504:. Photographs can be taken of a person stretching out a hand with a wideangle, a normal lens, and a telephoto, which contain exactly the same image size by changing the distance from the subject. But the perspective will be different. With the wideangle, the hands will be exaggeratedly large relative to the head. As the focal length increases, the emphasis on the outstretched hand decreases. However, if pictures are taken from the same distance, and enlarged and cropped to contain the same view, the pictures will have identical perspective. A moderate long-focus (telephoto) lens is often recommended for portraiture because the perspective corresponding to the longer shooting distance is considered to look more flattering.
195:
805:. Commonly, the lens may zoom from moderate wide-angle, through normal, to moderate telephoto; or from normal to extreme telephoto. The zoom range is limited by manufacturing constraints; the ideal of a lens of large maximum aperture which will zoom from extreme wideangle to extreme telephoto is not attainable. Zoom lenses are widely used for small-format cameras of all types: still and cine cameras with fixed or interchangeable lenses. Bulk and price limit their use for larger film sizes. Motorized zoom lenses may also have the focus, iris, and other functions motorized.
207:
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27:
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take pictures of distant objects). This allows the pinhole to be opened up significantly (fourth image) because a thin convex lens bends light rays in proportion to their distance to the axis of the lens, with rays striking the center of the lens passing straight through. The geometry is almost the same as with a simple pinhole lens, but rather than being illuminated by single rays of light, each image point is illuminated by a focused
580:
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236:. In this simple case, the aperture, entrance pupil, and exit pupil are all in the same place because the only optical element is in the plane of the aperture, but in general these three will be in different places. Practical photographic lenses include more lens elements. The additional elements allow lens designers to reduce various aberrations, but the principle of operation remains the same:
259:
783:
be any lens modified (with adapters or spacers, which are also known as "extension tubes".) to bring the focal plane "forward" for very close photography. Depending on the camera to subject distance and aperture, the depth-of-field can be very narrow, limiting the linear depth of the area that will be in focus. Lenses are usually stopped down to give a greater depth-of-field.
348:
for many years, and have acquired a bad reputation: manufacturers of quality optics tend to use euphemisms such as "optical resin". However many modern, high performance (and high priced) lenses from popular manufacturers include molded or hybrid aspherical elements, so it is not true that all lenses with plastic elements are of low photographic quality.
607:
aberrations, which are worse at the edge of the field and when the edge of a large lens is used for image-forming. A long-focus lens of small aperture can be of very simple construction to attain comparable image quality: a doublet (two elements) will often suffice. Some older cameras were fitted with convertible lenses (German:
641:
of early lenses, particularly zoom lenses, especially where the lens was directly illuminated by a light source. The introduction many years ago of optical coatings, and advances in coating technology over the years, have resulted in major improvements, and modern high-quality zoom lenses give images
347:
which are difficult or impossible to manufacture in glass, and which simplify or improve lens manufacturing and performance. Plastics are not used for the outermost elements of all but the cheapest lenses as they scratch easily. Molded plastic lenses have been used for the cheapest disposable cameras
782:
very small subjects. A macro lens may be of any focal length, the actual focus length being determined by its practical use, considering magnification, the required ratio, access to the subject, and illumination considerations. It can be a special lens corrected optically for close up work or it can
152:
Practical lenses can be thought of as an answer to the question: "how can a pinhole lens be modified to admit more light and give a smaller spot size?". A first step is to put a simple convex lens at the pinhole with a focal length equal to the distance to the film plane (assuming the camera will
687:
The lens mount design is an important issue for compatibility between cameras and lenses. There is no universal standard for lens mounts, and each major camera maker typically uses its own proprietary design, incompatible with other makers. A few older manual focus lens mount designs, such as the
606:
The complexity of a lens — the number of elements and their degree of asphericity — depends upon the angle of view, the maximum aperture, and intended price point, among other variables. An extreme wideangle lens of large aperture must be of very complex construction to correct for optical
413:
615:) of normal focal length. The front element could be unscrewed, leaving a lens of twice the focal length, and half the angle of view and half the aperture. The simpler half-lens was of adequate quality for the narrow angle of view and small relative aperture. This would require the
393:, to regulate the time during which light may pass, may be incorporated within the lens assembly (for better quality imagery), within the camera, or even, rarely, in front of the lens. Some cameras with leaf shutters in the lens omit the aperture, and the shutter does double duty.
303:
by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to the image plane, or by moving elements of the lens assembly. To improve performance, some lenses have a cam system that adjusts the distance between the groups as the lens is focused. Manufacturers call this different things:
228:; ideally, all rays of light leaving a point on the object that enter the entrance pupil will be focused to the same point on the image sensor/film (provided the object point is in the field of view). If one were inside the camera, one would see the lens acting as a
464:
than smaller apertures, other conditions being equal. Practical lens assemblies may also contain mechanisms to deal with measuring light, secondary apertures for flare reduction, and mechanisms to hold the aperture open until the instant of exposure to allow
774:) is any lens that produces an image on the focal plane (i.e., film or a digital sensor) that is one quarter of life size (1:4) to the same size (1:1) as the subject being imaged. There is no official standard to define a macro lens, usually a
472:
Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but older lenses might be marked in centimetres (cm) or inches. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be classified as a:
137:
is blurry because each pixel is essentially the shadow of the aperture stop, so its size is no smaller than the size of the aperture (third image). Here a pixel is the area of the detector exposed to light from a point on the
416:
How focal length affects photograph composition: adjusting the camera's distance from the main subject while changing focal length, the main subject can remain the same size, while the other at a different distance changes
429:. The lens' focal length determines the magnification of the image projected onto the image plane, and the aperture the light intensity of that image. For a given photographic system the focal length determines the
642:
of quite acceptable contrast, although zoom lenses with many elements will transmit less light than lenses made with fewer elements (all other factors such as aperture, focal length, and coatings being equal).
129:. As shown, a pinhole "lens" is simply a small aperture that blocks most rays of light, ideally selecting one ray to the object for each point on the image sensor. Pinhole lenses have a few severe limitations:
112:
that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system. It is the job of the lens designer to balance these and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production.
633:, meaning "four"). The widest-range zooms often have fifteen or more. The reflection of light at each of the many interfaces between different optical media (air, glass, plastic) seriously degraded the
433:, short focal lengths giving a wider field of view than longer focal length lenses. A wider aperture, identified by a smaller f-number, allows using a faster shutter speed for the same exposure. The
194:
778:, but a 1:1 ratio is, typically, considered "true" macro. Magnification from life size to larger is called "Micro" photography (2:1, 3:1 etc.). This configuration is generally used to image
704:
mount for DSLRs, have also been licensed to other makers. Most large-format cameras take interchangeable lenses as well, which are usually mounted in a lensboard or on the front standard.
676:, 645-1000s)other companies that produce medium format equipment such as Bronica, Hasselblad and Fuji have similar camera styles that allow interchangeability in the lenses as well, and
1178:
374:
light that could taint color. Most modern optical cements for bonding glass elements also block UV light, negating the need for a UV filter. However, this leaves an avenue for
166:
90:
1407:"Dr. J. Kämmerer «When is it advisable to improve the quality of camera lenses?» Excerpt from a lecture given during the Optics & Photography Symposium, Les Baux, 1979"
323:
Glass is the most common material used to construct lens elements, due to its good optical properties and resistance to scratching. Other materials are also used, such as
1293:
355:
is one way to measure the resolving power of a lens. The quality of the material, coatings, and build affect the resolution. Lens resolution is ultimately limited by
1225:
1385:
492:: any lens with a focal length longer than the diagonal measure of the film or sensor. Angle of view is narrower. The most common type of long-focus lens is the
622:
Good-quality lenses with maximum aperture no greater than f/2.8 and fixed, normal, focal length need at least three (triplet) or four elements (the trade name "
460:), a dimensionless number. The lower the f-number, the higher light intensity at the focal plane. Larger apertures (smaller f-numbers) provide a much shallower
3126:
1347:
1081:
If the object is at a distance, one can assume the light rays will arrive perpendicular to the plane of the lens, and thus converge at the focal point.
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206:
182:
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A side effect of using lenses of different focal lengths is the different distances from which a subject can be framed, resulting in a different
881:
lenses which give a soft, but not out-of-focus, image and have an imperfection-removing effect popular among portrait and fashion photographers.
359:, and very few photographic lenses approach this resolution. Ones that do are called "diffraction limited" and are usually extremely expensive.
832:
89:, or other apparatus, but the details of design and construction are different. A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera, or it might be
108:
will suffice, in practice a compound lens made up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible) the many
385:, to regulate the amount of light that passes. In early camera models a rotating plate or slider with different sized holes was used. These
801:, have a focal length that varies as internal elements are moved, typically by rotating the barrel or pressing a button which activates an
378:
to attack if lenses are not cared for appropriately. UV photographers must go to great lengths to find lenses with no cement or coatings.
3116:
3063:
1091:
2843:
1141:
280:
The front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all modern lenses the surface is coated to reduce abrasion,
1170:
277:'s meniscus lens, to over 20 in the more complex zooms. These elements may themselves comprise a group of lenses cemented together.
1289:
1713:
869:: extreme wide-angle lenses with an angle of view of up to 180 degrees or more, with very noticeable (and intended) distortion.
677:
1819:
1571:
1523:
1504:
1261:
1204:
1267:
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allow the lens to be raised or lowered relative to the film of sensor plane to correct or exaggerate perspective distortion.
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932:
253:
1539:
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2605:
1229:
1381:
2814:
1448:
1325:
1317:
Applied
Photographic Optics: Lenses and Optical Systems for Photography, Film, Video, Electronic and Digital Imaging
1120:
469:
cameras to focus with a brighter image with shallower depth of field, theoretically allowing better focus accuracy.
2781:
3100:
3078:
2567:
1042:
352:
2746:
2234:
2021:
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are found across multiple brands, but this is not common today. A few mount designs, such as the
Olympus/Kodak
1351:
200:
With a small pinhole light is reduced, but diffraction prevents the image spot from getting arbitrarily small.
2655:
2587:
2340:
1867:
515:
lunar program to capture the far side of the Moon in 1966. Three of these lenses were purchased by filmmaker
922:(or orthographic lenses) make any object appear as the same size regardless of their distance from the lens.
3194:
3088:
3083:
1413:
875:, to produce pairs of photographs which give a 3-dimensional effect when viewed with an appropriate viewer.
508:
684:, which contains mechanical linkages and often also electrical contacts between the lens and camera body.
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289:
141:
Making the pinhole smaller improves resolution (up to a limit), but reduces the amount of light captured.
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2507:
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1708:
860:
480:: angle of view of the diagonal about 50° and a focal length approximately equal to the image diagonal.
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466:
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601:
496:, a design that uses special optical configurations to make the lens shorter than its focal length.
249:
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2524:
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1649:
889:
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285:
288:, and to adjust color balance. To minimize aberration, the curvature is usually set so that the
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are collected at the entrance pupil and focused down from the exit pupil onto the image plane.
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8:
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267:
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148:. Beyond this limit, making the hole smaller makes the image blurrier as well as darker.
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109:
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At a certain point, shrinking the hole does not improve the resolution because of the
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989:
974:
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rotate while attached to a camera body to give unique perspectives and camera angles.
840:
765:
732:
634:
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are equal. In a prime lens this is easy, but in a zoom there is always a compromise.
145:
59:
3032:
2977:
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638:
274:
122:
63:
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843:) and are generally intended for use at a specific distance and at small aperture.
707:
The most common interchangeable lens mounts on the market today include the Canon
401:
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A tilt/shift lens, set to its maximum degree of tilt relative to the camera body.
740:
516:
489:
483:
386:
363:
229:
154:
26:
530:
An example of how lens choice affects angle of view. The photos were taken by a
220:
From the front of the camera, the small hole (the aperture), would be seen. The
30:
Different kinds of camera lenses, including wide angle, telephoto and speciality
2809:
2635:
2577:
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1937:
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802:
736:
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300:
225:
126:
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2485:
2450:
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2014:
1994:
1962:
1907:
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1047:
1027:
969:
720:
430:
344:
332:
221:
47:
2400:
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3027:
3022:
3017:
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2227:
2197:
1979:
1974:
1957:
1802:
1629:
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1609:
1004:
999:
994:
947:
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521:
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324:
188:
With a large pinhole, the image spot is large, resulting in a blurry image.
94:
78:
74:
67:
768:
or "close-up" photography (not to be confused with the compositional term
370:
and other unwanted effects. Some lenses have a UV coating to keep out the
3143:
3002:
2997:
2925:
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2675:
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have detachable lenses. A few other types do as well, notably the Mamiya
507:
The widest aperture lens in history of photography is believed to be the
477:
448:
The maximum usable aperture of a lens is specified as the focal ratio or
381:
A lens will most often have an aperture adjustment mechanism, usually an
375:
371:
356:
273:
A camera lens may be made from a number of elements: from one, as in the
237:
232:. The virtual image of the aperture from inside the camera is the lens's
105:
20:
2645:
2625:
2539:
2529:
2390:
2355:
2330:
2264:
2004:
1989:
1969:
1851:
1787:
1703:
1654:
1037:
878:
822:
775:
744:
651:
442:
367:
313:
309:
281:
233:
86:
1382:"Hollywood, NASA, and the chip industry put their trust in Carl Zeiss"
16:
Optical lens or assembly of lenses used with a camera to create images
3042:
2982:
2610:
2572:
2534:
2430:
1792:
1755:
1750:
1735:
1688:
1676:
1032:
792:
405:
340:
336:
263:
82:
486:: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than normal.
212:
With a simple lens, much more light can be brought into sharp focus.
73:
There is no major difference in principle between a lens used for a
2630:
2445:
1947:
1877:
1745:
1671:
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1016:
770:
748:
531:
449:
438:
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328:
134:
98:
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55:
19:
This section is about the optical system. For the organism, see
2222:
1644:
1594:
942:
623:
412:
317:
176:
rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an image.
51:
1549:
1440:
Mastering Black-and-White
Photography: From Camera to Darkroom
224:
of the aperture as seen from the world is known as the lens's
2885:
2305:
1765:
1348:"Mutable Conclusions: World's fastest lens: Zeiss 50mm f/0.7"
728:
305:
173:
258:
1253:
Encyclopedia of
Optical Engineering: Pho-Z, pages 2049-3050
712:
421:
The two fundamental parameters of an optical lens are the
1516:
The Lens: A Practical Guide for the
Creative Photographer
1142:"Technical Room – Fluorite / UD / Super UD glass Lenses"
511:, which was designed and made specifically for the NASA
835:
have extreme correction for aberrations of geometry (
960:
Some notable photographic optical lens designs are:
926:
389:
may still be found on modern, specialized lenses. A
1218:
900:Shift lenses and tilt/shift lenses (collectively
50:or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a
3186:
759:
719:autofocus lens mounts. Others include the Nikon
619:had to be extended to twice the normal length.
534:camera at a constant distance from the subject.
343:. Plastics allow the manufacturing of strongly
1092:"PhotoNotes.org Dictionary – Floating element"
850:(specialised projectors), rather than cameras.
525:, using candlelight as the sole light source.
62:or on other media capable of storing an image
1565:
1290:"Canon EF 20-35mm f/3.5~4.5 USM – Index Page"
1340:
1171:"Lenses: Fluorite, aspherical and UD lenses"
609:
396:
3117:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1436:
2844:Comparison of digital and film photography
1572:
1558:
680:. The lenses attach to the camera using a
3069:Photographs considered the most important
1491:
1313:
1084:
846:Enlarger lenses are made to be used with
519:in order to film scenes in his 1975 film
1249:
1228:. luminous-landscape.com. Archived from
941:
812:
411:
400:
257:
25:
1307:
1243:
1198:
825:(apo) lenses have added correction for
678:mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras
445:on the focal plane of the camera lens.
308:calls it CRC (close range correction);
3187:
1430:
456:divided by the effective aperture (or
408:in 1-stop increments on the same lens.
116:
1553:
1374:
593:
320:call it FLE (floating lens element).
1270:from the original on 27 October 2023
3064:Museums devoted to one photographer
1513:
1201:"The Macrolens Collection Database"
933:History of photographic lens design
254:History of photographic lens design
13:
2606:Timeline of photography technology
1497:A History of the Photographic Lens
1282:
808:
754:
731:Four Thirds and Olympus/Panasonic
441:reaching the camera sensor to the
14:
3206:
1533:
927:History and technical development
739:and autofocus variants, the Sony
723:manual and autofocus mounts, the
3167:
3157:
3156:
1226:"Understanding Lens Diffraction"
1094:. photonotes.org. Archived from
668:and SLR, medium format cameras (
578:
566:
554:
542:
312:calls it a floating system; and
205:
193:
181:
165:
125:can be thought of as "improved"
3168:
1579:
1472:
1463:
1399:
1388:from the original on 2010-10-01
1365:
1296:from the original on 2014-10-25
1207:from the original on 2008-01-17
1181:from the original on 2011-08-14
1123:from the original on 2007-11-25
1043:Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras
937:
353:1951 USAF resolution test chart
243:
172:Principle of a pinhole camera.
1192:
1163:
1134:
1109:
1075:
645:
133:A pinhole camera with a large
1:
2656:Painted photography backdrops
2588:Golden triangle (composition)
1868:35 mm equivalent focal length
1068:
1019:treatment of optical surfaces
437:, or G#, is the ratio of the
1250:Driggers, Ronald G. (2003).
509:Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm f/0.7
7:
2366:Intentional camera movement
1117:"Ultraviolet Quartz Lenses"
1010:
904:) allow special control of
10:
3211:
3059:Most expensive photographs
2411:Multi-exposure HDR capture
1499:. Boston: Academic Press.
1485:
1175:Canon Professional Network
953:
930:
902:perspective control lenses
790:
658:single-lens reflex cameras
649:
599:
247:
18:
3152:
3109:
3051:
2951:
2894:
2800:
2684:
2596:
2548:
2293:
2060:
1860:
1587:
1063:William Taylor (inventor)
735:digital-only mounts, the
397:Aperture and focal length
93:with lenses of different
2993:Digital image processing
956:Photographic lens design
743:mount (derived from the
696:for early SLRs, and the
602:Photographic lens design
452:, defined as the lens's
345:aspherical lens elements
250:Photographic lens design
101:, and other properties.
3101:Photography periodicals
2661:Photography and the law
1540:Photo.net Lens Tutorial
786:
362:Today, most lenses are
335:(Plexiglass), and even
3013:Gelatin silver process
2037:Science of photography
2022:Photographic processes
2000:Perspective distortion
1320:. Focal. p. 294.
951:
848:photographic enlargers
818:
610:
418:
409:
270:
155:"pencil" of light rays
54:body and mechanism to
44:photographic objective
31:
2466:Schlieren photography
2010:Photographic printing
1933:Exposure compensation
945:
931:Further information:
914:view camera movements
912:cameras by mimicking
837:pincushion distortion
816:
764:A macro lens used in
415:
404:
366:in order to minimize
261:
104:While in principle a
58:of objects either on
29:
2255:Straight photography
1893:Chromatic aberration
1437:Suess, B.J. (2003).
1199:Gottermeier, Klaus.
965:Angenieux retrofocus
827:chromatic aberration
797:Some lenses, called
751:digital-only mount.
747:mount) and the Sony
299:The lens usually is
3195:Photographic lenses
3127:photographic plates
2802:Digital photography
1985:Hyperfocal distance
1898:Circle of confusion
1514:Guy, N. K. (2012).
1119:. Universe Kogaku.
873:Stereoscopic lenses
760:"Close-up" or macro
662:rangefinder cameras
626:" derives from the
294:angle of refraction
286:surface reflectance
117:Theory of operation
110:optical aberrations
2621:Autochrome Lumière
2616:Analog photography
2441:Pigeon photography
2235:Social documentary
1714:discontinued films
1478:Guy 2012, page 266
1443:. Allworth Press.
1314:Ray, S.F. (2002).
1058:Teleside converter
952:
920:telecentric lenses
890:Ultraviolet lenses
855:aerial photography
819:
702:Four Thirds System
692:for rangefinders,
594:Number of elements
419:
410:
290:angle of incidence
271:
123:rectilinear lenses
106:simple convex lens
32:
3182:
3181:
2973:Collodion process
2909:Chromogenic print
2896:Color photography
2406:Multiple exposure
2381:Lo-fi photography
1913:Color temperature
1525:978-1-933952-97-0
1506:978-0-12-408640-1
1493:Kingslake, Rudolf
1469:Guy 2012, page 53
1263:978-0-8247-4252-2
1023:Large format lens
990:Rapid Rectilinear
841:barrel distortion
733:Micro Four Thirds
146:diffraction limit
60:photographic film
40:photographic lens
3202:
3171:
3170:
3160:
3159:
3033:Print permanence
2978:Cross processing
2936:CMYK color model
2921:Color management
2874:Foveon X3 sensor
2869:Three-CCD camera
2513:Miniature faking
2471:Sabattier effect
2088:Astrophotography
1943:Zebra patterning
1574:
1567:
1560:
1551:
1550:
1529:
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1467:
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1425:
1424:
1418:
1412:. Archived from
1411:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1393:
1378:
1372:
1371:Guy, 2012, p 43.
1369:
1363:
1362:
1360:
1359:
1354:on March 9, 2009
1350:. Archived from
1344:
1338:
1337:
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1334:
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1301:
1286:
1280:
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1212:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1148:. Archived from
1138:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1088:
1082:
1079:
950:rangefinder lens
639:color saturation
613:
582:
570:
558:
546:
425:and the maximum
387:Waterhouse stops
341:meteoritic glass
331:, plastics like
266:assembly of the
209:
197:
185:
169:
127:pinhole "lenses"
46:) is an optical
3210:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3148:
3105:
3047:
3038:Push processing
2954:
2947:
2941:RGB color model
2890:
2796:
2680:
2592:
2558:Diagonal method
2544:
2289:
2193:Photojournalism
2056:
1888:Black-and-white
1856:
1835:Slide projector
1830:Movie projector
1709:available films
1583:
1578:
1536:
1526:
1507:
1488:
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1080:
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1013:
958:
940:
935:
929:
885:Infrared lenses
811:
809:Special-purpose
795:
789:
762:
757:
755:Types of lenses
654:
648:
604:
596:
591:
590:
589:
586:
583:
574:
571:
562:
559:
550:
547:
536:
535:
517:Stanley Kubrick
490:Long-focus lens
484:Wide-angle lens
435:camera equation
399:
256:
248:Main articles:
246:
238:pencils of rays
218:
217:
216:
213:
210:
201:
198:
189:
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119:
91:interchangeable
38:(also known as
24:
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5:
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2810:Digital camera
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2636:Camera obscura
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2594:
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2578:Rule of thirds
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2346:Harris shutter
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2341:Hand-colouring
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2034:
2032:Red-eye effect
2029:
2024:
2019:
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2002:
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1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1950:
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1938:Exposure value
1935:
1930:
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1923:Depth of focus
1920:
1918:Depth of field
1915:
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1535:
1534:External links
1532:
1531:
1530:
1524:
1518:. Rocky Nook.
1511:
1505:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1471:
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1373:
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1292:. mir.com.my.
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954:Main article:
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898:
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887:
882:
876:
870:
867:Fisheye lenses
864:
858:
851:
844:
833:Process lenses
830:
810:
807:
803:electric motor
791:Main article:
788:
785:
761:
758:
756:
753:
737:Pentax K mount
698:Pentax K mount
694:M42 lens mount
690:M39 lens mount
650:Main article:
647:
644:
600:Main article:
595:
592:
588:
587:
584:
577:
575:
572:
565:
563:
560:
553:
551:
548:
541:
538:
537:
529:
528:
527:
498:
497:
494:telephoto lens
487:
481:
462:depth of field
458:entrance pupil
398:
395:
383:iris diaphragm
245:
242:
226:entrance pupil
215:
214:
211:
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68:electronically
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3074:Photographers
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2963:Bleach bypass
2961:
2960:
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2942:
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2934:
2932:
2931:primary color
2929:
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2916:Reversal film
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2881:Image sharing
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2782:United States
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2641:Daguerreotype
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2486:Stopping down
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2451:Rephotography
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2386:Long-exposure
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2083:Architectural
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2042:Shutter speed
2040:
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2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2011:
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1995:Metering mode
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1545:optical glass
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1502:
1498:
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1452:
1450:9781581153064
1446:
1442:
1441:
1433:
1419:on 2003-06-24
1415:
1408:
1402:
1387:
1384:. zeiss.com.
1383:
1377:
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1327:9780240515403
1323:
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1259:
1256:. CRC Press.
1255:
1254:
1246:
1232:on 2014-10-25
1231:
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1152:on 2009-05-30
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1098:on 2014-08-10
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1054:
1053:Teleconverter
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1049:
1048:Optical train
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1028:Lens (optics)
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970:Cooke triplet
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895:Swivel lenses
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222:virtual image
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3139:Polaroid art
3028:K-14 process
3023:Instant film
3018:Gum printing
2968:C-41 process
2953:Photographic
2854:Image sensor
2849:Film scanner
2503:Sun printing
2436:Print toning
2228:space selfie
2198:Pictorialism
2128:Ethnographic
2108:Conservation
1980:Guide number
1975:Focal length
1777:
1515:
1496:
1474:
1465:
1454:. Retrieved
1439:
1432:
1421:. Retrieved
1414:the original
1401:
1390:. Retrieved
1376:
1367:
1356:. Retrieved
1352:the original
1342:
1331:. Retrieved
1316:
1309:
1298:. Retrieved
1284:
1272:. Retrieved
1252:
1245:
1234:. Retrieved
1230:the original
1220:
1209:. Retrieved
1194:
1183:. Retrieved
1174:
1165:
1154:. Retrieved
1150:the original
1136:
1125:. Retrieved
1111:
1100:. Retrieved
1096:the original
1086:
1077:
1017:Anti-fogging
1005:Zeiss Tessar
1000:Zeiss Planar
995:Zeiss Sonnar
975:Double-Gauss
959:
946:Collapsible
938:Lens designs
798:
796:
779:
769:
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706:
686:
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655:
630:
621:
611:Satzobjektiv
608:
605:
597:
522:Barry Lyndon
520:
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499:
471:
454:focal length
447:
423:focal length
420:
380:
364:multi-coated
361:
350:
325:quartz glass
322:
298:
279:
272:
244:Construction
219:
151:
120:
103:
79:video camera
75:still camera
72:
43:
39:
35:
33:
3144:Stereoscopy
3003:E-6 process
2998:Dye coupler
2926:color space
2839:Digiscoping
2832:camera back
2747:Philippines
2676:Visual arts
2666:Glass plate
2651:Heliography
2550:Composition
2525:Ultraviolet
2481:Stereoscopy
2476:Slow motion
2461:Scanography
2376:Kite aerial
2321:Contre-jour
2213:Post-mortem
2203:Pornography
2183:Neues Sehen
2118:Documentary
2052:Zone System
2027:Reciprocity
1953:Film format
1883:Backscatter
1861:Terminology
1731:beauty dish
1635:rangefinder
1600:light-field
1581:Photography
985:Leitz Elmar
980:Goerz Dagor
906:perspective
853:Lenses for
799:zoom lenses
666:TLR cameras
646:Lens mounts
585:210 mm lens
502:perspective
478:Normal lens
376:lens fungus
372:ultraviolet
357:diffraction
275:Box Brownie
56:make images
36:camera lens
21:Kamera lens
3134:Lomography
2955:processing
2904:Print film
2820:comparison
2787:Uzbekistan
2737:Luxembourg
2697:Bangladesh
2646:Dufaycolor
2626:Box camera
2583:Simplicity
2540:Zoom burst
2535:Xerography
2530:Vignetting
2520:Time-lapse
2508:Tilt–shift
2401:Mordançage
2391:Luminogram
2356:Holography
2351:High-speed
2331:Fill flash
2316:Burst mode
2294:Techniques
2275:Vernacular
2270:Underwater
2265:Toy camera
2245:Still life
2173:Monochrome
2163:High-speed
2113:Cloudscape
2103:Conceptual
2005:Photograph
1990:Lens flare
1970:Film speed
1852:Zone plate
1798:wide-angle
1783:long-focus
1456:2014-10-25
1423:2012-10-27
1392:2014-12-12
1358:2014-12-12
1333:2014-12-12
1300:2014-10-25
1236:2014-10-25
1211:2007-11-05
1185:2008-10-04
1156:2007-11-05
1127:2007-11-05
1102:2014-10-25
1069:References
1038:Lens cover
879:Soft-focus
861:Shift lens
823:Apochromat
776:prime lens
682:lens mount
652:Lens mount
573:70 mm lens
561:50 mm lens
549:28 mm lens
443:irradiance
368:lens flare
314:Hasselblad
268:Canon Elph
234:exit pupil
87:microscope
64:chemically
3079:Norwegian
3043:Stop bath
2988:Developer
2983:Cyanotype
2611:Ambrotype
2573:Lead room
2496:Slit-scan
2431:Photogram
2426:Panoramic
2336:Fireworks
2168:Landscape
1813:telephoto
1761:reflector
1756:monolight
1751:lens hood
1736:cucoloris
1677:safelight
1588:Equipment
1033:Lens hood
793:Zoom lens
660:and some
406:Apertures
337:germanium
264:zoom lens
230:projector
99:apertures
83:telescope
3189:Category
3163:Category
2859:CMOS APS
2757:Slovenia
2685:Regional
2631:Calotype
2568:Headroom
2446:Redscale
2361:Infrared
2311:Brenizer
2285:Wildlife
2208:Portrait
2153:Forensic
2143:Fine-art
2078:Aircraft
2068:Abstract
1948:F-number
1928:Exposure
1903:Clipping
1878:Aperture
1746:hot shoe
1672:enlarger
1667:Darkroom
1495:(1989).
1386:Archived
1294:Archived
1268:Archived
1205:Archived
1179:Archived
1121:Archived
1011:See also
780:close-up
771:close up
635:contrast
450:f-number
439:radiance
427:aperture
329:fluorite
292:and the
135:aperture
121:Typical
3174:Outline
3110:Related
2792:Vietnam
2777:Ukraine
2712:Denmark
2692:Albania
2671:Tintype
2598:History
2563:Framing
2456:Rollout
2421:Panning
2371:Kirlian
2280:Wedding
2158:Glamour
2138:Fashion
2123:Eclipse
2093:Banquet
2015:Albumen
1825:Monopod
1803:fisheye
1771:softbox
1625:pinhole
1615:instant
1605:digital
1486:Sources
1274:18 June
745:Minolta
725:Olympus
631:tessera
617:bellows
391:shutter
333:acrylic
301:focused
138:object.
3172:
3161:
3089:street
3084:Polish
2772:Turkey
2767:Taiwan
2752:Serbia
2742:Norway
2717:Greece
2702:Canada
2301:Afocal
2260:Street
2240:Sports
2223:Selfie
2178:Nature
2133:Erotic
2098:Candid
2073:Aerial
2061:Genres
1963:medium
1840:Tripod
1808:swivel
1721:Filter
1699:holder
1694:format
1595:Camera
1522:
1503:
1447:
1324:
1260:
688:Leica
624:Tessar
513:Apollo
318:Mamiya
284:, and
52:camera
3094:women
3052:Lists
3008:Fixer
2886:Pixel
2815:D-SLR
2762:Sudan
2732:Korea
2727:Japan
2722:India
2707:China
2491:Strip
2416:Night
2396:Macro
2306:Bokeh
2250:Stock
2218:Ruins
1958:large
1788:prime
1766:snoot
1726:Flash
1704:stock
1645:still
1630:press
1620:phone
1610:field
1417:(PDF)
1410:(PDF)
1146:Canon
948:Leica
766:macro
741:Alpha
729:Kodak
656:Many
628:Greek
532:35 mm
417:size.
310:Canon
306:Nikon
282:flare
174:Light
3122:film
2827:MILC
2326:ETTR
2188:Nude
2148:Fire
2047:Sync
1845:head
1793:zoom
1778:Lens
1741:gobo
1689:base
1684:Film
1660:view
1520:ISBN
1501:ISBN
1445:ISBN
1322:ISBN
1276:2020
1258:ISBN
787:Zoom
717:EF-M
715:and
713:EF-S
674:RB67
670:RZ67
637:and
351:The
339:and
316:and
262:The
252:and
85:, a
81:, a
77:, a
48:lens
2864:CCD
1655:toy
1650:TLR
1640:SLR
910:SLR
908:on
467:SLR
66:or
42:or
3191::
1266:.
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1177:.
1173:.
1144:.
839:,
711:,
709:EF
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727:/
721:F
23:.
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