:
6507:
6483:
6384:
6291:
6267:
6007:
5956:
5872:
5783:
5740:
5684:
5648:
5600:
5541:
5461:
5449:
2993:, first mentioned in 734, was based at
1736:, the Empire's last outpost in Sicily,
1610:was attacked again in 869, and in 870,
1034:, fled to the Romans. He had devised a
47:and illustrated in the Castilian atlas
14188:
12206:
12166:
12093:
11801:
11713:
11648:
11623:
11054:
11007:
10962:
10857:
10832:
10796:
10675:
10652:
10425:(2): 301–311 – via Researchgate.
10142:
10082:
9815:
9752:
9713:
9701:
9689:
9677:
9665:
9533:
9446:
9398:
9374:
9338:
9278:
9191:
9104:
8867:
8780:
8693:
8558:
8534:
8215:
8137:
8080:
8015:
7943:
7835:
7217:
7140:
6985:
6843:
6819:
6738:
6156:
5759:
5725:
5713:
5588:
5476:
4918:
3742:, where he is listed second after the
3492:text. The precise meaning of the term
3206:and the new Theme of Hellas, covering
3005:(head commander) of the Mardaites, an
2581:Early period (4th – mid-7th centuries)
2182:Angelos dynasty and the Fourth Crusade
1400:fell between 824 and 827 to a band of
1239:). In 727, a revolt of the provincial
727:
14201:Military history of the Mediterranean
14085:
13516:
13301:
12993:
12660:
12281:
12242:
11919:
11673:
11605:
11559:
11436:
11412:
11391:
11189:
11025:
10948:Studies on the Byzantine Institutions
10767:
10577:
10562:Les institutions de l'empire byzantin
10489:
10298:
10238:
10178:
10166:
10070:
10034:
10022:
9950:
9764:
9740:
9509:
9254:
9227:
9203:
8972:
8930:
8729:
8546:
7775:
7688:
7649:
7613:
7562:
7538:
7490:
7478:
7466:
7454:
7430:
7364:
7340:
7325:
7176:
6966:
6954:
6930:
6918:
6219:
6019:
5771:
5310:Role of the navy in Byzantine history
4959:Naval strategy, logistics and tactics
4763:Western designs of the last centuries
3785:, and each ship's captain was called
3214:, which also retained smaller fleets.
2997:. His principal lieutenants were the
2895:, followed by the French Byzantinist
2862:
2679:
2141:in cooperation with the ruler of the
1948:Admonitions to the Emperor, from the
1679:Arab raids during the reign of Leo VI
1284:were cited as considering one day of
1025:were available to the Arab admirals.
13302:
11906:, University of Pennsylvania Press,
11210:
10986:
10774:, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
10597:
10502:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
10476:, University of Pennsylvania Press,
10346:
8705:
8164:
7394:
6656:
4471:) that covered the captain's berth (
3362:
2251:At the same time, however, the then
1663:, which would later evolve into the
1635:, scored a significant victory in a
1458:in 846. Attacks by the Lombards and
13004:
12171:, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 91–100,
11750:(3395), Taylor & Francis: 795,
11035:Heath, Ian; McBride, Angus (1995),
10870:, Boydell Press, pp. 109–136,
10607:. London: Oxford University Press.
4943:(both drawing extensively from the
4483:) featured an elevated forecastle (
4269:) itself comes from the Greek root
3998:
3815:. Under the captain, there was the
1901:
1508:
1121:built a new city and naval base at
16:Naval force of the Byzantine Empire
13:
11979:"Problèmes de la marine byzantine"
11969:
11940:Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices
11742:(1975), "Byzantine Civilisation",
11682:, Boydell Press, pp. 83–104,
11151:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
10683:, Johns Hopkins University Press,
10622:"The Lateen Sail in World History"
10564:(in French), Paris: Albin Michel,
6778:Kekaumenos & Tsoungarakis 1996
4110:. Most of these mercenaries, like
3132:
2934:
2808:strategos ton karabon/karabisianon
2426:, Lesbos and other islands to the
969:Emergence of the Arab naval threat
867:and 500 transports, beginning the
14:
14217:
14127:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
11215:, Jons Hopkins University Press,
10768:Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. (1928),
9572:, pp. 166–169, 322–325, 449.
9194:, pp. 243–245, Fig. 180–182.
4771:14th-century painting of a light
3711:droungarios tou basilikou ploïmou
3556:
3093:, while the eastern parts of the
2296:Nicaea and the Palaiologan period
1898:from retreating over the Danube.
1564:re-established Byzantine presence
1320:. At the same time, however, the
50:Conosçimiento de todos los reynos
14166:
12191:Greek Vessels of the Middle Ages
12130:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00091.x
12075:Journal of Mediterranean Studies
11877:Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081
11574:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x
10364:
6181:Ibn Khaldūn & Rosenthal 1969
4985:), to the small and fast craft (
3758:. The office of a deputy called
3455:Contrary to popular perception,
3350:are known for Chios, Malta, the
2155:by the Venetians, who sailed to
2124:, 10-12 large transports and 60
1312:, where he scored a significant
1297:These successes enabled Emperor
1169:period of great domestic turmoil
493:
29:
12516:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
12338:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
11523:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall
11397:The Oxford History of Byzantium
11365:Mediterranean Historical Review
11111:, University of Toronto Press,
10391:
9726:Andriopoulou & Kondyli 2008
5027:appropriate counter-formation (
4755:, but in the later years from
4333:project in the location of the
3974:
3958:
3653:, who commanded the bodyguard (
2575:
2446:Thus Andronikos II's successor
1913:Decline during the 11th century
1303:
1210:
1199:
1188:
1177:
1131:successfully invade and capture
1092:
901:, in an unsuccessful effort to
877:
839:
795:
732:
13601:Great Palace of Constantinople
13342:Patriarchate of Constantinople
12661:
12033:Byzantium at War (9th–12th c.)
11920:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (1994),
11610:, Cambridge University Press,
11502:Byzantium: The Early Centuries
11278:, Cambridge University Press,
11211:Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973),
11093:, Princeton University Press,
11037:Byzantine Armies: AD 1118–1461
10710:Christides, Vassilios (1984),
10662:, Princeton University Press,
10592:10.1080/00253359.1966.10659307
10456:, Cambridge University Press,
5376:
5144:From the 12th century on, the
5115:) and even containers full of
4777:Byzantine and Christian Museum
3125:coast, and its capital was at
2822:general of the ships/seafarers
1004:in 644, they took to creating
1:
11879:, Stanford University Press,
11700:, Brill Academic Publishers,
11377:10.1080/09518967.2021.1900171
11125:Kastritsis, Dimitris (2007),
10537:Birkenmeier, John W. (2002),
8708:, pp. 108–110, 137, 140.
7802:, pp. 138, 146–147, 188.
5172:
4839:(itself deriving from Arabic
4632:
4534:
4517:
4465:), which also housed a tent (
4239:Dromons and their derivatives
3940:megas droungarios tou ploïmou
3931:
3534:
3322:
3188:
3087:
2981:
2974:
2921:
2689:
2075:Naval expeditions of Manuel I
1888:Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971
162:
154:
102:
54:
14063:University of Constantinople
13644:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
12994:
12794:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
12483:Byzantine successor states (
11938:Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966).
11797:, Texas A & M University
11788:Scafuri, Michael P. (2002),
11678:; Unger, Richard W. (eds.),
11274:MacCormick, Michael (2002),
11233:, Indiana University Press,
11197:, Harvard University Press,
11131:, Leiden and Boston: Brill,
10866:; Unger, Richard W. (eds.),
10799:The Journal of Roman Studies
9560:, pp. 307–308, 322–324.
7065:, pp. 106–107, 111–112.
5280:
5226:
5220:
5210:
5156:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5111:
5101:
5091:
5029:
5010:
5004:
4996:
4987:
4981:
4929:
4847:
4835:
4833:was replaced by the Western
4829:
4823:
4811:
4805:
4794:
4788:
4731:
4725:
4711:
4705:
4699:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4671:
4665:
4647:
4640:
4621:
4609:
4602:
4592:
4586:
4574:
4568:
4556:
4512:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4425:
4386:
4380:
4352:
4339:
4312:
4298:
4259:
4226:
4216:
4204:
4198:
4192:
4186:
4181:megas droungarios tou stolou
4180:
4174:
4160:
4154:
4134:
4128:
4090:
4080:
4074:
4068:
4056:
4044:
4030:
4024:
4006:
3951:
3945:
3939:
3926:
3902:
3896:
3890:
3884:
3877:
3871:
3859:
3853:
3847:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3760:
3744:
3736:
3730:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3694:
3686:
3678:
3670:
3655:
3649:
3643:
3637:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3611:
3605:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3549:
3547:type instead of the heavier
3543:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3494:
3489:Constantine Porphyrogennetos
3470:
3462:
3377:
3370:
3346:
3338:
3313:
3297:
3262:
3243:
3229:
3183:
3163:
3157:
3147:
3139:
3117:
3101:
3095:
3082:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3038:
3032:
3019:
3007:
2999:
2989:
2969:
2963:
2947:
2908:
2901:
2887:
2875:
2854:
2841:
2807:
2801:
2766:
2757:
2745:
2737:
2731:
2719:
2492:
2465:
2253:
2225:was destroyed by the pirate
2130:
2113:
2091:was able to raid Corfu, the
1937:
1929:
1921:
1870:
1857:
1777:
1769:
1714:
1628:
1622:for the construction of the
1547:
1217:Arab siege of Constantinople
1095: 685–695, 705–711
946:
411:
95:
86:
75:
7:
13733:Saint Catherine's Monastery
12789:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
12784:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
12282:
12187:Ελληνικά Πλοία του Μεσαίωνα
12107:Eickhoff, Ekkehard (1966).
11954:, Oxford University Press,
11924:, Oxford University Press,
11718:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11653:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11628:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11588:Phillips, Jonathan (2004),
11399:, Oxford University Press,
11316:, Oxford University Press,
11296:, Oxford University Press,
11256:Revue des études byzantines
11213:Venice, a Maritime Republic
11059:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
10890:Revue des études byzantines
10837:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
5348:
5329:land-holders in the higher
5294:
5189:Madrid Skylitzes manuscript
5060:
4863:
4841:
3145:(mentioned collectively as
2967:). It was created from the
1653:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
1594:of one of his raids before
1482:in the 830s, followed by a
1465:
1346:Madrid Skylitzes manuscript
1286:
1274:
1266:
1155:and his son and successor,
1137:Byzantine counter-offensive
514:'Classical' Byzantine army
10:
14222:
14122:Neo-Byzantine architecture
14086:
12743:Comes sacrarum largitionum
12223:10.1515/byzs.1976.69.2.411
12193:] (in Greek), Evropi,
11012:, Hambledon & London,
11010:Byzantium and The Crusades
10470:Bartusis, Mark C. (1997),
9594:Akkemik & Kocabas 2014
5331:military and civil offices
5204:
5176:
5150:
4853:
4817:
4775:, from an icon now at the
4743:
4737:
4627:
4615:
4580:
4562:
4374:
4356:), the abandonment of the
4306:
4271:
4265:
4242:
4210:
4172:, the subordinates of the
4148:
4142:
4062:
4050:
4038:
4014:
3500:
3317:) were split off from the
3307:
3291:
3256:
3223:
3177:
3111:
3083:thema tou Aigaiou Pelagous
3076:
2957:
2941:
2902:strategos ton karabisianon
2881:
2869:
2777:
2725:
2708:
2556:Islands, when the Emperor
2448:Andronikos III Palaiologos
2363:(1259–1282) concluded the
2299:
2185:
2176:
1905:
1884:threatening Constantinople
1752:the Empire's second city,
1732:, while in the next year,
1493:
1377:independence of Byzantine
1140:
1023:Byzantine military manuals
972:
964:Struggle against the Arabs
859:, an army of 15,000 under
14149:
14092:
14081:
14002:
13902:
13860:
13805:
13750:
13705:
13692:Sant'Apollinare in Classe
13677:
13634:
13566:
13536:
13527:
13523:
13512:
13454:
13312:
13308:
13297:
13219:
13165:
13104:
13061:
13013:
13000:
12989:
12948:
12923:
12892:
12851:
12842:
12817:
12761:
12725:
12678:
12671:
12667:
12656:
12529:
12445:
12392:
12323:
12294:
12290:
12277:
12210:Byzantinische Zeitschrift
11855:Stanford University Press
11107:Jenkins, Romilly (1987),
11030:, Wargames Research Group
11008:Harris, Jonathan (2006),
10733:Byzantinische Zeitschrift
10635:(1): 1–23, archived from
10515:10.1017/S1356186300000572
10450:Angelov, Dimiter (2007),
10287:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10275:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10263:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10251:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10227:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10215:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10203:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10155:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10131:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10119:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10059:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10047:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10011:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9999:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9987:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9975:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9963:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9936:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9924:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9912:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9900:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9888:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9876:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9852:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9840:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9828:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9804:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9789:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9654:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9642:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9630:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9618:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9606:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9570:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9558:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9546:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9522:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9483:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9459:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9435:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9411:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9387:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9363:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9351:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9327:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9315:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9293:, pp. 232, 255, 276.
9291:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9267:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9243:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9177:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9165:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9153:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9141:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9117:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9093:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9081:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8844:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8829:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8817:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8805:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8766:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8754:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8742:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8658:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8643:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8240:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7206:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7153:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7126:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7090:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7063:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7027:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6998:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6943:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6892:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6868:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6856:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6832:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6808:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6796:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6751:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6720:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6669:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6645:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6621:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6604:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6580:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6496:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6457:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6445:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6409:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6397:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6373:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6346:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6256:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6244:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6208:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6196:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6134:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6119:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6095:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6083:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6068:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6056:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5945:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5933:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5918:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5906:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5885:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5837:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5813:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5673:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5661:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5637:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5625:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5613:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5566:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5554:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5518:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5501:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5489:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
4584:, 'all tribes'); and the
3839:, and a bow officer, the
3148:tourmarchai ton ploïmaton
3077:θέμα τοῦ Αἰγαίου Πελάγους
2953:Theme of the Cibyrrhaeots
2831:to the frontier with the
2420:Rhodes and the Dodecanese
2396:Andronikos II Palaiologos
2135:Andronikos Kontostephanos
1659:and forming the theme of
1647:another Muslim fleet off
1537:The ascension of Emperor
1394:Revolt of Thomas the Slav
1336:Renewed Muslim ascendancy
1258:Islamic apocalyptic texts
456:Andronikos II Palaiologos
320:
285:
212:
186:
176:
150:
132:
122:
112:
65:
28:
23:
13266:Droungarios of the Fleet
12111:(in German). De Gruyter.
11977:Bibicou, Helène (1958),
11903:6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813)
11853:. Stanford, California:
11248:Loenertz, Raymond-Joseph
10884:Failler, Albert (2003),
10629:Journal of World History
10337:, pp. 58–59, 61–63.
10107:Heath & McBride 1995
10097:, pp. 298–299, 331.
9791:, pp. 354, 356–357.
9437:, pp. 189–192, 372.
9167:, pp. 145–147, 152.
8744:, p. 271, note 364.
7529:, pp. 175–176, 317.
7409:, pp. 127, 153–154.
5353:
5286:Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi
4953:De Administrando Imperio
4233:
4222:cross and the firesteels
3914:Late period (1080s–1453)
3866:De Administrando Imperio
3204:Theme of the Peloponnese
3105:droungariate formed the
2361:Michael VIII Palaiologos
2153:deter an outright attack
1855:In the East, in 956 the
1480:raid against Paphlagonia
1045:Theophanes the Confessor
621:Droungarios of the Fleet
299:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
14206:Deforestation in Turkey
13780:Early Byzantine mosaics
13142:Domestic of the Schools
11995:10.3406/ahess.1958.2743
11826:Tougher, Shaun (1997),
11606:Pryor, John H. (1988),
11479:Nicolle, David (2005),
11461:Nicolle, David (1996),
11310:Macrides, Ruth (2007),
11268:10.3406/rebyz.1959.1204
10902:10.3406/rebyz.2003.2279
10620:Campbell, I.C. (1995),
10323:Lewis & Runyan 1985
8907:Lewis & Runyan 1985
7992:Lewis & Runyan 1985
7956:Lewis & Runyan 1985
7908:Lewis & Runyan 1985
6232:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5996:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5861:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5825:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5438:Lewis & Runyan 1985
4861:Sicily, where the term
3919:Reforms of the Komnenoi
3714:(later with the prefix
3072:Theme of the Aegean Sea
3052:('Twelve Islands') and
2499:Theodore II Palaiologos
2356:another similar attempt
2352:blockade Constantinople
2105:Robert III of Loritello
1748:, before proceeding to
1590:(882–891), despite the
1548:droungarios tou ploïmou
1280:, and authorities like
934:siege of Constantinople
833:flared up, the Emperor
688:Walls of Constantinople
575:Domestic of the Schools
481:Part of a series on the
77:droungarios tou ploïmou
14097:Byzantine commonwealth
12859:Praetorian prefectures
12779:Logothetes tou genikou
12753:Quaestor sacri palatii
12748:Comes rerum privatarum
12521:Fall of Constantinople
12460:Sack of Constantinople
11483:, Praeger Publishers,
11465:, Brockhampton Press,
10916:Geanakoplos, Deno John
10436:The Syropoulos Project
8406:, pp. 1122, 1250.
7457:, pp. 74–76, 114.
5254:
5247:"As he knew that the
5191:
5078:
5023:
4885:
4875:
4869:
4783:
4619:, 'single-banked') or
4607:single-bank ship, the
4590:proper, crewed by two
4551:
4369:
4324:Evolution and features
4310:, from the Greek word
3699:
3233:) was responsible for
3013:(deputy commander) at
2789:
2696:
2475:civil war of 1341–1347
2311:
2235:Metropolitan of Athens
2227:Margaritus of Brindisi
2217:
2214:fall of Constantinople
2033:
1945:
1821:
1689:
1582:was strengthened, and
1534:
1527:Basil I the Macedonian
1519:
1417:
1367:
1349:
1164:
1107:gradually took control
1040:
984:
802:sacking and plundering
772:clashed in 324 AD
748:
646:revolts and civil wars
469:fall of Constantinople
387:early Muslim conquests
315:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
92:(8th–11th centuries),
13797:Komnenian renaissance
13792:Macedonian period art
13697:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
13669:Walls of Thessaloniki
12769:Logothetes tou dromou
12384:Twenty Years' Anarchy
12348:Valentinianic dynasty
12343:Constantinian dynasty
11544:Byzantium: The Apogee
11039:, Osprey Publishing,
10972:. London: UCL Press.
10858:Dotson, John (2003),
10746:10.1515/BYZS.2008.577
6810:, pp. 76–77, 89.
6522:, pp. 82, 86–87.
5245:
5186:
5177:Further information:
5068:
5020:
4770:
4542:
4335:Harbour of Theodosius
4243:Further information:
3875:) who rose to become
3724:logothetes tou dromou
3667:
2914:first appears in the
2912:of the Imperial Fleet
2799:. It was headed by a
2795:, or the army of the
2755:Rise and fall of the
2687:
2558:John VIII Palaiologos
2479:John VI Kantakouzenos
2309:
2211:
2195:Andronikos I Komnenos
2028:
1954:of Kekaumenos, Ch. 87
1917:
1850:Battle of the Straits
1811:
1771:logothetes tou dromou
1704:across the Danube to
1686:
1516:
1413:
1343:
1330:iconoclastic policies
1244:Alexandrian fleet at
1161:iconoclastic policies
1150:
1028:
987:During the 640s, the
982:
765:Constantine the Great
745:
307:Byzantine–Norman wars
72:(Commander-in-chief);
35:The imperial ensign (
13994:Units of measurement
13728:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
13621:Pammakaristos Church
13469:Corpus Juris Civilis
13420:Missionary activity
12879:Exarchate of Ravenna
12705:Imperial bureaucracy
11873:Treadgold, Warren T.
11540:Norwich, John Julius
11519:Norwich, John Julius
11498:Norwich, John Julius
11358:(6), Athens: 152–171
10987:Halm, Heinz (1996).
10580:The Mariner's Mirror
9317:, pp. 205, 291.
8573:, pp. 154, 159.
8042:, pp. 315, 382.
7739:, pp. 382, 387.
7343:, pp. 166, 171.
7128:, pp. 112, 115.
5386:. Flags of the World
4939:of Leo the Wise and
4867:was replaced by the
4523:m, and are built of
4217:basilikon phlamoulon
4106:their services with
4102:in the Peloponnese.
3650:komes tes hetaireias
3287:Theme of Paphlagonia
3252:Theme of Cephallenia
2527:Crusade of Nicopolis
2377:Venetian–Genoese war
2282:first Crusader siege
2146:Kingdom of Jerusalem
1876:Liutprand of Cremona
1838:Constantine Gongyles
1365:, while in 803, the
1206:Leo III the Isaurian
1153:Leo III the Isaurian
1117:. The Arab governor
789:, under the capable
661:Strategy and tactics
548:Palaiologan-era army
37:basilikon phlamoulon
13518:Culture and society
13381:Ecumenical councils
12884:Exarchate of Africa
12874:Quaestura exercitus
12738:Magister officiorum
12733:Praetorian prefects
12376:Byzantine Dark Ages
11948:Ward-Perkins, Bryan
11756:1934Natur.134S.795.
11676:Hattendorf, John B.
11294:Late Roman Warlords
11026:Heath, Ian (1984),
10864:Hattendorf, John B.
10301:, pp. 103–104.
10289:, pp. 385–386.
10265:, pp. 388–390.
10229:, pp. 610–611.
10217:, pp. 630–631.
10133:, pp. 378–379.
10121:, pp. 607–609.
10025:, pp. 102–104.
9977:, pp. 505–507.
9965:, pp. 399–400.
9914:, pp. 396–399.
9902:, pp. 394–395.
9890:, pp. 513–515.
9878:, pp. 387–392.
9830:, pp. 388–389.
9818:, pp. 219–220.
9716:, pp. 123–124.
9680:, pp. 110–111.
9644:, pp. 418–419.
9632:, pp. 415–416.
9620:, pp. 413–415.
9608:, pp. 407–411.
9524:, pp. 284–286.
9497:, pp. 159–161.
9461:, pp. 261–262.
9449:, pp. 149–150.
9425:, pp. 190–191.
9413:, pp. 143–144.
9305:, pp. 164–165.
9281:, pp. 103–104.
9269:, pp. 130–135.
9245:, pp. 153–159.
9230:, pp. 326–329.
9179:, pp. 134–135.
9155:, pp. 138–140.
9131:, pp. 188–191.
9119:, pp. 166–169.
9095:, pp. 125–126.
9083:, pp. 123–125.
9059:, pp. 232–239.
9047:, pp. 209–211.
8921:, pp. 100–101.
8882:, pp. 234–235.
8819:, pp. 270–271.
8720:, pp. 535–536.
8633:, pp. 157–158.
8621:, pp. 154–156.
8609:, pp. 154–155.
8597:, pp. 413–414.
8585:, pp. 330–331.
8454:, pp. 104–105.
7970:, pp. 324–325.
7886:, pp. 578–583.
7814:, pp. 146–147.
7790:, pp. 376–377.
7715:, pp. 386–387.
7691:, pp. 220–221.
7628:, pp. 383–384.
7577:, pp. 381–382.
7565:, pp. 164–166.
7553:, pp. 380–381.
7517:, pp. 375–378.
7505:, pp. 158–167.
7445:, pp. 374–376.
7367:, pp. 171–172.
7316:, pp. 168–169.
7304:, pp. 294–296.
7292:, pp. 291–292.
7280:, pp. 293–294.
7268:, pp. 290–291.
7256:, pp. 289–290.
7244:, pp. 288–289.
7220:, pp. 128–130.
7077:, pp. 98, 103.
6659:, pp. 404–405.
6570:, pp. 469–470.
6510:, pp. 186–188.
6486:, pp. 185–186.
6471:, pp. 463–464.
6222:, pp. 102–105.
5959:, pp. 352–353.
5687:, pp. 259–297.
5532:, pp. 306–307.
4919:Tactics and weapons
4905:Council of Florence
4669:) or supply ships (
4525:European Black Pine
4211:βασιλικὸν φλάμουλον
4112:Giovanni de lo Cavo
3993:Gallipoli peninsula
3966:Theodore I Laskaris
3860:protos protokarabos
3266:), controlling the
2964:thema Kibyrrhaioton
2791:quaestura exercitus
2566:Count of Cephalonia
2535:Ottoman Interregnum
2411:Nikephoros Gregoras
2365:Treaty of Nymphaeum
2328:Empire of Trebizond
2324:Despotate of Epirus
2271:Alexios III Angelos
1996:Battle of Manzikert
1738:fell to the Muslims
1665:Catepanate of Italy
1450:, followed soon by
1068:Battle of the Masts
1006:a navy of their own
956:passage across the
827:Ostrogothic Kingdom
728:Operational history
452:Palaiologan dynasty
303:Rus'–Byzantine wars
295:Arab–Byzantine wars
133:Active regions
13935:Flags and insignia
13581:Baths of Zeuxippus
13464:Codex Theodosianus
13354:Oriental Orthodoxy
12312:Later Roman Empire
11803:Setton, Kenneth M.
11191:Laiou, Angeliki E.
11146:Kazhdan, Alexander
10938:Guilland, Rodolphe
6411:, pp. 65, 68.
6109:, pp. 76–106.
5675:, pp. 19, 24.
5192:
5079:
5024:
4949:Syrianos Magistros
4941:Nikephoros Ouranos
4784:
4757:broad-leaved trees
4552:
4405:Isidore of Seville
3869:to first oarsmen (
3700:
3698:(late 9th century)
3661:) of the admiral.
3573:were two or three
3298:thema Paphlagonias
3263:thema Kephallenias
2863:The Imperial Fleet
2697:
2680:Fleet organization
2604:Notitia Dignitatum
2416:Benedetto Zaccaria
2312:
2218:
2166:Philip of Flanders
2085:Roger II of Sicily
2024:Alexios I Komnenos
1822:
1794:Tiberios Apsimaros
1690:
1535:
1503:Macedonian dynasty
1436:conquest of Sicily
1363:Carolingian Empire
1350:
1165:
985:
749:
535:Komnenian-era army
502:Structural history
440:period of recovery
363:command of the sea
114:Dates of operation
41:tetragrammic cross
14183:
14182:
14145:
14144:
14102:Byzantine studies
14077:
14076:
14073:
14072:
13888:Alexander Romance
13746:
13745:
13723:Nea Moni of Chios
13586:Blachernae Palace
13508:
13507:
13504:
13503:
13474:Code of Justinian
13322:Eastern Orthodoxy
13293:
13292:
13289:
13288:
13215:
13214:
13089:Scholae Palatinae
12985:
12984:
12981:
12980:
12950:Foreign relations
12944:
12943:
12838:
12837:
12652:
12651:
12648:
12647:
12451:(1204–1453)
11961:978-0-19-280728-1
11913:978-0-8122-1128-3
11894:Turtledove, Harry
11845:Treadgold, Warren
11773:978-0-416-70380-1
11716:Morrison, John S.
11707:978-90-04-15197-0
11651:Morrison, John S.
11626:Morrison, John S.
11599:978-0-14-303590-9
11553:978-0-14-011448-5
11546:, Penguin Books,
11532:978-0-14-011449-2
11525:, Penguin Books,
11511:978-0-14-011447-8
11504:, Penguin Books,
11490:978-0-275-98856-2
11453:978-0-521-43991-6
11323:978-0-19-921067-1
11303:978-0-19-925244-2
11285:978-0-521-66102-7
11222:978-0-8018-1460-0
11138:978-90-04-15836-8
11100:978-0-691-01754-9
11057:Morrison, John S.
11046:978-1-85532-347-6
11019:978-1-85285-501-7
10835:Morrison, John S.
10790:978-0-19-537517-6
10716:Academy of Athens
10669:978-0-691-01477-7
10571:978-2-226-04722-9
10463:978-0-521-85703-1
10400:Ahrweiler, Hélène
10325:, pp. 38–39.
10109:, pp. 19–21.
9866:, pp. 79–80.
9767:, pp. 71–77.
9582:Makrypoulias 1995
9495:Makrypoulias 1995
9471:Makrypoulias 1995
9303:Makrypoulias 1995
9206:, pp. 57–64.
9011:, pp. 46–47.
8960:, pp. 44–45.
8631:Makrypoulias 1995
8619:Makrypoulias 1995
8607:Makrypoulias 1995
8571:Makrypoulias 1995
8442:, pp. 95–96.
8430:, pp. 85–89.
8394:, pp. 83ff..
8358:, pp. 83–85.
8322:, pp. 64–65.
8310:, pp. 79–81.
8295:, pp. 76–79.
8283:, pp. 82–83.
8230:, pp. 26–31.
8203:, pp. 50–51.
8191:, pp. 33–34.
8179:, pp. 73–74.
8119:, pp. 31–35.
8107:, pp. 24–25.
8066:, pp. 22–23.
7958:, pp. 20–22.
7920:Ward-Perkins 2005
7874:, pp. 53–56.
7838:, pp. 18–19.
7703:, pp. 98–99.
7433:, pp. 59–60.
6933:, pp. 59–61.
6921:, pp. 55–58.
6858:, pp. 91–93.
6822:, pp. 90–91.
6798:, pp. 87–88.
6753:, pp. 75–76.
6698:, pp. 63–79.
6671:, pp. 74–75.
6546:, pp. 93–94.
6447:, pp. 65–66.
6399:, pp. 64–65.
6387:, pp. 49–50.
6210:, pp. 48–49.
6121:, pp. 46–47.
6097:, pp. 45–46.
6070:, pp. 41–42.
5947:, pp. 31–32.
5920:, pp. 29–30.
5839:, pp. 26–27.
5663:, pp. 17–18.
5627:, pp. 14–15.
5464:, pp. 48–49.
4397:mortise and tenon
4255:liburnian galleys
4202:, and the junior
4161:megas droungarios
3695:basilikon ploïmon
3668:Seal of Niketas,
3641:('counts', sing.
3453:
3452:
3363:Manpower and size
3153:Taktikon Uspensky
2958:θέμα Κιβυρραιωτῶν
2917:Taktikon Uspensky
2897:Rodolphe Guilland
2888:basilikon ploïmon
2882:βασιλικὸν πλόϊμον
2786:
2717:
2624:Codex Justinianus
2471:Alexios Apokaukos
2336:John III Vatatzes
2259:Michael Stryphnos
2238:Michael Choniates
2171:Niketas Choniates
2089:George of Antioch
2081:Manuel I Komnenos
1992:Kingdom of Sicily
1866:Nikephoros Phokas
1862:Basil Hexamilites
1790:Romanos Lekapenos
1588:Yazaman al-Khadim
1250:Umayyad Caliphate
1115:briefly retake it
1066:(641–668) in the
1010:Arabian peninsula
938:Sassanid Persians
913:and the coast of
725:
724:
372:was posed by the
370:Mediterranean Sea
351:Roman predecessor
335:
334:
276:Anatolian beyliks
137:Mediterranean Sea
70:Byzantine Emperor
14213:
14170:
14083:
14082:
14026:Imperial Library
13972:Byzantine Greeks
13713:Daphni Monastery
13664:Panagia Chalkeon
13659:Hagios Demetrios
13626:Prison of Anemas
13576:Basilica Cistern
13534:
13533:
13525:
13524:
13514:
13513:
13369:West Syriac Rite
13359:Alexandrian Rite
13310:
13309:
13303:Religion and law
13299:
13298:
13234:Maritime themata
13190:Palaiologan army
13043:Military manuals
13011:
13010:
13002:
13001:
12991:
12990:
12849:
12848:
12825:Megas logothetes
12676:
12675:
12669:
12668:
12658:
12657:
12531:By modern region
12452:
12399:
12398:(717–1204)
12330:
12292:
12291:
12279:
12278:
12270:Byzantine Empire
12263:
12256:
12249:
12240:
12239:
12234:
12203:
12181:
12163:
12157:
12149:
12140:
12112:
12103:
12090:
12057:
12055:
12049:, archived from
12038:
12026:
12024:
12017:
12005:
11964:
11943:
11934:
11916:
11889:
11868:
11840:
11822:
11798:
11796:
11784:
11764:10.1038/134795c0
11740:Runciman, Steven
11735:
11710:
11692:
11670:
11645:
11620:
11602:
11584:
11556:
11535:
11514:
11493:
11475:
11457:
11438:Nicol, Donald M.
11433:
11414:Nicol, Donald M.
11409:
11388:
11359:
11350:
11326:
11306:
11288:
11270:
11243:
11225:
11207:
11186:
11165:
11141:
11121:
11103:
11092:
11076:
11049:
11031:
11022:
11004:
10983:
10959:
10933:
10911:
10910:
10908:
10880:
10854:
10829:
10793:
10775:
10764:
10726:
10706:
10693:
10672:
10649:
10648:
10647:
10641:
10626:
10616:
10594:
10574:
10553:
10533:
10495:
10486:
10466:
10446:
10444:
10443:
10426:
10409:
10386:
10380:
10368:
10362:
10356:
10350:
10344:
10338:
10332:
10326:
10320:
10314:
10308:
10302:
10296:
10290:
10284:
10278:
10272:
10266:
10260:
10254:
10248:
10242:
10236:
10230:
10224:
10218:
10212:
10206:
10200:
10194:
10188:
10182:
10176:
10170:
10164:
10158:
10152:
10146:
10140:
10134:
10128:
10122:
10116:
10110:
10104:
10098:
10092:
10086:
10080:
10074:
10068:
10062:
10056:
10050:
10044:
10038:
10032:
10026:
10020:
10014:
10008:
10002:
9996:
9990:
9984:
9978:
9972:
9966:
9960:
9954:
9948:
9939:
9933:
9927:
9921:
9915:
9909:
9903:
9897:
9891:
9885:
9879:
9873:
9867:
9861:
9855:
9849:
9843:
9837:
9831:
9825:
9819:
9813:
9807:
9801:
9792:
9786:
9780:
9774:
9768:
9762:
9756:
9750:
9744:
9738:
9729:
9723:
9717:
9711:
9705:
9699:
9693:
9687:
9681:
9675:
9669:
9663:
9657:
9651:
9645:
9639:
9633:
9627:
9621:
9615:
9609:
9603:
9597:
9591:
9585:
9579:
9573:
9567:
9561:
9555:
9549:
9543:
9537:
9531:
9525:
9519:
9513:
9507:
9498:
9492:
9486:
9480:
9474:
9468:
9462:
9456:
9450:
9444:
9438:
9432:
9426:
9420:
9414:
9408:
9402:
9396:
9390:
9384:
9378:
9372:
9366:
9360:
9354:
9348:
9342:
9336:
9330:
9324:
9318:
9312:
9306:
9300:
9294:
9288:
9282:
9276:
9270:
9264:
9258:
9252:
9246:
9240:
9231:
9225:
9219:
9218:, pp. 8–11.
9213:
9207:
9201:
9195:
9189:
9180:
9174:
9168:
9162:
9156:
9150:
9144:
9138:
9132:
9126:
9120:
9114:
9108:
9102:
9096:
9090:
9084:
9078:
9072:
9066:
9060:
9054:
9048:
9045:Geanakoplos 1959
9042:
9036:
9030:
9024:
9018:
9012:
9006:
9000:
8994:
8988:
8982:
8976:
8970:
8961:
8955:
8949:
8943:
8934:
8928:
8922:
8916:
8910:
8904:
8895:
8889:
8883:
8877:
8871:
8865:
8859:
8853:
8847:
8841:
8832:
8826:
8820:
8814:
8808:
8802:
8796:
8790:
8784:
8778:
8769:
8763:
8757:
8751:
8745:
8739:
8733:
8727:
8721:
8715:
8709:
8703:
8697:
8691:
8685:
8679:
8673:
8667:
8661:
8655:
8646:
8640:
8634:
8628:
8622:
8616:
8610:
8604:
8598:
8592:
8586:
8580:
8574:
8568:
8562:
8556:
8550:
8544:
8538:
8532:
8526:
8520:
8514:
8508:
8497:
8491:
8485:
8479:
8470:
8464:
8455:
8449:
8443:
8437:
8431:
8425:
8419:
8413:
8407:
8401:
8395:
8389:
8383:
8377:
8371:
8365:
8359:
8353:
8347:
8341:
8335:
8329:
8323:
8317:
8311:
8305:
8296:
8290:
8284:
8278:
8272:
8266:
8255:
8249:
8243:
8237:
8231:
8225:
8219:
8213:
8204:
8198:
8192:
8186:
8180:
8174:
8168:
8162:
8153:
8147:
8141:
8135:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8067:
8061:
8055:
8049:
8043:
8037:
8031:
8025:
8019:
8013:
8007:
8001:
7995:
7989:
7983:
7977:
7971:
7965:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7941:
7935:
7929:
7923:
7917:
7911:
7905:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7881:
7875:
7869:
7863:
7857:
7851:
7845:
7839:
7833:
7827:
7821:
7815:
7809:
7803:
7797:
7791:
7785:
7779:
7773:
7764:
7758:
7752:
7746:
7740:
7734:
7728:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7698:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7665:
7659:
7653:
7647:
7641:
7635:
7629:
7623:
7617:
7611:
7605:
7599:
7593:
7587:
7578:
7572:
7566:
7560:
7554:
7548:
7542:
7536:
7530:
7524:
7518:
7512:
7506:
7500:
7494:
7488:
7482:
7476:
7470:
7464:
7458:
7452:
7446:
7440:
7434:
7428:
7422:
7416:
7410:
7407:Geanakoplos 1959
7404:
7398:
7392:
7383:
7377:
7368:
7362:
7356:
7350:
7344:
7338:
7329:
7323:
7317:
7311:
7305:
7299:
7293:
7287:
7281:
7275:
7269:
7263:
7257:
7251:
7245:
7239:
7233:
7227:
7221:
7215:
7209:
7203:
7192:
7189:Birkenmeier 2002
7186:
7180:
7174:
7168:
7162:
7156:
7150:
7144:
7138:
7129:
7123:
7117:
7111:
7105:
7099:
7093:
7087:
7078:
7072:
7066:
7060:
7054:
7048:
7042:
7036:
7030:
7024:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6970:
6964:
6958:
6952:
6946:
6940:
6934:
6928:
6922:
6916:
6910:
6907:Birkenmeier 2002
6904:
6895:
6889:
6883:
6877:
6871:
6865:
6859:
6853:
6847:
6841:
6835:
6829:
6823:
6817:
6811:
6805:
6799:
6793:
6787:
6775:
6766:
6760:
6754:
6748:
6742:
6736:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6684:
6678:
6672:
6666:
6660:
6654:
6648:
6642:
6636:
6630:
6624:
6618:
6607:
6601:
6595:
6589:
6583:
6577:
6571:
6565:
6559:
6553:
6547:
6541:
6535:
6529:
6523:
6517:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6472:
6466:
6460:
6454:
6448:
6442:
6436:
6430:
6424:
6418:
6412:
6406:
6400:
6394:
6388:
6382:
6376:
6370:
6361:
6355:
6349:
6343:
6337:
6331:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6295:
6289:
6283:
6277:
6271:
6265:
6259:
6253:
6247:
6241:
6235:
6229:
6223:
6217:
6211:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6184:
6178:
6172:
6166:
6160:
6154:
6137:
6131:
6122:
6116:
6110:
6104:
6098:
6092:
6086:
6080:
6071:
6065:
6059:
6053:
6047:
6041:
6035:
6029:
6023:
6017:
6011:
6005:
5999:
5993:
5987:
5981:
5972:
5966:
5960:
5954:
5948:
5942:
5936:
5930:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5888:
5882:
5876:
5870:
5864:
5858:
5852:
5846:
5840:
5834:
5828:
5822:
5816:
5810:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5757:
5744:
5738:
5729:
5723:
5717:
5711:
5700:
5699:, pp. 9–10.
5694:
5688:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5664:
5658:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5628:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5604:
5598:
5592:
5586:
5569:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5527:
5521:
5515:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5441:
5435:
5429:
5423:
5412:
5406:
5395:
5394:
5392:
5391:
5380:
5374:
5368:
5297:
5283:
5268:
5229:
5223:
5213:
5207:
5206:
5159:
5153:
5152:
5140:
5134:
5128:
5114:
5104:
5094:
5055:boarding actions
5032:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4990:
4984:
4932:
4925:military manuals
4899:
4888:
4878:
4872:
4866:
4856:
4855:
4850:
4844:
4838:
4832:
4826:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4797:
4791:
4746:
4745:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4728:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4677:horse-transports
4674:
4668:
4652:
4643:
4637:
4634:
4630:
4629:
4624:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4605:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4582:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4522:
4519:
4515:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4450:
4444:
4438:
4428:
4391:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4355:
4342:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4229:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4207:
4201:
4195:
4189:
4183:
4177:
4163:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4144:
4139:
4131:
4093:
4083:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4027:
4017:
4016:
4011:
3999:Palaiologan navy
3978:
3977: 1254–1258
3976:
3954:
3948:
3942:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3880:
3874:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3800:
3792:
3784:
3778:
3765:
3749:
3741:
3733:
3727:
3719:
3713:
3707:
3697:
3691:
3683:
3675:
3660:
3652:
3646:
3640:
3634:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3552:
3546:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3473:
3467:
3387:
3386:
3380:
3373:
3349:
3343:
3327:
3324:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3303:Theme of Chaldia
3300:
3294:
3293:
3292:θέμα Παφλαγονίας
3265:
3259:
3258:
3257:θέμα Κεφαλληνίας
3246:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3198:with capital at
3193:
3190:
3186:
3180:
3179:
3166:
3160:
3150:
3144:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3041:
3035:
3023:of Attaleia and
3022:
3012:
3004:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2929:Hélène Ahrweiler
2926:
2923:
2911:
2904:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2876:basilikos stolos
2872:
2871:
2870:βασιλικὸς στόλος
2857:
2844:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2794:
2781:
2779:
2771:
2760:
2750:
2742:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2712:
2710:
2694:
2691:
2599:Classis Histrica
2570:Despot of Epirus
2503:Gemistos Plethon
2497:
2487:sunk or captured
2468:
2392:Charles of Anjou
2332:Empire of Nicaea
2256:
2203:Isaac II Angelos
2133:
2126:horse transports
2118:
2061:John II Komnenos
1955:
1942:
1934:
1926:
1902:Komnenian period
1892:John I Tzimiskes
1873:
1860:
1818:Madrid Skylitzes
1783:Emirate of Crete
1780:
1774:
1726:Damian of Tarsus
1719:
1631:
1552:Niketas Ooryphas
1550:
1524:
1509:Reign of Basil I
1484:major expedition
1470:
1430:
1372:
1307:
1305:
1289:
1279:
1271:
1214:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1181:
1179:
1096:
1094:
1077:first Arab siege
1054:
1016:(especially the
951:
881:
879:
843:
841:
799:
797:
783:Vandalic Kingdom
757:Battle of Actium
717:
710:
703:
679:Military manuals
635:Campaign history
570:Magister militum
497:
478:
477:
444:Komnenos dynasty
416:
347:Byzantine Empire
324:Preceded by
291:Justinianic Wars
286:Battles and wars
236:Emirate of Crete
181:Byzantine Empire
167:
164:
159:
156:
115:
107:
104:
100:
91:
80:
59:
56:
33:
21:
20:
14221:
14220:
14216:
14215:
14214:
14212:
14211:
14210:
14186:
14185:
14184:
14179:
14176:
14141:
14117:Cyrillic script
14088:
14069:
14014:
13998:
13898:
13880:Digenes Akritas
13856:
13801:
13742:
13706:Other locations
13701:
13673:
13630:
13562:
13551:Cross-in-square
13519:
13500:
13450:
13304:
13285:
13211:
13161:
13157:Varangian Guard
13100:
13074:East Roman army
13069:Late Roman army
13057:
12996:
12977:
12940:
12919:
12888:
12834:
12813:
12809:Epi ton deeseon
12799:Epi tou eidikou
12757:
12721:
12663:
12644:
12631:
12534:
12532:
12525:
12511:Palaiologan era
12453:
12450:
12441:
12412:Nikephorian era
12400:
12397:
12388:
12331:
12329:(330–717)
12328:
12319:
12299:
12286:
12273:
12267:
12237:
12201:
12179:
12151:
12150:
12102:, Rome: 324–339
12053:
12047:
12036:
12022:
12015:
11972:
11970:Further reading
11967:
11962:
11932:
11914:
11887:
11865:
11838:
11819:
11794:
11774:
11732:
11708:
11690:
11667:
11642:
11618:
11600:
11554:
11533:
11512:
11491:
11473:
11454:
11430:
11407:
11347:
11331:Magdalino, Paul
11324:
11304:
11286:
11241:
11223:
11205:
11184:
11162:
11139:
11119:
11101:
11073:
11047:
11020:
11001:
10980:
10906:
10904:
10878:
10851:
10791:
10691:
10670:
10645:
10643:
10639:
10624:
10572:
10551:
10484:
10464:
10441:
10439:
10394:
10389:
10369:
10365:
10357:
10353:
10345:
10341:
10333:
10329:
10321:
10317:
10309:
10305:
10297:
10293:
10285:
10281:
10273:
10269:
10261:
10257:
10249:
10245:
10237:
10233:
10225:
10221:
10213:
10209:
10201:
10197:
10191:Christides 1984
10189:
10185:
10177:
10173:
10165:
10161:
10153:
10149:
10141:
10137:
10129:
10125:
10117:
10113:
10105:
10101:
10093:
10089:
10081:
10077:
10069:
10065:
10057:
10053:
10045:
10041:
10033:
10029:
10021:
10017:
10009:
10005:
9997:
9993:
9985:
9981:
9973:
9969:
9961:
9957:
9949:
9942:
9934:
9930:
9922:
9918:
9910:
9906:
9898:
9894:
9886:
9882:
9874:
9870:
9864:Christides 1981
9862:
9858:
9850:
9846:
9838:
9834:
9826:
9822:
9814:
9810:
9802:
9795:
9787:
9783:
9775:
9771:
9763:
9759:
9751:
9747:
9739:
9732:
9724:
9720:
9712:
9708:
9700:
9696:
9688:
9684:
9676:
9672:
9664:
9660:
9652:
9648:
9640:
9636:
9628:
9624:
9616:
9612:
9604:
9600:
9592:
9588:
9580:
9576:
9568:
9564:
9556:
9552:
9544:
9540:
9532:
9528:
9520:
9516:
9508:
9501:
9493:
9489:
9481:
9477:
9469:
9465:
9457:
9453:
9445:
9441:
9433:
9429:
9421:
9417:
9409:
9405:
9397:
9393:
9385:
9381:
9373:
9369:
9361:
9357:
9349:
9345:
9337:
9333:
9325:
9321:
9313:
9309:
9301:
9297:
9289:
9285:
9277:
9273:
9265:
9261:
9253:
9249:
9241:
9234:
9226:
9222:
9214:
9210:
9202:
9198:
9190:
9183:
9175:
9171:
9163:
9159:
9151:
9147:
9139:
9135:
9127:
9123:
9115:
9111:
9103:
9099:
9091:
9087:
9079:
9075:
9067:
9063:
9055:
9051:
9043:
9039:
9031:
9027:
9023:, p. 1394.
9019:
9015:
9007:
9003:
8995:
8991:
8983:
8979:
8971:
8964:
8956:
8952:
8944:
8937:
8929:
8925:
8917:
8913:
8905:
8898:
8890:
8886:
8878:
8874:
8866:
8862:
8858:, p. 1330.
8854:
8850:
8842:
8835:
8827:
8823:
8815:
8811:
8803:
8799:
8795:, p. 1745.
8791:
8787:
8779:
8772:
8764:
8760:
8752:
8748:
8740:
8736:
8728:
8724:
8716:
8712:
8704:
8700:
8692:
8688:
8680:
8676:
8668:
8664:
8656:
8649:
8641:
8637:
8629:
8625:
8617:
8613:
8605:
8601:
8595:MacCormick 2002
8593:
8589:
8581:
8577:
8569:
8565:
8557:
8553:
8545:
8541:
8533:
8529:
8521:
8517:
8509:
8500:
8492:
8488:
8480:
8473:
8465:
8458:
8450:
8446:
8438:
8434:
8426:
8422:
8414:
8410:
8402:
8398:
8390:
8386:
8378:
8374:
8366:
8362:
8354:
8350:
8346:, p. 1836.
8342:
8338:
8330:
8326:
8318:
8314:
8306:
8299:
8291:
8287:
8279:
8275:
8271:, p. 1127.
8267:
8258:
8250:
8246:
8238:
8234:
8226:
8222:
8214:
8207:
8199:
8195:
8187:
8183:
8175:
8171:
8163:
8156:
8148:
8144:
8136:
8123:
8115:
8111:
8103:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8079:
8070:
8062:
8058:
8050:
8046:
8038:
8034:
8026:
8022:
8014:
8010:
8002:
7998:
7990:
7986:
7978:
7974:
7966:
7962:
7954:
7950:
7942:
7938:
7930:
7926:
7918:
7914:
7910:, pp. 4–8.
7906:
7902:
7894:
7890:
7882:
7878:
7870:
7866:
7858:
7854:
7846:
7842:
7834:
7830:
7824:Kastritsis 2007
7822:
7818:
7812:Kastritsis 2007
7810:
7806:
7800:Kastritsis 2007
7798:
7794:
7786:
7782:
7774:
7767:
7759:
7755:
7747:
7743:
7735:
7731:
7723:
7719:
7711:
7707:
7699:
7695:
7687:
7683:
7675:
7668:
7660:
7656:
7648:
7644:
7636:
7632:
7624:
7620:
7612:
7608:
7600:
7596:
7588:
7581:
7573:
7569:
7561:
7557:
7549:
7545:
7537:
7533:
7525:
7521:
7513:
7509:
7501:
7497:
7489:
7485:
7477:
7473:
7465:
7461:
7453:
7449:
7441:
7437:
7429:
7425:
7417:
7413:
7405:
7401:
7393:
7386:
7378:
7371:
7363:
7359:
7351:
7347:
7339:
7332:
7328:, pp. 4–5.
7324:
7320:
7312:
7308:
7300:
7296:
7288:
7284:
7276:
7272:
7264:
7260:
7252:
7248:
7240:
7236:
7228:
7224:
7216:
7212:
7204:
7195:
7187:
7183:
7175:
7171:
7163:
7159:
7151:
7147:
7139:
7132:
7124:
7120:
7112:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7088:
7081:
7073:
7069:
7061:
7057:
7049:
7045:
7037:
7033:
7025:
7016:
7008:
7004:
6996:
6992:
6984:
6973:
6965:
6961:
6953:
6949:
6941:
6937:
6929:
6925:
6917:
6913:
6905:
6898:
6890:
6886:
6878:
6874:
6866:
6862:
6854:
6850:
6842:
6838:
6830:
6826:
6818:
6814:
6806:
6802:
6794:
6790:
6776:
6769:
6761:
6757:
6749:
6745:
6737:
6726:
6718:
6714:
6706:
6702:
6694:
6687:
6679:
6675:
6667:
6663:
6655:
6651:
6643:
6639:
6633:MacCormick 2002
6631:
6627:
6619:
6610:
6602:
6598:
6592:Christides 1981
6590:
6586:
6578:
6574:
6566:
6562:
6554:
6550:
6544:Christides 1981
6542:
6538:
6530:
6526:
6520:Christides 1981
6518:
6514:
6506:
6502:
6494:
6490:
6482:
6475:
6467:
6463:
6455:
6451:
6443:
6439:
6433:MacCormick 2002
6431:
6427:
6419:
6415:
6407:
6403:
6395:
6391:
6383:
6379:
6371:
6364:
6356:
6352:
6344:
6340:
6332:
6325:
6319:MacCormick 2002
6317:
6313:
6305:
6298:
6290:
6286:
6278:
6274:
6266:
6262:
6254:
6250:
6242:
6238:
6230:
6226:
6218:
6214:
6206:
6202:
6194:
6187:
6179:
6175:
6169:Christides 1981
6167:
6163:
6155:
6140:
6132:
6125:
6117:
6113:
6107:Christides 1981
6105:
6101:
6093:
6089:
6081:
6074:
6066:
6062:
6054:
6050:
6044:Christides 1981
6042:
6038:
6030:
6026:
6018:
6014:
6006:
6002:
5994:
5990:
5982:
5975:
5967:
5963:
5955:
5951:
5943:
5939:
5931:
5924:
5916:
5912:
5904:
5891:
5883:
5879:
5871:
5867:
5859:
5855:
5847:
5843:
5835:
5831:
5823:
5819:
5811:
5802:
5796:Turtledove 1982
5794:
5790:
5782:
5778:
5770:
5766:
5758:
5747:
5739:
5732:
5724:
5720:
5712:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5683:
5679:
5671:
5667:
5659:
5655:
5647:
5643:
5635:
5631:
5623:
5619:
5611:
5607:
5599:
5595:
5587:
5572:
5564:
5560:
5552:
5548:
5540:
5536:
5528:
5524:
5516:
5507:
5499:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5475:
5468:
5460:
5456:
5448:
5444:
5436:
5432:
5424:
5415:
5407:
5398:
5389:
5387:
5382:
5381:
5377:
5369:
5360:
5356:
5351:
5312:
5302:), which had a
5270:
5256:
5181:
5175:
5135:with 200 bolts
5063:
4966:First Punic War
4961:
4930:peri naumachias
4921:
4893:
4801:William of Tyre
4765:
4654:Basil Lekapenos
4635:
4537:
4520:
4453:quarter rudders
4326:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4247:
4241:
4236:
4170:Book of Offices
4001:
3973:
3961:
3934:
3921:
3916:
3752:Book of Offices
3647:), including a
3559:
3537:
3365:
3354:, and possibly
3325:
3282:) in about 910.
3219:Theme of Sicily
3191:
3173:Theme of Hellas
3135:
3133:Local squadrons
3090:
3039:Aigaion Pelagos
2984:
2977:
2937:
2935:Maritime themes
2924:
2865:
2845:at Cibyrrha in
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2762:
2701:thematic system
2692:
2682:
2677:
2583:
2578:
2432:Catalan Company
2383:in Negroponte (
2304:
2298:
2190:
2184:
2179:
2077:
2012:
1970:George Maniakes
1957:
1947:
1915:
1910:
1904:
1834:Constantine VII
1806:
1694:Leo VI the Wise
1681:
1572:Corinthian Gulf
1531:Constantine VII
1511:
1498:
1492:
1432:
1419:
1373:recognized the
1359:Harun al-Rashid
1355:Gulf of Antalya
1338:
1302:
1209:
1198:
1187:
1176:
1145:
1139:
1119:Musa bin Nusair
1091:
1056:
1042:
989:Muslim conquest
977:
971:
966:
876:
838:
823:
794:
740:
735:
730:
721:
585:Stratopedarches
560:Varangian Guard
510:East Roman army
331:
330:
326:
268:Crusader states
203:Crusader states
170:Manuel Komnenos
165:
161:
157:
113:
105:
93:
73:
61:
57:
17:
12:
11:
5:
14219:
14209:
14208:
14203:
14198:
14196:Byzantine navy
14181:
14180:
14178:
14177:
14175:
14174:
14164:
14159:
14153:
14150:
14147:
14146:
14143:
14142:
14140:
14139:
14134:
14129:
14124:
14119:
14114:
14109:
14104:
14099:
14093:
14090:
14089:
14079:
14078:
14075:
14074:
14071:
14070:
14068:
14067:
14066:
14065:
14055:
14050:
14049:
14048:
14038:
14033:
14028:
14023:
14017:
14015:
14013:
14012:
14009:
14003:
14000:
13999:
13997:
13996:
13991:
13986:
13981:
13976:
13975:
13974:
13964:
13963:
13962:
13957:
13947:
13942:
13937:
13932:
13927:
13922:
13917:
13912:
13906:
13904:
13900:
13899:
13897:
13896:
13891:
13884:
13883:
13882:
13872:
13866:
13864:
13858:
13857:
13855:
13854:
13849:
13848:
13847:
13842:
13837:
13827:
13822:
13817:
13811:
13809:
13803:
13802:
13800:
13799:
13794:
13789:
13784:
13783:
13782:
13772:
13767:
13762:
13756:
13754:
13748:
13747:
13744:
13743:
13741:
13740:
13735:
13730:
13725:
13720:
13715:
13709:
13707:
13703:
13702:
13700:
13699:
13694:
13689:
13683:
13681:
13675:
13674:
13672:
13671:
13666:
13661:
13656:
13651:
13649:Byzantine Bath
13646:
13640:
13638:
13632:
13631:
13629:
13628:
13623:
13618:
13613:
13608:
13603:
13598:
13593:
13588:
13583:
13578:
13572:
13570:
13568:Constantinople
13564:
13563:
13561:
13560:
13559:
13558:
13553:
13543:
13537:
13531:
13521:
13520:
13510:
13509:
13506:
13505:
13502:
13501:
13499:
13498:
13493:
13488:
13483:
13478:
13477:
13476:
13466:
13460:
13458:
13452:
13451:
13449:
13448:
13443:
13442:
13441:
13436:
13431:
13426:
13418:
13413:
13408:
13403:
13398:
13393:
13388:
13383:
13378:
13377:
13376:
13371:
13366:
13361:
13351:
13350:
13349:
13344:
13339:
13334:
13329:
13327:Byzantine Rite
13318:
13316:
13306:
13305:
13295:
13294:
13291:
13290:
13287:
13286:
13284:
13283:
13278:
13273:
13268:
13263:
13258:
13253:
13252:
13251:
13246:
13241:
13231:
13225:
13223:
13217:
13216:
13213:
13212:
13210:
13209:
13207:Grand domestic
13204:
13203:
13202:
13197:
13187:
13186:
13185:
13180:
13173:Komnenian army
13169:
13167:
13163:
13162:
13160:
13159:
13154:
13149:
13144:
13139:
13134:
13129:
13124:
13119:
13114:
13108:
13106:
13102:
13101:
13099:
13098:
13097:
13096:
13091:
13086:
13081:
13071:
13065:
13063:
13059:
13058:
13056:
13055:
13050:
13048:Military units
13045:
13040:
13035:
13030:
13025:
13020:
13018:Battle tactics
13014:
13008:
12998:
12997:
12987:
12986:
12983:
12982:
12979:
12978:
12976:
12975:
12970:
12965:
12960:
12954:
12952:
12946:
12945:
12942:
12941:
12939:
12938:
12933:
12927:
12925:
12921:
12920:
12918:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12902:
12896:
12894:
12890:
12889:
12887:
12886:
12881:
12876:
12871:
12866:
12861:
12855:
12853:
12846:
12840:
12839:
12836:
12835:
12833:
12832:
12827:
12821:
12819:
12815:
12814:
12812:
12811:
12806:
12801:
12796:
12791:
12786:
12781:
12776:
12771:
12765:
12763:
12759:
12758:
12756:
12755:
12750:
12745:
12740:
12735:
12729:
12727:
12723:
12722:
12720:
12719:
12714:
12713:
12712:
12710:Medieval Greek
12702:
12701:
12700:
12695:
12690:
12679:
12673:
12665:
12664:
12654:
12653:
12650:
12649:
12646:
12645:
12643:
12642:
12637:
12632:
12627:
12625:
12620:
12615:
12610:
12605:
12604:
12603:
12598:
12588:
12583:
12578:
12573:
12568:
12563:
12558:
12553:
12548:
12543:
12537:
12535:
12530:
12527:
12526:
12524:
12523:
12518:
12513:
12508:
12481:
12480:
12479:
12469:
12468:
12467:
12465:Fourth Crusade
12456:
12454:
12446:
12443:
12442:
12440:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12424:
12422:Macedonian era
12419:
12414:
12409:
12403:
12401:
12393:
12390:
12389:
12387:
12386:
12381:
12380:
12379:
12367:
12362:
12357:
12355:Theodosian era
12352:
12351:
12350:
12345:
12334:
12332:
12324:
12321:
12320:
12318:
12317:
12316:
12315:
12302:
12300:
12295:
12288:
12287:
12275:
12274:
12266:
12265:
12258:
12251:
12243:
12236:
12235:
12217:(2): 411–438.
12204:
12199:
12182:
12177:
12164:
12141:
12124:(1): 108–116,
12113:
12104:
12091:
12081:(2): 219–248.
12058:
12045:
12027:
12006:
11989:(2): 327–338,
11973:
11971:
11968:
11966:
11965:
11960:
11944:
11935:
11930:
11917:
11912:
11896:, ed. (1982),
11890:
11885:
11869:
11863:
11841:
11836:
11823:
11817:
11799:
11785:
11772:
11736:
11730:
11711:
11706:
11693:
11688:
11671:
11665:
11646:
11640:
11621:
11616:
11603:
11598:
11585:
11568:(2): 326–329,
11557:
11552:
11536:
11531:
11515:
11510:
11494:
11489:
11476:
11471:
11458:
11452:
11434:
11428:
11410:
11405:
11389:
11360:
11356:Graeco-Arabica
11351:
11345:
11327:
11322:
11307:
11302:
11289:
11284:
11271:
11244:
11239:
11226:
11221:
11208:
11203:
11187:
11182:
11166:
11160:
11148:, ed. (1991).
11142:
11137:
11122:
11117:
11104:
11099:
11078:
11077:
11071:
11051:
11050:
11045:
11032:
11023:
11018:
11005:
10999:
10984:
10978:
10960:
10934:
10912:
10881:
10876:
10855:
10849:
10830:
10811:10.2307/298170
10794:
10789:
10776:
10765:
10740:(2): 577–603,
10727:
10707:
10694:
10689:
10677:Casson, Lionel
10673:
10668:
10654:Casson, Lionel
10650:
10617:
10595:
10575:
10570:
10558:Bréhier, Louis
10554:
10549:
10534:
10496:
10487:
10482:
10467:
10462:
10447:
10427:
10410:
10395:
10393:
10390:
10388:
10387:
10363:
10351:
10339:
10327:
10315:
10313:, p. 149.
10303:
10291:
10279:
10277:, p. 385.
10267:
10255:
10253:, p. 386.
10243:
10241:, p. 197.
10231:
10219:
10207:
10205:, p. 384.
10195:
10183:
10171:
10169:, p. 292.
10159:
10157:, p. 617.
10147:
10145:, p. 105.
10135:
10123:
10111:
10099:
10087:
10085:, p. 134.
10075:
10073:, p. 102.
10063:
10061:, p. 381.
10051:
10049:, p. 509.
10039:
10027:
10015:
10013:, p. 402.
10003:
10001:, p. 505.
9991:
9989:, p. 499.
9979:
9967:
9955:
9953:, p. 100.
9940:
9938:, p. 399.
9928:
9926:, p. 144.
9916:
9904:
9892:
9880:
9868:
9856:
9854:, p. 387.
9844:
9842:, p. 383.
9832:
9820:
9808:
9806:, p. 360.
9793:
9781:
9769:
9757:
9755:, p. 209.
9745:
9730:
9718:
9706:
9704:, p. 123.
9694:
9692:, p. 116.
9682:
9670:
9668:, p. 115.
9658:
9656:, p. 420.
9646:
9634:
9622:
9610:
9598:
9586:
9584:, p. 168.
9574:
9562:
9550:
9548:, p. 305.
9538:
9536:, p. 108.
9526:
9514:
9499:
9487:
9485:, p. 190.
9475:
9473:, p. 165.
9463:
9451:
9439:
9427:
9415:
9403:
9401:, p. 104.
9391:
9389:, p. 282.
9379:
9377:, p. 189.
9367:
9365:, p. 203.
9355:
9353:, p. 215.
9343:
9331:
9329:, p. 238.
9319:
9307:
9295:
9283:
9271:
9259:
9247:
9232:
9220:
9208:
9196:
9181:
9169:
9157:
9145:
9143:, p. 127.
9133:
9121:
9109:
9107:, p. 102.
9097:
9085:
9073:
9071:, p. 540.
9061:
9049:
9037:
9025:
9013:
9001:
8999:, p. 158.
8989:
8977:
8962:
8950:
8948:, p. 405.
8946:Ahrweiler 1966
8935:
8923:
8911:
8896:
8894:, p. 233.
8892:Magdalino 2002
8884:
8880:Magdalino 2002
8872:
8870:, p. 144.
8860:
8848:
8846:, p. 274.
8833:
8831:, p. 273.
8821:
8809:
8807:, p. 275.
8797:
8785:
8770:
8768:, p. 268.
8758:
8756:, p. 393.
8746:
8734:
8722:
8710:
8698:
8696:, p. 119.
8686:
8682:Ahrweiler 1966
8674:
8672:, p. 104.
8670:Treadgold 1998
8662:
8660:, p. 267.
8647:
8645:, p. 266.
8635:
8623:
8611:
8599:
8587:
8575:
8563:
8561:, p. 267.
8551:
8539:
8537:, p. 188.
8527:
8525:, p. 843.
8523:Treadgold 1997
8515:
8513:, p. 576.
8511:Treadgold 1997
8498:
8496:, p. 412.
8494:Treadgold 1997
8486:
8484:, p. 277.
8482:Treadgold 1997
8471:
8469:, p. 145.
8467:Treadgold 1997
8456:
8452:Treadgold 1998
8444:
8440:Ahrweiler 1966
8432:
8428:Ahrweiler 1966
8420:
8418:, p. 433.
8416:Treadgold 1997
8408:
8396:
8392:Ahrweiler 1966
8384:
8382:, p. 427.
8380:Treadgold 1997
8372:
8370:, p. 383.
8368:Treadgold 1997
8360:
8356:Ahrweiler 1966
8348:
8336:
8332:Treadgold 1998
8324:
8320:Ahrweiler 1966
8312:
8308:Ahrweiler 1966
8297:
8293:Ahrweiler 1966
8285:
8281:Ahrweiler 1966
8273:
8256:
8252:Ahrweiler 1966
8244:
8232:
8228:Ahrweiler 1966
8220:
8205:
8201:Ahrweiler 1966
8193:
8189:Ahrweiler 1966
8181:
8177:Ahrweiler 1966
8169:
8167:, p. 109.
8154:
8152:, p. 535.
8142:
8121:
8117:Ahrweiler 1966
8109:
8105:Ahrweiler 1966
8097:
8093:Treadgold 1998
8085:
8068:
8064:Ahrweiler 1966
8056:
8054:, p. 602.
8052:Cosentino 2008
8044:
8040:Treadgold 1997
8032:
8028:Ahrweiler 1966
8020:
8008:
8004:Treadgold 1998
7996:
7984:
7982:, p. 580.
7980:Cosentino 2008
7972:
7960:
7948:
7936:
7934:, p. 307.
7932:MacGeorge 2002
7924:
7912:
7900:
7896:Treadgold 1997
7888:
7884:Cosentino 2008
7876:
7864:
7862:, p. 132.
7852:
7840:
7828:
7826:, p. 169.
7816:
7804:
7792:
7780:
7765:
7763:, p. 110.
7753:
7741:
7737:Ahrweiler 1966
7729:
7727:, p. 219.
7717:
7713:Ahrweiler 1966
7705:
7693:
7681:
7679:, p. 385.
7677:Ahrweiler 1966
7666:
7664:, p. 341.
7654:
7652:, p. 199.
7642:
7640:, p. 384.
7638:Ahrweiler 1966
7630:
7626:Ahrweiler 1966
7618:
7616:, p. 171.
7606:
7604:, p. 383.
7602:Ahrweiler 1966
7594:
7592:, p. 382.
7590:Ahrweiler 1966
7579:
7575:Ahrweiler 1966
7567:
7555:
7551:Ahrweiler 1966
7543:
7541:, p. 115.
7531:
7519:
7515:Ahrweiler 1966
7507:
7495:
7483:
7481:, p. 158.
7471:
7469:, p. 246.
7459:
7447:
7443:Ahrweiler 1966
7435:
7423:
7411:
7399:
7384:
7369:
7357:
7345:
7330:
7318:
7306:
7302:Ahrweiler 1966
7294:
7290:Ahrweiler 1966
7282:
7278:Ahrweiler 1966
7270:
7266:Ahrweiler 1966
7258:
7254:Ahrweiler 1966
7246:
7242:Ahrweiler 1966
7234:
7232:, p. 151.
7222:
7210:
7208:, p. 121.
7193:
7181:
7179:, p. 215.
7169:
7165:Magdalino 2002
7157:
7155:, p. 116.
7145:
7143:, p. 109.
7130:
7118:
7116:, p. 158.
7106:
7104:, p. 643.
7102:Treadgold 1997
7094:
7092:, p. 113.
7079:
7067:
7055:
7053:, p. 641.
7051:Treadgold 1997
7043:
7041:, p. 631.
7039:Treadgold 1997
7031:
7029:, p. 111.
7014:
7002:
7000:, p. 109.
6990:
6971:
6969:, p. 113.
6959:
6947:
6945:, p. 100.
6935:
6923:
6911:
6896:
6884:
6882:, p. 335.
6872:
6860:
6848:
6836:
6824:
6812:
6800:
6788:
6767:
6765:, p. 509.
6763:Treadgold 1997
6755:
6743:
6724:
6712:
6710:, p. 195.
6700:
6685:
6683:, p. 495.
6681:Treadgold 1997
6673:
6661:
6649:
6637:
6635:, p. 414.
6625:
6608:
6596:
6584:
6572:
6568:Treadgold 1997
6560:
6558:, p. 120.
6548:
6536:
6534:, p. 191.
6524:
6512:
6500:
6488:
6473:
6469:Treadgold 1997
6461:
6449:
6437:
6435:, p. 955.
6425:
6421:Treadgold 1998
6413:
6401:
6389:
6377:
6362:
6360:, p. 458.
6358:Treadgold 1997
6350:
6338:
6336:, p. 457.
6334:Treadgold 1997
6323:
6321:, p. 413.
6311:
6309:, p. 151.
6296:
6294:, p. 192.
6284:
6282:, p. 534.
6280:Treadgold 1997
6272:
6270:, p. 183.
6260:
6248:
6236:
6224:
6212:
6200:
6185:
6183:, p. 120.
6173:
6161:
6138:
6123:
6111:
6099:
6087:
6072:
6060:
6048:
6036:
6034:, p. 150.
6024:
6022:, p. 141.
6012:
6000:
5988:
5986:, p. 352.
5984:Treadgold 1997
5973:
5971:, p. 349.
5969:Treadgold 1997
5961:
5949:
5937:
5922:
5910:
5889:
5877:
5875:, p. 334.
5865:
5853:
5849:Treadgold 1998
5841:
5829:
5817:
5800:
5788:
5776:
5764:
5745:
5730:
5728:, p. 154.
5718:
5701:
5689:
5677:
5665:
5653:
5641:
5629:
5617:
5605:
5603:, p. 207.
5593:
5570:
5558:
5546:
5544:, p. 166.
5534:
5530:MacGeorge 2002
5522:
5505:
5493:
5481:
5479:, p. 213.
5466:
5454:
5442:
5430:
5426:Treadgold 1998
5413:
5409:Treadgold 1998
5396:
5375:
5373:, p. 167.
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5311:
5308:
5244:
5174:
5171:
5102:toxoballistrai
5062:
5059:
4960:
4957:
4920:
4917:
4764:
4761:
4649:parakoimomenos
4536:
4533:
4529:Oriental plane
4388:Vatican Vergil
4325:
4322:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4166:Ferran d'Aunés
4120:Andrea Morisco
4000:
3997:
3960:
3957:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3782:droungarokomes
3756:Pseudo-Kodinos
3746:hetaireiarches
3558:
3557:Rank structure
3555:
3451:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3364:
3361:
3334:
3333:
3319:Armeniac Theme
3314:thema Chaldias
3283:
3268:Ionian Islands
3248:
3230:thema Sikelias
3215:
3208:Central Greece
3192: 686–689
3187:), founded in
3184:thema Hellados
3134:
3131:
3107:Theme of Samos
2948:thema nautikon
2936:
2933:
2864:
2861:
2761:
2753:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2663:, and Aelana (
2619:De Re Militari
2614:De Re Militari
2589:Under Emperor
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2511:war with Genoa
2501:, the scholar
2297:
2294:
2278:Fourth Crusade
2223:Isaac Komnenos
2199:Sea of Marmara
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2093:Ionian islands
2076:
2073:
2065:John of Poutza
2037:Michael Maurex
2011:
2008:
1978:Constantine IX
1916:
1914:
1911:
1903:
1900:
1826:Tyrrhenian Sea
1805:
1802:
1742:Leo of Tripoli
1680:
1677:
1641:Ionian Islands
1510:
1507:
1491:
1488:
1456:attacking Rome
1412:
1337:
1334:
1306: 741–775
1213: 717–741
1202: 715–717
1195:Theodosius III
1191: 713–715
1180: 705–715
1138:
1135:
1058:After seizing
1027:
970:
967:
965:
962:
923:southern Spain
880: 527–565
842: 491–518
822:
819:
798: 428–477
778:(429 to 442).
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
723:
722:
720:
719:
712:
705:
697:
694:
693:
692:
691:
684:Fortifications
681:
676:
671:
663:
662:
658:
657:
654:Constantinople
637:
636:
632:
631:
630:
629:
623:
614:
609:
603:Byzantine navy
597:
596:
595:
594:
593:
592:
587:
582:
580:Grand Domestic
577:
572:
562:
557:
556:
555:
545:
544:
543:
532:
531:
530:
525:
520:
512:
504:
503:
499:
498:
490:
489:
487:Byzantine army
483:
482:
473:Ottoman Empire
448:Fourth Crusade
404:several sieges
396:Constantinople
339:Byzantine navy
333:
332:
322:
321:
318:
317:
287:
283:
282:
246:, Bulgarians,
214:
210:
209:
188:
184:
183:
178:
174:
173:
152:
148:
147:
134:
130:
129:
127:Constantinople
124:
120:
119:
116:
110:
109:
67:
63:
62:
45:Pseudo-Kodinos
34:
26:
25:
24:Byzantine navy
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14218:
14207:
14204:
14202:
14199:
14197:
14194:
14193:
14191:
14173:
14169:
14165:
14163:
14160:
14158:
14155:
14154:
14152:
14151:
14148:
14138:
14135:
14133:
14130:
14128:
14125:
14123:
14120:
14118:
14115:
14113:
14110:
14108:
14105:
14103:
14100:
14098:
14095:
14094:
14091:
14084:
14080:
14064:
14061:
14060:
14059:
14056:
14054:
14051:
14047:
14044:
14043:
14042:
14039:
14037:
14034:
14032:
14029:
14027:
14024:
14022:
14021:Encyclopedias
14019:
14018:
14016:
14010:
14008:
14005:
14004:
14001:
13995:
13992:
13990:
13987:
13985:
13982:
13980:
13977:
13973:
13970:
13969:
13968:
13965:
13961:
13958:
13956:
13953:
13952:
13951:
13948:
13946:
13945:Hellenization
13943:
13941:
13938:
13936:
13933:
13931:
13928:
13926:
13923:
13921:
13918:
13916:
13913:
13911:
13908:
13907:
13905:
13903:Everyday life
13901:
13895:
13892:
13890:
13889:
13885:
13881:
13878:
13877:
13876:
13875:Acritic songs
13873:
13871:
13868:
13867:
13865:
13863:
13859:
13853:
13850:
13846:
13843:
13841:
13838:
13836:
13833:
13832:
13831:
13828:
13826:
13823:
13821:
13818:
13816:
13813:
13812:
13810:
13808:
13804:
13798:
13795:
13793:
13790:
13788:
13785:
13781:
13778:
13777:
13776:
13773:
13771:
13768:
13766:
13763:
13761:
13758:
13757:
13755:
13753:
13749:
13739:
13736:
13734:
13731:
13729:
13726:
13724:
13721:
13719:
13718:Hosios Loukas
13716:
13714:
13711:
13710:
13708:
13704:
13698:
13695:
13693:
13690:
13688:
13685:
13684:
13682:
13680:
13676:
13670:
13667:
13665:
13662:
13660:
13657:
13655:
13652:
13650:
13647:
13645:
13642:
13641:
13639:
13637:
13633:
13627:
13624:
13622:
13619:
13617:
13614:
13612:
13609:
13607:
13604:
13602:
13599:
13597:
13594:
13592:
13589:
13587:
13584:
13582:
13579:
13577:
13574:
13573:
13571:
13569:
13565:
13557:
13554:
13552:
13549:
13548:
13547:
13544:
13542:
13539:
13538:
13535:
13532:
13530:
13526:
13522:
13515:
13511:
13497:
13494:
13492:
13489:
13487:
13484:
13482:
13479:
13475:
13472:
13471:
13470:
13467:
13465:
13462:
13461:
13459:
13457:
13453:
13447:
13444:
13440:
13437:
13435:
13432:
13430:
13427:
13425:
13422:
13421:
13419:
13417:
13414:
13412:
13409:
13407:
13404:
13402:
13399:
13397:
13394:
13392:
13391:Monophysitism
13389:
13387:
13384:
13382:
13379:
13375:
13372:
13370:
13367:
13365:
13364:Armenian Rite
13362:
13360:
13357:
13356:
13355:
13352:
13348:
13345:
13343:
13340:
13338:
13335:
13333:
13330:
13328:
13325:
13324:
13323:
13320:
13319:
13317:
13315:
13311:
13307:
13300:
13296:
13282:
13281:Naval battles
13279:
13277:
13274:
13272:
13269:
13267:
13264:
13262:
13259:
13257:
13254:
13250:
13247:
13245:
13242:
13240:
13237:
13236:
13235:
13232:
13230:
13227:
13226:
13224:
13222:
13218:
13208:
13205:
13201:
13198:
13196:
13193:
13192:
13191:
13188:
13184:
13181:
13179:
13176:
13175:
13174:
13171:
13170:
13168:
13164:
13158:
13155:
13153:
13150:
13148:
13145:
13143:
13140:
13138:
13135:
13133:
13130:
13128:
13125:
13123:
13120:
13118:
13115:
13113:
13110:
13109:
13107:
13103:
13095:
13092:
13090:
13087:
13085:
13082:
13080:
13077:
13076:
13075:
13072:
13070:
13067:
13066:
13064:
13060:
13054:
13051:
13049:
13046:
13044:
13041:
13039:
13036:
13034:
13031:
13029:
13026:
13024:
13021:
13019:
13016:
13015:
13012:
13009:
13007:
13003:
12999:
12992:
12988:
12974:
12971:
12969:
12966:
12964:
12961:
12959:
12956:
12955:
12953:
12951:
12947:
12937:
12934:
12932:
12929:
12928:
12926:
12922:
12916:
12913:
12911:
12908:
12906:
12903:
12901:
12898:
12897:
12895:
12891:
12885:
12882:
12880:
12877:
12875:
12872:
12870:
12867:
12865:
12862:
12860:
12857:
12856:
12854:
12850:
12847:
12845:
12841:
12831:
12828:
12826:
12823:
12822:
12820:
12816:
12810:
12807:
12805:
12804:Protasekretis
12802:
12800:
12797:
12795:
12792:
12790:
12787:
12785:
12782:
12780:
12777:
12775:
12772:
12770:
12767:
12766:
12764:
12760:
12754:
12751:
12749:
12746:
12744:
12741:
12739:
12736:
12734:
12731:
12730:
12728:
12724:
12718:
12715:
12711:
12708:
12707:
12706:
12703:
12699:
12696:
12694:
12691:
12689:
12686:
12685:
12684:
12681:
12680:
12677:
12674:
12670:
12666:
12659:
12655:
12641:
12638:
12636:
12633:
12630:
12626:
12624:
12621:
12619:
12616:
12614:
12611:
12609:
12606:
12602:
12599:
12597:
12594:
12593:
12592:
12589:
12587:
12584:
12582:
12579:
12577:
12574:
12572:
12569:
12567:
12564:
12562:
12559:
12557:
12554:
12552:
12549:
12547:
12544:
12542:
12539:
12538:
12536:
12528:
12522:
12519:
12517:
12514:
12512:
12509:
12506:
12502:
12498:
12494:
12490:
12486:
12482:
12478:
12475:
12474:
12473:
12470:
12466:
12463:
12462:
12461:
12458:
12457:
12455:
12449:
12444:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12432:Komnenian era
12430:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12418:
12415:
12413:
12410:
12408:
12405:
12404:
12402:
12396:
12391:
12385:
12382:
12377:
12373:
12372:
12371:
12370:Heraclian era
12368:
12366:
12365:Justinian era
12363:
12361:
12358:
12356:
12353:
12349:
12346:
12344:
12341:
12340:
12339:
12336:
12335:
12333:
12327:
12322:
12314:
12313:
12309:
12308:
12307:
12304:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12293:
12289:
12285:
12280:
12276:
12271:
12264:
12259:
12257:
12252:
12250:
12245:
12244:
12241:
12232:
12228:
12224:
12220:
12216:
12212:
12211:
12205:
12202:
12200:960-253-028-6
12196:
12192:
12188:
12183:
12180:
12178:0-88402-288-9
12174:
12170:
12165:
12161:
12155:
12147:
12142:
12139:
12135:
12131:
12127:
12123:
12119:
12114:
12110:
12105:
12101:
12097:
12092:
12088:
12084:
12080:
12076:
12072:
12068:
12064:
12059:
12056:on 2011-07-25
12052:
12048:
12046:960-371-001-6
12042:
12035:
12034:
12028:
12025:on 2012-03-06
12021:
12014:
12013:
12007:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11992:
11988:
11985:(in French),
11984:
11980:
11975:
11974:
11963:
11957:
11953:
11949:
11945:
11941:
11936:
11933:
11931:0-19-820407-8
11927:
11923:
11918:
11915:
11909:
11905:
11904:
11900:
11895:
11891:
11888:
11886:0-8047-3163-2
11882:
11878:
11874:
11870:
11866:
11864:0-8047-2630-2
11860:
11856:
11852:
11851:
11846:
11842:
11839:
11837:90-04-09777-5
11833:
11829:
11824:
11820:
11818:0-87169-127-2
11814:
11810:
11809:
11804:
11800:
11793:
11792:
11786:
11783:
11779:
11775:
11769:
11765:
11761:
11757:
11753:
11749:
11745:
11741:
11737:
11733:
11731:0-85177-554-3
11727:
11723:
11722:
11717:
11712:
11709:
11703:
11699:
11694:
11691:
11689:0-85115-903-6
11685:
11681:
11677:
11672:
11668:
11666:0-85177-554-3
11662:
11658:
11657:
11652:
11647:
11643:
11641:0-85177-554-3
11637:
11633:
11632:
11627:
11622:
11619:
11617:0-521-42892-0
11613:
11609:
11604:
11601:
11595:
11591:
11586:
11583:
11579:
11575:
11571:
11567:
11563:
11558:
11555:
11549:
11545:
11541:
11537:
11534:
11528:
11524:
11520:
11516:
11513:
11507:
11503:
11499:
11495:
11492:
11486:
11482:
11477:
11474:
11472:1-86019-861-9
11468:
11464:
11459:
11455:
11449:
11445:
11444:
11439:
11435:
11431:
11429:0-521-34157-4
11425:
11421:
11420:
11415:
11411:
11408:
11406:0-19-814098-3
11402:
11398:
11394:
11390:
11386:
11382:
11378:
11374:
11370:
11366:
11361:
11357:
11352:
11348:
11346:0-521-52653-1
11342:
11338:
11337:
11332:
11328:
11325:
11319:
11315:
11314:
11308:
11305:
11299:
11295:
11290:
11287:
11281:
11277:
11272:
11269:
11265:
11261:
11258:(in French),
11257:
11253:
11249:
11245:
11242:
11240:0-253-20573-5
11236:
11232:
11227:
11224:
11218:
11214:
11209:
11206:
11204:0-674-16535-7
11200:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11185:
11183:960-7420-25-X
11179:
11175:
11171:
11167:
11163:
11161:0-19-504652-8
11157:
11153:
11152:
11147:
11143:
11140:
11134:
11130:
11129:
11123:
11120:
11118:0-8020-6667-4
11114:
11110:
11105:
11102:
11096:
11091:
11090:
11084:
11080:
11079:
11074:
11072:0-85177-554-3
11068:
11064:
11063:
11058:
11053:
11052:
11048:
11042:
11038:
11033:
11029:
11024:
11021:
11015:
11011:
11006:
11002:
10996:
10992:
10991:
10985:
10981:
10979:1-85728-495-X
10975:
10971:
10970:
10965:
10961:
10957:
10953:
10949:
10945:
10944:
10939:
10935:
10931:
10927:
10923:
10922:
10917:
10913:
10903:
10899:
10895:
10892:(in French),
10891:
10887:
10882:
10879:
10877:0-85115-903-6
10873:
10869:
10865:
10861:
10856:
10852:
10850:0-85177-554-3
10846:
10842:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10828:
10824:
10820:
10816:
10812:
10808:
10804:
10800:
10795:
10792:
10786:
10782:
10777:
10773:
10772:
10766:
10763:
10759:
10755:
10751:
10747:
10743:
10739:
10735:
10734:
10728:
10725:
10721:
10717:
10713:
10708:
10704:
10700:
10695:
10692:
10690:0-8018-5130-0
10686:
10682:
10678:
10674:
10671:
10665:
10661:
10660:
10655:
10651:
10642:on 2016-08-04
10638:
10634:
10630:
10623:
10618:
10614:
10610:
10606:
10605:
10600:
10596:
10593:
10589:
10585:
10581:
10576:
10573:
10567:
10563:
10559:
10555:
10552:
10550:90-04-11710-5
10546:
10542:
10541:
10535:
10532:
10528:
10524:
10520:
10516:
10512:
10508:
10504:
10503:
10497:
10493:
10488:
10485:
10483:0-8122-1620-2
10479:
10475:
10474:
10468:
10465:
10459:
10455:
10454:
10448:
10437:
10433:
10428:
10424:
10420:
10416:
10411:
10407:
10406:
10401:
10397:
10396:
10384:
10378:
10374:
10367:
10361:, p. 10.
10360:
10359:Bartusis 1997
10355:
10349:, p. 34.
10348:
10343:
10336:
10331:
10324:
10319:
10312:
10311:Runciman 1975
10307:
10300:
10295:
10288:
10283:
10276:
10271:
10264:
10259:
10252:
10247:
10240:
10235:
10228:
10223:
10216:
10211:
10204:
10199:
10193:, p. 64.
10192:
10187:
10181:, p. 97.
10180:
10175:
10168:
10163:
10156:
10151:
10144:
10139:
10132:
10127:
10120:
10115:
10108:
10103:
10096:
10095:Bartusis 1997
10091:
10084:
10079:
10072:
10067:
10060:
10055:
10048:
10043:
10037:, p. 96.
10036:
10031:
10024:
10019:
10012:
10007:
10000:
9995:
9988:
9983:
9976:
9971:
9964:
9959:
9952:
9947:
9945:
9937:
9932:
9925:
9920:
9913:
9908:
9901:
9896:
9889:
9884:
9877:
9872:
9865:
9860:
9853:
9848:
9841:
9836:
9829:
9824:
9817:
9812:
9805:
9800:
9798:
9790:
9785:
9779:, p. 69.
9778:
9773:
9766:
9761:
9754:
9749:
9743:, p. 70.
9742:
9737:
9735:
9727:
9722:
9715:
9710:
9703:
9698:
9691:
9686:
9679:
9674:
9667:
9662:
9655:
9650:
9643:
9638:
9631:
9626:
9619:
9614:
9607:
9602:
9595:
9590:
9583:
9578:
9571:
9566:
9559:
9554:
9547:
9542:
9535:
9530:
9523:
9518:
9512:, p. 84.
9511:
9506:
9504:
9496:
9491:
9484:
9479:
9472:
9467:
9460:
9455:
9448:
9443:
9436:
9431:
9424:
9419:
9412:
9407:
9400:
9395:
9388:
9383:
9376:
9371:
9364:
9359:
9352:
9347:
9341:, p. 52.
9340:
9335:
9328:
9323:
9316:
9311:
9304:
9299:
9292:
9287:
9280:
9275:
9268:
9263:
9257:, p. 64.
9256:
9251:
9244:
9239:
9237:
9229:
9224:
9217:
9216:Campbell 1995
9212:
9205:
9200:
9193:
9188:
9186:
9178:
9173:
9166:
9161:
9154:
9149:
9142:
9137:
9130:
9125:
9118:
9113:
9106:
9101:
9094:
9089:
9082:
9077:
9070:
9069:Guilland 1967
9065:
9058:
9053:
9046:
9041:
9035:, p. 60.
9034:
9033:Bartusis 1997
9029:
9022:
9017:
9010:
9009:Bartusis 1997
9005:
8998:
8997:Bartusis 1997
8993:
8987:, p. 46.
8986:
8985:Bartusis 1997
8981:
8975:, p. 42.
8974:
8969:
8967:
8959:
8958:Bartusis 1997
8954:
8947:
8942:
8940:
8933:, p. 16.
8932:
8927:
8920:
8919:Macrides 2007
8915:
8909:, p. 37.
8908:
8903:
8901:
8893:
8888:
8881:
8876:
8869:
8864:
8857:
8852:
8845:
8840:
8838:
8830:
8825:
8818:
8813:
8806:
8801:
8794:
8789:
8783:, p. 97.
8782:
8777:
8775:
8767:
8762:
8755:
8750:
8743:
8738:
8732:, p. 20.
8731:
8726:
8719:
8718:Guilland 1967
8714:
8707:
8702:
8695:
8690:
8684:, p. 70.
8683:
8678:
8671:
8666:
8659:
8654:
8652:
8644:
8639:
8632:
8627:
8620:
8615:
8608:
8603:
8596:
8591:
8584:
8579:
8572:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8549:, p. 76.
8548:
8543:
8536:
8531:
8524:
8519:
8512:
8507:
8505:
8503:
8495:
8490:
8483:
8478:
8476:
8468:
8463:
8461:
8453:
8448:
8441:
8436:
8429:
8424:
8417:
8412:
8405:
8400:
8393:
8388:
8381:
8376:
8369:
8364:
8357:
8352:
8345:
8340:
8334:, p. 76.
8333:
8328:
8321:
8316:
8309:
8304:
8302:
8294:
8289:
8282:
8277:
8270:
8265:
8263:
8261:
8254:, p. 82.
8253:
8248:
8242:, p. 32.
8241:
8236:
8229:
8224:
8218:, p. 77.
8217:
8212:
8210:
8202:
8197:
8190:
8185:
8178:
8173:
8166:
8161:
8159:
8151:
8150:Guilland 1967
8146:
8140:, p. 99.
8139:
8134:
8132:
8130:
8128:
8126:
8118:
8113:
8106:
8101:
8095:, p. 73.
8094:
8089:
8083:, p. 74.
8082:
8077:
8075:
8073:
8065:
8060:
8053:
8048:
8041:
8036:
8030:, p. 22.
8029:
8024:
8018:, p. 78.
8017:
8012:
8006:, p. 28.
8005:
8000:
7994:, p. 22.
7993:
7988:
7981:
7976:
7969:
7964:
7957:
7952:
7946:, p. 68.
7945:
7940:
7933:
7928:
7922:, p. 60.
7921:
7916:
7909:
7904:
7898:, p. 19.
7897:
7892:
7885:
7880:
7873:
7868:
7861:
7860:Bartusis 1997
7856:
7850:, p. 45.
7849:
7844:
7837:
7832:
7825:
7820:
7813:
7808:
7801:
7796:
7789:
7784:
7778:, p. 23.
7777:
7772:
7770:
7762:
7761:Bartusis 1997
7757:
7751:, p. 99.
7750:
7749:Bartusis 1997
7745:
7738:
7733:
7726:
7725:Bartusis 1997
7721:
7714:
7709:
7702:
7701:Bartusis 1997
7697:
7690:
7685:
7678:
7673:
7671:
7663:
7658:
7651:
7646:
7639:
7634:
7627:
7622:
7615:
7610:
7603:
7598:
7591:
7586:
7584:
7576:
7571:
7564:
7559:
7552:
7547:
7540:
7535:
7528:
7523:
7516:
7511:
7504:
7503:Loenertz 1959
7499:
7493:, p. 75.
7492:
7487:
7480:
7475:
7468:
7463:
7456:
7451:
7444:
7439:
7432:
7427:
7421:, p. 59.
7420:
7419:Bartusis 1997
7415:
7408:
7403:
7397:, p. 76.
7396:
7391:
7389:
7382:, p. 39.
7381:
7380:Bartusis 1997
7376:
7374:
7366:
7361:
7355:, p. 24.
7354:
7353:Bartusis 1997
7349:
7342:
7337:
7335:
7327:
7322:
7315:
7314:Macrides 2007
7310:
7303:
7298:
7291:
7286:
7279:
7274:
7267:
7262:
7255:
7250:
7243:
7238:
7231:
7226:
7219:
7214:
7207:
7202:
7200:
7198:
7191:, p. 22.
7190:
7185:
7178:
7173:
7167:, p. 97.
7166:
7161:
7154:
7149:
7142:
7137:
7135:
7127:
7122:
7115:
7114:Phillips 2004
7110:
7103:
7098:
7091:
7086:
7084:
7076:
7071:
7064:
7059:
7052:
7047:
7040:
7035:
7028:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7012:, p. 69.
7011:
7006:
6999:
6994:
6988:, p. 96.
6987:
6982:
6980:
6978:
6976:
6968:
6963:
6957:, p. 58.
6956:
6951:
6944:
6939:
6932:
6927:
6920:
6915:
6909:, p. 39.
6908:
6903:
6901:
6894:, p. 99.
6893:
6888:
6881:
6876:
6870:, p. 94.
6869:
6864:
6857:
6852:
6846:, p. 91.
6845:
6840:
6834:, p. 88.
6833:
6828:
6821:
6816:
6809:
6804:
6797:
6792:
6785:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6772:
6764:
6759:
6752:
6747:
6741:, p. 93.
6740:
6735:
6733:
6731:
6729:
6722:, p. 73.
6721:
6716:
6709:
6704:
6697:
6692:
6690:
6682:
6677:
6670:
6665:
6658:
6653:
6647:, p. 71.
6646:
6641:
6634:
6629:
6623:, p. 72.
6622:
6617:
6615:
6613:
6606:, p. 64.
6605:
6600:
6594:, p. 94.
6593:
6588:
6582:, p. 63.
6581:
6576:
6569:
6564:
6557:
6552:
6545:
6540:
6533:
6528:
6521:
6516:
6509:
6504:
6498:, p. 65.
6497:
6492:
6485:
6480:
6478:
6470:
6465:
6459:, p. 66.
6458:
6453:
6446:
6441:
6434:
6429:
6423:, p. 33.
6422:
6417:
6410:
6405:
6398:
6393:
6386:
6381:
6375:, p. 62.
6374:
6369:
6367:
6359:
6354:
6348:, p. 61.
6347:
6342:
6335:
6330:
6328:
6320:
6315:
6308:
6307:Runciman 1975
6303:
6301:
6293:
6288:
6281:
6276:
6269:
6264:
6258:, p. 50.
6257:
6252:
6246:, p. 60.
6245:
6240:
6234:, p. 30.
6233:
6228:
6221:
6216:
6209:
6204:
6198:, p. 48.
6197:
6192:
6190:
6182:
6177:
6171:, p. 92.
6170:
6165:
6159:, p. 92.
6158:
6153:
6151:
6149:
6147:
6145:
6143:
6136:, p. 47.
6135:
6130:
6128:
6120:
6115:
6108:
6103:
6096:
6091:
6085:, p. 45.
6084:
6079:
6077:
6069:
6064:
6058:, p. 41.
6057:
6052:
6046:, p. 76.
6045:
6040:
6033:
6032:Runciman 1975
6028:
6021:
6016:
6009:
6004:
5998:, p. 29.
5997:
5992:
5985:
5980:
5978:
5970:
5965:
5958:
5953:
5946:
5941:
5935:, p. 31.
5934:
5929:
5927:
5919:
5914:
5908:, p. 33.
5907:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5887:, p. 28.
5886:
5881:
5874:
5869:
5863:, p. 27.
5862:
5857:
5851:, p. 72.
5850:
5845:
5838:
5833:
5827:, p. 24.
5826:
5821:
5815:, p. 25.
5814:
5809:
5807:
5805:
5798:, p. 53.
5797:
5792:
5786:, p. 87.
5785:
5780:
5774:, p. 62.
5773:
5768:
5762:, p. 98.
5761:
5756:
5754:
5752:
5750:
5743:, p. 47.
5742:
5737:
5735:
5727:
5722:
5716:, p. 91.
5715:
5710:
5708:
5706:
5698:
5697:Campbell 1995
5693:
5686:
5681:
5674:
5669:
5662:
5657:
5651:, p. 77.
5650:
5645:
5639:, p. 15.
5638:
5633:
5626:
5621:
5615:, p. 14.
5614:
5609:
5602:
5597:
5591:, p. 90.
5590:
5585:
5583:
5581:
5579:
5577:
5575:
5568:, p. 13.
5567:
5562:
5556:, p. 10.
5555:
5550:
5543:
5538:
5531:
5526:
5519:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5502:
5497:
5490:
5485:
5478:
5473:
5471:
5463:
5458:
5451:
5446:
5440:, p. 20.
5439:
5434:
5428:, p. 85.
5427:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5411:, p. 67.
5410:
5405:
5403:
5401:
5385:
5379:
5372:
5371:Verpeaux 1966
5367:
5365:
5363:
5358:
5346:
5344:
5343:Louis Bréhier
5338:
5334:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5323:thalassocracy
5319:
5317:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5287:
5282:
5276:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5261:
5253:
5250:
5243:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5228:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5201:
5197:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5147:
5142:
5139:
5133:
5127:
5122:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5076:
5072:
5067:
5058:
5056:
5050:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5031:
5030:antiparataxis
5019:
5015:
5012:
5006:
5000:
4999:
4992:
4989:
4983:
4978:
4974:
4969:
4967:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4937:
4931:
4926:
4916:
4914:
4913:sailing ships
4910:
4906:
4901:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4880:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4860:
4849:
4845:, adopted as
4843:
4837:
4831:
4825:
4813:
4807:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4769:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4749:De Ceremoniis
4733:
4727:
4722:
4718:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4667:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4650:
4642:
4623:
4611:
4604:
4599:
4598:De Ceremoniis
4594:
4588:
4576:
4570:
4558:
4550:
4546:
4541:
4532:
4530:
4526:
4514:
4508:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4477:). The prow (
4475:
4469:
4463:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4390:
4389:
4382:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4321:
4319:
4314:
4302:
4301:
4294:
4261:
4256:
4252:
4246:
4231:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4206:
4200:
4196:, the junior
4194:
4188:
4182:
4176:
4171:
4167:
4162:
4156:
4138:
4137:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4118:and Rhodes),
4117:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4101:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4058:
4046:
4034:
4033:
4026:
4021:
4010:
4009:
3996:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3971:
3967:
3956:
3953:
3947:
3941:
3928:
3911:
3909:
3904:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3879:
3873:
3868:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3799:
3798:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3769:
3764:
3763:
3757:
3753:
3748:
3747:
3740:
3739:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3682:
3681:
3674:
3673:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3631:protomandator
3625:
3624:chartoularios
3619:
3618:protonotarios
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3554:
3551:
3545:
3531:
3525:
3519:
3513:
3507:
3506:De Ceremoniis
3496:
3490:
3486:
3485:
3484:De Ceremoniis
3479:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3458:
3457:galley slaves
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3379:
3372:
3360:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3331:
3320:
3315:
3304:
3299:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3224:θέμα Σικελίας
3220:
3216:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3185:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3165:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3084:
3073:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3010:
3003:
3002:
2996:
2991:
2971:
2965:
2954:
2949:
2942:θέμα ναυτικόν
2932:
2930:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2910:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2877:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2809:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2792:
2784:
2775:
2774:Ancient Greek
2770:
2769:
2759:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2741:
2740:
2733:
2721:
2715:
2706:
2705:Ancient Greek
2702:
2686:
2672:
2670:
2669:Gulf of Aqaba
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2562:Carlo I Tocco
2559:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2441:
2440:Ottoman Turks
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2401:
2400:1296–1302 war
2397:
2393:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2308:
2303:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2032:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1939:protonotarios
1933:
1932:
1925:
1924:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1819:
1815:
1812:The siege of
1810:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1712:and took its
1711:
1707:
1706:raid Bulgaria
1703:
1699:
1695:
1685:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1522:
1515:
1506:
1504:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1370:
1369:Pax Nicephori
1364:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1342:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1300:
1299:Constantine V
1295:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1269:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1207:
1196:
1185:
1184:Anastasios II
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1157:Constantine V
1154:
1149:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1089:
1086:In the 680s,
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1043:Chronicle of
1039:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
998:
994:
990:
981:
976:
961:
959:
955:
950:
949:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
916:
912:
909:, and raided
908:
904:
900:
896:
891:
889:
885:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
836:
832:
828:
818:
816:
812:
808:
803:
792:
788:
784:
779:
777:
773:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
744:
718:
713:
711:
706:
704:
699:
698:
696:
695:
689:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
674:Siege warfare
672:
670:
667:
666:
665:
664:
660:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
638:
634:
633:
627:
624:
622:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
604:
601:
600:
599:
598:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
567:
566:
563:
561:
558:
554:
551:
550:
549:
546:
541:
538:
537:
536:
533:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
515:
513:
511:
508:
507:
506:
505:
501:
500:
496:
492:
491:
488:
485:
484:
480:
479:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
427:
425:
420:
415:
414:
407:
405:
401:
397:
392:
388:
383:
379:
375:
371:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
329:
325:
319:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
230:
226:
222:
218:
215:
211:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
189:
185:
182:
179:
175:
171:
158: 42,000
153:
149:
146:
142:
138:
135:
131:
128:
125:
121:
117:
111:
99:
98:
90:
89:
84:
79:
78:
71:
68:
64:
52:
51:
46:
42:
38:
32:
27:
22:
19:
13886:
13654:Hagia Sophia
13636:Thessalonica
13611:Hagia Sophia
13591:Chora Church
13529:Architecture
13406:Great Schism
13396:Paulicianism
13374:Miaphysitism
13229:Karabisianoi
13220:
12533:or territory
12493:Thessalonica
12477:Latin Empire
12472:Frankokratia
12447:
12407:Isaurian era
12394:
12325:
12310:
12306:Roman Empire
12296:
12214:
12208:
12190:
12186:
12168:
12145:
12121:
12117:
12108:
12099:
12095:
12078:
12074:
12070:
12066:
12062:
12051:the original
12032:
12020:the original
12011:
11986:
11982:
11951:
11939:
11921:
11902:
11898:
11876:
11849:
11827:
11807:
11790:
11747:
11743:
11720:
11697:
11679:
11655:
11630:
11607:
11589:
11565:
11561:
11543:
11522:
11501:
11480:
11462:
11442:
11418:
11396:
11393:Mango, Cyril
11371:(1): 63–94.
11368:
11364:
11355:
11335:
11312:
11293:
11275:
11259:
11255:
11230:
11212:
11194:
11173:
11149:
11127:
11108:
11088:
11061:
11036:
11027:
11009:
10989:
10968:
10964:Haldon, John
10947:
10942:
10920:
10905:, retrieved
10893:
10889:
10867:
10839:
10802:
10798:
10780:
10770:
10737:
10731:
10711:
10702:
10698:
10680:
10658:
10644:, retrieved
10637:the original
10632:
10628:
10603:
10583:
10579:
10561:
10539:
10506:
10500:
10491:
10472:
10452:
10440:. Retrieved
10435:
10422:
10418:
10404:
10392:Bibliography
10383:Scafuri 2002
10376:
10372:
10366:
10354:
10342:
10335:Scafuri 2002
10330:
10318:
10306:
10294:
10282:
10270:
10258:
10246:
10234:
10222:
10210:
10198:
10186:
10174:
10162:
10150:
10138:
10126:
10114:
10102:
10090:
10078:
10066:
10054:
10042:
10030:
10018:
10006:
9994:
9982:
9970:
9958:
9931:
9919:
9907:
9895:
9883:
9871:
9859:
9847:
9835:
9823:
9811:
9784:
9777:McMahon 2021
9772:
9760:
9748:
9721:
9709:
9697:
9685:
9673:
9661:
9649:
9637:
9625:
9613:
9601:
9589:
9577:
9565:
9553:
9541:
9529:
9517:
9490:
9478:
9466:
9454:
9442:
9430:
9423:Delgado 2011
9418:
9406:
9394:
9382:
9370:
9358:
9346:
9334:
9322:
9310:
9298:
9286:
9274:
9262:
9250:
9223:
9211:
9199:
9172:
9160:
9148:
9136:
9129:Delgado 2011
9124:
9112:
9100:
9088:
9076:
9064:
9057:Failler 2003
9052:
9040:
9028:
9021:Kazhdan 1991
9016:
9004:
8992:
8980:
8953:
8926:
8914:
8887:
8875:
8863:
8856:Kazhdan 1991
8851:
8824:
8812:
8800:
8793:Kazhdan 1991
8788:
8761:
8749:
8737:
8725:
8713:
8701:
8689:
8677:
8665:
8638:
8626:
8614:
8602:
8590:
8583:Bréhier 2000
8578:
8566:
8554:
8542:
8530:
8518:
8489:
8447:
8435:
8423:
8411:
8404:Kazhdan 1991
8399:
8387:
8375:
8363:
8351:
8344:Kazhdan 1991
8339:
8327:
8315:
8288:
8276:
8269:Kazhdan 1991
8247:
8235:
8223:
8196:
8184:
8172:
8145:
8112:
8100:
8088:
8059:
8047:
8035:
8023:
8011:
7999:
7987:
7975:
7968:Bréhier 2000
7963:
7951:
7939:
7927:
7915:
7903:
7891:
7879:
7872:Nicolle 2005
7867:
7855:
7848:Nicolle 2005
7843:
7831:
7819:
7807:
7795:
7788:Norwich 1996
7783:
7756:
7744:
7732:
7720:
7708:
7696:
7684:
7662:Bréhier 2000
7657:
7645:
7633:
7621:
7609:
7597:
7570:
7558:
7546:
7534:
7527:Angelov 2007
7522:
7510:
7498:
7486:
7474:
7462:
7450:
7438:
7426:
7414:
7402:
7360:
7348:
7321:
7309:
7297:
7285:
7273:
7261:
7249:
7237:
7230:Norwich 1996
7225:
7213:
7184:
7172:
7160:
7148:
7121:
7109:
7097:
7075:Norwich 1996
7070:
7058:
7046:
7034:
7010:Nicolle 2005
7005:
6993:
6962:
6950:
6938:
6926:
6914:
6887:
6880:Bréhier 2000
6875:
6863:
6851:
6839:
6827:
6815:
6803:
6791:
6781:
6758:
6746:
6715:
6708:Norwich 1999
6703:
6696:McMahon 2021
6676:
6664:
6652:
6640:
6628:
6599:
6587:
6575:
6563:
6556:Norwich 1999
6551:
6539:
6532:Tougher 1997
6527:
6515:
6508:Tougher 1997
6503:
6491:
6484:Tougher 1997
6464:
6452:
6440:
6428:
6416:
6404:
6392:
6385:Scafuri 2002
6380:
6353:
6341:
6314:
6292:Jenkins 1987
6287:
6275:
6268:Jenkins 1987
6263:
6251:
6239:
6227:
6215:
6203:
6176:
6164:
6114:
6102:
6090:
6063:
6051:
6039:
6027:
6015:
6008:Bashear 1991
6003:
5991:
5964:
5957:Norwich 1990
5952:
5940:
5913:
5880:
5873:Norwich 1990
5868:
5856:
5844:
5832:
5820:
5791:
5784:Nicolle 1996
5779:
5767:
5741:Nicolle 1996
5721:
5692:
5685:Norwich 1990
5680:
5668:
5656:
5649:Norwich 1990
5644:
5632:
5620:
5608:
5601:Norwich 1990
5596:
5561:
5549:
5542:Norwich 1990
5537:
5525:
5520:, p. 9.
5503:, p. 8.
5496:
5491:, p. 7.
5484:
5462:Norwich 1990
5457:
5452:, p. 1.
5450:Scafuri 2002
5445:
5433:
5388:. Retrieved
5378:
5339:
5335:
5320:
5313:
5271:
5265:Anna Komnene
5258:
5255:
5246:
5236:Anna Komnene
5232:flamethrower
5227:cheirosiphon
5193:
5143:
5120:
5084:
5080:
5051:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5025:
4993:
4976:
4970:
4962:
4952:
4944:
4934:
4922:
4902:
4891:great galley
4886:alla sensile
4881:
4785:
4748:
4662:
4600:, the heavy
4597:
4572:of 108; the
4553:
4548:
4509:
4486:pseudopation
4426:parexeiresia
4418:
4345:
4327:
4248:
4169:
4104:
4096:Kontoskalion
4002:
3962:
3959:Nicaean navy
3922:
3885:siphonatores
3878:protokaraboi
3864:
3854:protokarabos
3848:protokaraboi
3830:protokarabos
3824:protokaraboi
3772:
3768:port admiral
3751:
3701:
3606:Karabisianoi
3560:
3505:
3482:
3480:
3454:
3383:
3366:
3335:
3308:θέμα Χαλδίας
3178:θέμα Ἑλλάδος
3152:
3136:
3029:
2980:and another
2970:Karabisianoi
2938:
2925: 842/3
2915:
2866:
2855:Karabisianoi
2851:
2778:Καραβισιάνοι
2768:Karabisianoi
2763:
2758:Karabisianoi
2698:
2647:
2645:
2640:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2584:
2576:Organization
2547:
2507:
2445:
2436:
2424:Hospitallers
2404:
2389:
2369:
2313:
2275:
2250:
2219:
2191:
2150:
2139:invade Egypt
2137:was sent to
2102:
2098:Great Palace
2078:
2071:basis only.
2068:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2013:
2000:Seljuk Turks
1982:
1958:
1949:
1946:
1918:
1881:
1854:
1823:
1817:
1787:
1762:
1757:
1754:Thessalonica
1722:Cibyrrhaeots
1691:
1669:heavy defeat
1637:night battle
1624:Nea Ekklesia
1600:
1592:heavy defeat
1536:
1499:
1473:
1433:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1391:
1374:
1351:
1317:
1296:
1282:Abu Hurayrah
1254:
1225:
1166:
1111:North Africa
1088:Justinian II
1085:
1057:
1048:
1041:
1029:
986:
954:Persian army
927:
919:Sena Gallica
903:relieve Rome
892:
869:Vandalic War
854:
835:Anastasius I
824:
780:
755:. After the
753:Roman Empire
750:
733:Early period
602:
590:Protostrator
465:Ottoman Navy
428:
424:Muslim world
413:Karabisianoi
408:
367:
355:Roman Empire
338:
336:
323:
160:men in 899.
123:Headquarters
48:
36:
18:
14137:Megali Idea
14112:Byzantinism
13815:Agriculture
13606:Hagia Irene
13439:Kievan Rus'
13416:Mount Athos
13239:Cibyrrhaeot
13183:Vestiaritai
13038:Mercenaries
12915:Catepanates
12774:Sakellarios
12693:Family tree
12618:Mesopotamia
12437:Angelid era
12417:Amorian era
12071:Prosalentai
11262:: 158–167,
11174:Στρατηγικὸν
11083:Ibn Khaldūn
10896:: 229–239,
10771:The Alexiad
10599:Bury, J. B.
10385:, p. 2
10381:, cited in
10143:Pryor 1995a
10083:Dotson 2003
9816:Dotson 1995
9753:Pryor 1995b
9714:Casson 1995
9702:Casson 1995
9690:Pryor 1995a
9678:Pryor 1995a
9666:Pryor 1995a
9534:Pryor 1995a
9447:Casson 1995
9399:Pryor 1995a
9375:Haldon 1999
9339:Dolley 1948
9279:Pryor 1995a
9192:Casson 1995
9105:Pryor 1995a
8868:Haldon 1999
8781:Hocker 1995
8694:Haldon 1999
8559:Haldon 1999
8535:Casson 1991
8216:Haldon 1999
8138:Hocker 1995
8081:Haldon 1999
8016:Haldon 1999
7944:Haldon 1999
7836:Setton 1978
7218:Harris 2006
7141:Harris 2006
6986:Haldon 1999
6844:Haldon 1999
6820:Haldon 1999
6783:Strategikon
6739:Hocker 1995
6157:Hocker 1995
5760:Hocker 1995
5726:Casson 1995
5714:Hocker 1995
5589:Hocker 1995
5477:Casson 1991
5198:instead of
5069:Greek fire
4973:sea control
4894: [
4413:Hellenistic
4394:shell-first
4199:droungarioi
4069:Prosalentai
4063:Προσελῶντες
4057:Proselontes
4051:Προσαλενταί
4045:Prosalentai
3991:across the
3970:Theodore II
3935: 1092
3818:bandophoros
3805:trierarchos
3762:topoteretes
3738:stratarchai
3680:droungarios
3600:droungarioi
3594:droungarios
3588:droungarioi
3582:tourmarches
3576:tourmarchai
3371:droungarios
3352:Euboic Gulf
3328:by Emperor
3280:Longobardia
3244:tourmarchai
3141:tourmarches
3118:thema Samou
3096:Dodekanesos
3067:droungarioi
3061:droungarioi
3049:Dodekanesos
3044:Marmara Sea
3033:droungarios
3020:droungarioi
3009:ek prosopou
2909:droungarios
2842:droungarios
2539:Musa Çelebi
2320:partitioned
2286:Golden Horn
2263:Leo Sgouros
2164:, as Count
2107:arrived at
2049:John Doukas
2020:Dyrrhachium
1966:Rus' attack
1951:Strategikon
1931:droungarios
1896:Kievan Rus'
1746:Dardanelles
1661:Longobardia
1649:Punta Stilo
1629:droungarios
1570:and in the
1543:Michael III
1525:of Emperor
1421:Ibn Khaldun
1064:Constans II
1050:Annus Mundi
873:Justinian I
378:Justinian I
343:naval force
106: 1092
58: 1350
39:) with the
14190:Categories
14132:Third Rome
14058:University
14041:Philosophy
14031:Inventions
13894:Historians
13862:Literature
13845:Varangians
13687:San Vitale
13616:Hippodrome
13596:City Walls
13496:Mutilation
13491:Hexabiblos
13411:Bogomilism
13401:Iconoclasm
13271:Megas doux
13261:Greek fire
13244:Aegean Sea
13117:Kleisourai
13094:Excubitors
13084:Bucellarii
12936:Despotates
12905:Kleisourai
12844:Provincial
12688:Coronation
12662:Governance
12427:Doukid era
12360:Leonid era
11901:anni mundi
11592:, Viking,
11170:Kekaumenos
11000:9004100563
10930:1011763434
10646:2016-08-04
10613:1046639111
10442:2009-03-09
10299:Pryor 2003
10239:Mango 2002
10179:Pryor 2003
10167:Dawes 1928
10071:Pryor 2003
10035:Pryor 2003
10023:Pryor 2003
9951:Pryor 2003
9765:Pryor 1988
9741:Pryor 1988
9510:Pryor 2003
9255:Basch 2001
9228:Pomey 2006
9204:Basch 2001
8973:Nicol 1993
8931:Nicol 1993
8730:Heath 1984
8547:Pryor 1988
7776:Heath 1984
7689:Nicol 1993
7650:Nicol 1993
7614:Nicol 1993
7563:Laiou 1972
7539:Laiou 1972
7491:Laiou 1972
7479:Nicol 1993
7467:Nicol 1988
7455:Laiou 1972
7431:Nicol 1993
7365:Nicol 1988
7341:Nicol 1988
7326:Bryer 1966
7177:Lilie 1994
6967:Pryor 1988
6955:Nicol 1988
6931:Nicol 1988
6919:Nicol 1988
6220:Pryor 1988
6020:Mango 2002
5772:Pryor 1988
5390:2010-08-07
5316:hinterland
5179:Greek fire
5173:Greek fire
5167:land walls
5132:ballistrai
5035:stratagems
5011:kamelaukia
4945:Naumachiai
4830:chelandion
4712:chelandion
4694:chelandion
4672:skeuophora
4549:Cynegetica
4535:Ship types
4498:xylokastra
4492:kastelloma
4353:katastrōma
4300:chelandion
4227:megas doux
4193:protokomes
4175:megas doux
4155:megas doux
4129:megas doux
4100:Monemvasia
3946:megas doux
3927:megas doux
3891:boukinator
3872:protelatai
3836:kybernetes
3789:kentarchos
3538: 240
3471:Toulmatzoi
3326: 819
3301:) and the
3272:Ionian Sea
3112:θέμα Σάμου
3091: 843
2985: 727
2978: 719
2951:) was the
2893:J. B. Bury
2693: 900
2591:Diocletian
2466:megas doux
2407:Pachymeres
2330:, and the
2314:After the
2254:megas doux
2242:Steiriones
2131:megas doux
2115:megas doux
2016:laid siege
1985:Kekaumenos
1830:Fraxinetum
1758:Naumachica
1728:plundered
1560:Arab siege
1426:Muqaddimah
1402:Andalusian
1385:, the new
1173:al-Walid I
1081:Greek fire
1073:Muawiyah I
1032:Heliopolis
1002:Alexandria
884:Gothic War
861:Belisarius
815:fire ships
811:Basiliscus
761:Punic Wars
626:Megas doux
607:Greek fire
461:Aegean Sea
442:under the
400:Greek fire
328:Roman navy
232:Caliphates
221:Ostrogoths
166: 300
97:megas doux
13960:Octoechos
13840:Silk Road
13332:Hesychasm
13200:Paramonai
13147:Hetaireia
13079:Foederati
12968:Diplomacy
12963:Diplomats
12869:Provinces
12698:Empresses
12501:Trebizond
12297:Preceding
12231:159571822
12138:108961383
12087:2523-9465
12063:Gasmouloi
12003:245989631
11830:, Brill,
11582:162300888
11385:235676141
11333:(2002) .
10956:878894516
10827:162710370
10762:192015598
10754:0007-7704
10699:Byzantion
10543:, Brill,
10531:161589616
10373:Byzantion
10347:Lane 1973
8706:Bury 1911
8165:Bury 1911
7395:Lane 1973
6786:, Ch. 87.
6657:Halm 1996
5327:Anatolian
5304:petroleum
5281:strategos
5257:From the
5205:ὑγρόν πῦρ
5097:ballistae
5087:catapults
4982:koumbaria
4933:) in the
4744:σανδάλιον
4732:sandalion
4688:chelandia
4682:hippagoga
4666:phortegoi
4636: 60
4596:. In the
4581:πᾶν+φῦλον
4575:pamphylon
4521: 30
4510:The four
4448:katartion
4421:outrigger
4307:χελάνδιον
4293:Procopius
4272:δρομ-(άω)
4220:) of the
4187:ameralios
4178:were the
4126:, became
4114:(lord of
4091:Gasmouloi
4075:Gasmouloi
4022:, called
4015:Γασμοῦλοι
4008:Gasmouloi
3989:Lampsakos
3797:nauarchos
3672:magistros
3657:hetaireia
3612:strategos
3570:strategos
3564:strategos
3512:pamphyloi
3356:Vagenetia
3347:archontes
3164:strategos
2990:strategos
2847:Pamphylia
2833:Caliphate
2802:strategos
2797:Illyricum
2739:strategos
2714:romanized
2667:) in the
2554:Echinades
2519:Manuel II
2517:in 1390,
2428:Gattilusi
2342:, Chios,
2290:fireships
2267:Pegonites
2053:Crusaders
2031:activity.
1871:chelandia
1858:strategos
1778:pamphyloi
1730:Demetrias
1716:strategos
1645:defeating
1554:relieved
1460:Lothair I
1440:Euphemios
1326:iconodule
1310:Anchialus
1262:End Times
1099:Mardaites
831:Theodoric
807:Cartagena
640:Lists of
528:Hetaireia
475:in 1453.
213:Opponents
145:Black Sea
88:strategoi
14053:Scholars
14046:Rhetoric
14036:Medicine
14011:Learning
13910:Calendar
13787:Painters
13486:Basilika
13424:Bulgaria
13386:Arianism
13337:Hayhurum
13314:Religion
13276:Admirals
13195:Allagion
13127:Droungos
13033:Generals
12995:Military
12958:Treaties
12864:Dioceses
12683:Emperors
12596:Sardinia
12576:Dalmatia
12556:Bulgaria
12546:Anatolia
12505:Theodoro
12499: /
12495: /
12487: /
12154:citation
12067:Tzakones
11950:(2005),
11875:(1998),
11847:(1997).
11805:(1978).
11542:(1999),
11521:(1996),
11500:(1990),
11440:(1993).
11416:(1988).
11395:(2002),
11250:(1959),
11193:(1972),
10966:(1999).
10918:(1959).
10724:14344967
10705:: 76–111
10679:(1995),
10656:(1991),
10601:(1911).
10586:: 3–12,
10560:(2000),
10523:25182323
10402:(1966),
5349:See also
5275:Caucasus
5148:(called
5146:crossbow
5112:triboloi
5107:caltrops
5075:caltrops
5071:grenades
5061:Armament
4824:katergon
4818:κάτεργον
4812:katergon
4753:conifers
4738:σάνδαλος
4726:sandalos
4697:and the
4563:οὑσιακόν
4557:ousiakon
4504:peronion
4474:krabatos
4331:Marmaray
4158:and the
4149:ἀμηραλῆς
4143:ἀμηράλης
4136:amerales
4081:Tzakones
4039:Τζάκωνες
4032:Tzakones
3897:koplatai
3801:or even
3688:katepano
3544:ousiakos
3524:dromones
3518:ousiakoi
3476:treaties
3464:strateia
3239:Calabria
3212:Thessaly
3015:Syllaeum
3001:katepano
2995:Attaleia
2837:Seleucia
2723:, sing.
2609:Vegetius
2552:off the
2543:Murad II
2515:John VII
2494:despotes
2460:Trigleia
2456:Bithynia
2143:Crusader
1974:Basil II
1962:Cyclades
1923:Rhōmania
1842:Fatimids
1765:Himerios
1734:Taormina
1657:Calabria
1608:Syracuse
1558:from an
1486:in 860.
1448:Brindisi
1429:, III.32
1387:Aghlabid
1383:Ifriqiya
1375:de facto
1322:Isaurian
1318:en route
1246:Keramaia
1241:thematic
1233:Damietta
1228:Laodicea
1151:Emperor
1036:sea fire
958:Bosporus
948:monoxyla
930:Lombards
888:Dalmatia
857:Sardinia
846:Vitalian
791:Geiseric
787:Carthage
781:The new
769:Licinius
747:century.
617:Admirals
565:Generals
419:regional
341:was the
313:and the
311:Crusades
280:Ottomans
240:Fatimids
207:Aydinids
118:330–1453
83:thematic
14162:Outline
14107:Museums
14007:Science
13984:Slavery
13940:Gardens
13920:Cuisine
13852:Dynatoi
13820:Coinage
13807:Economy
13775:Mosaics
13738:Mystras
13679:Ravenna
13541:Secular
13429:Moravia
13178:Pronoia
13152:Akritai
13137:Tagmata
13112:Themata
13053:Revolts
13023:Battles
12931:Kephale
12900:Themata
12830:Mesazon
12672:Central
12608:Maghreb
12561:Corsica
12551:Armenia
12541:Albania
12284:History
11782:4118229
11752:Bibcode
5300:naphtha
5290:Saladin
5267:, XI.10
5260:Alexiad
5221:gerania
5163:Cannons
5157:tzangra
5151:τζᾶγγρα
5126:neurika
5121:Tactica
5092:mangana
5047:Tactica
5043:Tactica
5039:Tactica
5005:touldon
4998:aplekta
4977:Tactica
4936:Tactica
4909:galleys
4876:usserii
4859:Angevin
4842:tarrida
4658:trireme
4616:μονήρης
4610:moneres
4455:at the
4436:elasiai
4381:embolos
4375:ἔμβολος
4370:rostrum
4318:courser
4280:
4205:kometes
4124:Licario
4025:Lakones
4020:Laconia
3985:Stadeia
3842:proreus
3827:(sing.
3731:tagmata
3705:tagmata
3692:of the
3638:kometes
3591:(sing.
3579:(sing.
3521:and 42
3481:In his
3422:Rowers
3378:tagmata
3200:Corinth
3158:taxatoi
3151:in the
2829:Miletus
2816:
2785:
2747:tagmata
2720:themata
2716::
2659:in the
2657:Cherson
2641:Notitia
2633:XI.13.1
2597:Fleet (
2452:Phocaea
2422:to the
2316:capture
2231:Genoese
2177:Decline
2122:galleys
2057:Tripoli
2045:Tzachas
1927:. The
1890:, when
1846:Rometta
1814:Chandax
1702:Magyars
1673:Milazzo
1596:Euripos
1580:Cilicia
1539:Basil I
1521:solidus
1444:Taranto
1314:victory
1129:and to
1127:Maghreb
1103:marines
936:by the
907:Corsica
865:dromons
850:Marinus
776:Vandals
669:Tactics
650:battles
553:allagia
540:pronoia
523:tagmata
471:to the
422:of the
374:Vandals
345:of the
272:Seljuks
252:Normans
229:Abbasid
225:Umayyad
217:Vandals
177:Part of
101:(after
66:Leaders
14172:Portal
14087:Impact
13967:People
13915:Cities
13765:Enamel
13546:Sacred
13481:Ecloga
13347:Saints
13256:Dromon
13132:Bandon
13122:Tourma
13105:Middle
13028:Beacon
12910:Bandon
12893:Middle
12762:Middle
12717:Senate
12640:Thrace
12623:Serbia
12601:Sicily
12586:Greece
12571:Cyprus
12489:Epirus
12485:Nicaea
12395:Middle
12272:topics
12229:
12197:
12175:
12136:
12085:
12043:
12001:
11958:
11928:
11910:
11883:
11861:
11834:
11815:
11780:
11770:
11744:Nature
11728:
11704:
11686:
11663:
11638:
11614:
11596:
11580:
11550:
11529:
11508:
11487:
11469:
11450:
11426:
11403:
11383:
11343:
11320:
11300:
11282:
11237:
11219:
11201:
11180:
11158:
11135:
11115:
11097:
11069:
11043:
11016:
10997:
10976:
10954:
10928:
10907:29 May
10874:
10847:
10825:
10819:298170
10817:
10787:
10760:
10752:
10722:
10687:
10666:
10611:
10568:
10547:
10529:
10521:
10480:
10460:
5249:Pisans
5240:napalm
5216:cranes
5211:siphon
5200:Romans
5196:Greeks
5095:) and
5022:spurs.
4988:akatia
4870:taride
4854:ταρέτα
4848:tareta
4836:taride
4806:dromon
4795:dromon
4781:Athens
4773:galley
4706:dromon
4700:dromon
4603:dromon
4593:ousiai
4587:dromon
4545:Oppian
4513:galeai
4462:prymne
4442:histos
4431:bireme
4362:lateen
4343:type.
4286:to run
4266:δρόμων
4260:dromon
4251:dromon
4245:Dromon
4224:, the
4190:, the
4184:, the
4086:Thrace
3981:Rhodes
3937:. The
3903:elatai
3845:. The
3812:ousiai
3550:dromon
3530:Stenon
3515:, 100
3449:3,080
3446:34,200
3443:34,200
3440:14,600
3437:18,500
3434:30,000
3431:30,000
3428:32,000
3425:32,000
3340:archon
3276:Apulia
3235:Sicily
3196:Greece
3127:Smyrna
3123:Ionian
3102:Kolpos
3055:Kolpos
3036:: the
2987:. Its
2709:θέματα
2661:Crimea
2648:ad hoc
2631:&
2629:XI.2.4
2595:Danube
2550:battle
2531:Thasos
2523:John V
2483:Galata
2385:Euboea
2373:defeat
2348:Icaria
2346:, and
2340:Lesbos
2326:, the
2246:Sestos
2128:under
2109:Ancona
2087:under
2069:ad hoc
2004:Nicaea
1989:Norman
1798:Lemnos
1767:, the
1698:Simeon
1688:reign.
1620:marble
1616:Apulia
1584:Tarsos
1568:Kardia
1556:Ragusa
1407:razing
1379:Venice
1237:Tinnis
1221:Bulgar
1060:Cyprus
1014:Levant
915:Epirus
895:Totila
648:, and
612:Dromon
518:themes
432:Venice
391:Levant
382:dromon
309:, the
305:, the
301:, the
297:, the
293:, the
260:Venice
191:Venice
187:Allies
141:Danube
14157:Index
13989:Death
13979:Women
13950:Music
13930:Dress
13925:Dance
13870:Novel
13830:Trade
13825:Mints
13770:Glass
13760:Icons
13556:Domes
13434:Serbs
13249:Samos
13062:Early
12852:Early
12726:Early
12635:Syria
12613:Malta
12591:Italy
12581:Egypt
12566:Crete
12497:Morea
12326:Early
12227:S2CID
12189:[
12134:S2CID
12054:(PDF)
12037:(PDF)
12023:(PDF)
12016:(PDF)
11999:S2CID
11795:(PDF)
11778:S2CID
11578:S2CID
11381:S2CID
10946:[
10862:, in
10823:S2CID
10815:JSTOR
10758:S2CID
10640:(PDF)
10625:(PDF)
10527:S2CID
10519:JSTOR
5354:Notes
4898:]
4789:galea
4641:galea
4628:γαλέα
4622:galea
4569:ousia
4480:prora
4468:skene
4457:stern
4409:India
4366:Latin
4340:galea
4313:keles
4234:Ships
4116:Anafi
4108:fiefs
4054:) or
4028:) or
3776:komes
3717:megas
3644:komes
3501:οὺσία
3495:ousia
3417:1321
3330:Leo V
3086:) in
2879:, or
2835:near
2732:thema
2665:Eilat
2653:Ceuta
2637:Goths
2381:Oreos
2344:Samos
2157:Chios
1710:Samos
1633:Nasar
1612:Malta
1517:Gold
1467:ghazi
1398:Crete
1292:Kaaba
1287:ribat
1276:jihad
1268:ribat
1123:Tunis
1053:6165.
1018:Copts
997:Egypt
993:Syria
942:Avars
911:Corfu
899:Tiber
436:Genoa
256:Genoa
244:Slavs
195:Genoa
13955:Lyra
13835:silk
13446:Jews
13221:Navy
13166:Late
13006:Army
12973:Wars
12924:Late
12818:Late
12448:Late
12195:ISBN
12173:ISBN
12160:link
12083:ISSN
12069:and
12041:ISBN
11956:ISBN
11926:ISBN
11908:ISBN
11881:ISBN
11859:ISBN
11832:ISBN
11813:ISBN
11768:ISBN
11726:ISBN
11702:ISBN
11684:ISBN
11661:ISBN
11636:ISBN
11612:ISBN
11594:ISBN
11548:ISBN
11527:ISBN
11506:ISBN
11485:ISBN
11467:ISBN
11448:ISBN
11424:ISBN
11401:ISBN
11341:ISBN
11318:ISBN
11298:ISBN
11280:ISBN
11235:ISBN
11217:ISBN
11199:ISBN
11178:ISBN
11156:ISBN
11133:ISBN
11113:ISBN
11095:ISBN
11067:ISBN
11041:ISBN
11014:ISBN
10995:ISBN
10974:ISBN
10952:OCLC
10926:OCLC
10909:2011
10872:ISBN
10845:ISBN
10785:ISBN
10750:ISSN
10720:OCLC
10685:ISBN
10664:ISBN
10609:OCLC
10566:ISBN
10545:ISBN
10478:ISBN
10458:ISBN
5295:naft
5288:for
5138:myai
5117:lime
5073:and
4911:and
4864:lang
4721:hold
4719:and
4717:beam
4527:and
4400:hull
4358:rams
4348:deck
4277:lit.
4078:and
3952:oria
3908:army
3684:and
3414:1025
3390:Year
3285:The
3250:The
3217:The
3210:and
3171:The
3017:and
2852:The
2813:lit.
2783:lit.
2726:θέμα
2568:and
2409:and
2212:The
2162:Acre
1935:and
1750:sack
1671:off
1667:. A
1604:Enna
1576:Bari
1562:and
1476:Rus'
1452:Bari
1446:and
1235:and
995:and
767:and
642:wars
434:and
359:army
337:The
289:the
264:Pisa
248:Rus'
227:and
199:Pisa
151:Size
81:and
13752:Art
13456:Law
12219:doi
12126:doi
11991:doi
11760:doi
11748:134
11570:doi
11373:doi
11264:doi
10898:doi
10807:doi
10742:doi
10738:100
10588:doi
10511:doi
5263:of
4947:of
4779:at
4729:or
4547:'s
4445:or
4316:, '
4146:or
3900:or
3779:or
3754:of
3411:959
3408:842
3405:775
3402:540
3399:518
3396:457
3393:300
3321:in
3025:Kos
2920:of
2655:),
2018:to
1760:).
1109:of
991:of
829:of
785:of
14192::
12225:.
12215:69
12213:.
12156:}}
12152:{{
12132:,
12122:35
12120:,
12098:,
12079:19
12077:.
12065:,
11997:,
11987:13
11981:,
11857:.
11776:,
11766:,
11758:,
11746:,
11576:,
11566:35
11564:,
11379:.
11369:36
11367:.
11260:17
11254:,
10894:61
10888:,
10821:,
10813:,
10803:38
10801:,
10756:,
10748:,
10736:,
10718:,
10714:,
10703:51
10701:,
10631:,
10627:,
10584:52
10582:,
10525:,
10517:,
10505:,
10434:.
10423:14
10421:.
10417:.
10377:19
10375:,
9943:^
9796:^
9733:^
9502:^
9235:^
9184:^
8965:^
8938:^
8899:^
8836:^
8773:^
8650:^
8501:^
8474:^
8459:^
8300:^
8259:^
8208:^
8157:^
8124:^
8071:^
7768:^
7669:^
7582:^
7387:^
7372:^
7333:^
7196:^
7133:^
7082:^
7017:^
6974:^
6899:^
6780:,
6770:^
6727:^
6688:^
6611:^
6476:^
6365:^
6326:^
6299:^
6188:^
6141:^
6126:^
6075:^
5976:^
5925:^
5892:^
5803:^
5748:^
5733:^
5704:^
5573:^
5508:^
5469:^
5416:^
5399:^
5361:^
5154:,
4896:it
4851:,
4741:,
4633:c.
4531:.
4518:c.
4378:,
4372:;
4368::
4275:,
4214:,
3995:.
3975:r.
3932:c.
3910:.
3676:,
3535:c.
3487:,
3478:.
3323:c.
3311:,
3295:,
3260:,
3227:,
3189:c.
3181:,
3129:.
3115:,
3088:c.
3080:,
2982:c.
2975:c.
2961:,
2945:,
2922:c.
2885:,
2873:,
2811:,
2780:,
2776::
2729:,
2711:,
2707::
2690:c.
2643:.
2627:,
2564:,
2545:.
2469:,
2418:,
2402:.
2257:,
1598:.
1423:,
1304:r.
1294:.
1252:.
1211:r.
1200:r.
1189:r.
1178:r.
1093:r.
1047:,
940:,
878:r.
840:r.
796:r.
644:,
605::
361:,
278:,
274:,
270:,
266:,
262:,
258:,
254:,
250:,
242:,
238:,
234:,
223:,
219:,
205:,
201:,
197:,
193:,
163:c.
155:c.
143:,
139:,
103:c.
55:c.
12507:)
12503:–
12491:–
12378:"
12374:"
12262:e
12255:t
12248:v
12233:.
12221::
12162:)
12128::
12100:I
12089:.
11993::
11867:.
11821:.
11762::
11754::
11734:.
11669:.
11644:.
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11456:.
11432:.
11387:.
11375::
11349:.
11266::
11164:.
11075:.
11003:.
10982:.
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10932:.
10900::
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10744::
10633:6
10615:.
10590::
10513::
10507:1
10445:.
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9728:.
9596:.
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60:)
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.