337:
433:). Several trials also used "personalized" mixtures of 12-15 distinct peptides. That is, they contain a mixture of peptides from the patient's tumor that the patient exhibits an immune response against. The results of these studies indicate that these peptide vaccines have minimal side effects and suggest that they induce targeted immune responses in patients treated with the vaccines. The article also discusses 19 clinical trials that were initiated in the same time period. These trials are targeting solid tumors, glioma,
812:) are likely to be less effective. Tumors are heterogeneous and antigen expression differs markedly between tumors (even in the same patient). The most effective vaccine is likely to raise an immune response against a broad range of tumor antigens to minimise the chance of the tumor mutating and becoming resistant to the therapy.
416:
A recent Trial Watch review (2015) of peptide-based vaccines summarized the results of more than 60 trials that were published in the 13 months preceding the article. These trials targeted hematological malignancies (cancers of the blood), melanoma (skin cancer), breast cancer, head and neck cancer,
267:(dendritic cells derived from the patient) to which tumor antigens are added. In this strategy, the antigen-presenting dendritic cells directly stimulate T-cells rather than relying on processing of the antigens by native APCs after the vaccine is delivered. The best known dendritic cell vaccine is
262:
include tumor cells or tumor cell lysates. Tumor cells from the patient are predicted to contain the greatest spectrum of relevant antigens, but this approach is expensive and often requires too many tumor cells from the patient to be effective. Using a combination of established cancer cell lines
823:
Many cancer vaccine clinical trials target patients' immune responses. Correlations typically show that the patients with the strongest immune responses lived the longest, offering evidence that the vaccine is working. An alternative explanation is that patients with the best immune responses were
804:
that inhibit immune activity. The most suitable stage for a cancer vaccine is likely to be early, when the tumor volume is low, which complicates the trial process, which take upwards of five years and require many patients to reach measurable end points. One alternative is to target patients with
788:
are the two cancers with most evidence of spontaneous and effective immune responses, possibly because they often display antigens that are evaluated as foreign. Many attempts at developing cancer vaccines are directed against these tumors. However, Provenge's success in prostate cancer, a disease
779:
has been problematic. A tumor can have many cell types of cells, each with different cell-surface antigens. Those cells are derived from each patient and display few if any antigens that are foreign to that individual. This makes it difficult for the immune system to distinguish cancer cells from
242:
and preventing relapse after remission. Therapeutic vaccines focus on killing existing tumors. While cancer vaccines have generally been demonstrated to be safe, their efficacy still needs improvement. One way to potentially improve vaccine therapy is by combining the vaccine with other types of
237:
Viral vaccines usually work by preventing the spread of the virus. Similarly, cancer vaccines can be designed to target common antigens before cancer evolves if an individual has appropriate risk factors. Additional preventive applications include preventing the cancer from evolving further or
200:
in the vaccine. The difference is that the antigens for viral vaccines are derived from viruses or cells infected with virus, while the antigens for tumor antigen vaccines are derived from cancer cells. Since tumor antigens are antigens found in cancer cells but not normal cells, vaccinations
247:
has recently received a lot of attention as a potential treatment to be combined with vaccines. For therapeutic vaccines, combined therapies can be more aggressive, but greater care to ensure the safety of relatively healthy patients is needed for combinations involving preventive vaccines.
1820:
Savvateeva LV, Schwartz AM, Gorshkova LB, Gorokhovets NV, Makarov VA, Reddy VP, et al. (1 January 2015). "Prophylactic
Admission of an In Vitro Reconstructed Complexes of Human Recombinant Heat Shock Proteins and Melanoma Antigenic Peptides Activates Anti-Melanoma Responses in Mice".
847:
Do not randomize antigen plus adjuvant versus adjuvant alone. The goal is to establish clinical benefit of the immunotherapy (i.e., adjuvanted vaccine) over the standard of care. The adjuvant may have a low-level clinical effect that skews the trial, increasing the chances of a false
739:
In one approach, vaccines contain whole tumor cells, though these vaccines have been less effective in eliciting immune responses in spontaneous cancer models. Defined tumor antigens decrease the risk of autoimmunity, but because the immune response is directed to a single
744:, tumors can evade destruction through antigen loss variance. A process called "epitope spreading" or "provoked immunity" may mitigate this weakness, as sometimes an immune response to a single antigen can lead to immunity against other antigens on the same tumor.
263:
that resemble the patient's tumor can overcome these barriers, but this approach has yet to be effective. Canvaxin, which incorporates three melanoma cell lines, failed phase III clinical trials. Another cell-based vaccine strategy involves autologous
815:
Prior treatments may have modified tumors in ways that nullify the vaccine. (Numerous clinical trials treated patients following chemotherapy that may destroy the immune system. Patients who are immune suppressed are not good candidates for
308:(DNA/RNA) encoding for the gene. The gene is then expressed in APCs and the resulting protein product is processed into epitopes. Delivery of the gene is particularly challenging for this type of vaccine. At least one drug candidate,
819:
Some tumors progress rapidly and/or unpredictably, and they can outpace the immune system. Developing a mature immune response to a vaccine may require months, but some cancers (e.g. advanced pancreatic) can kill patients in less
708:, an aluminum-based salt, and a squalene-oil-water emulsion are approved for clinical use. An effective vaccine should also stimulate long term immune memory to prevent tumor recurrence. Some scientists claim both the
735:
tumor antigens. Shared antigens are expressed by many tumors. Unique tumor antigens result from mutations induced through physical or chemical carcinogens; they are therefore expressed only by individual tumors.
1665:
1695:
688:(Canvaxin), Genitope Corp (MyVax personalized immunotherapy), and FavId FavId (Favrille Inc) are examples of cancer vaccine projects that have been terminated, due to poor phase III and IV results.
477:
The following table, summarizing information from another recent review shows an example of the antigen used in the vaccine tested in Phase 1/2 clinical trials for each of 10 different cancers:
1553:
972:
Shankaran V, Ikeda H, Bruce AT, White JM, Swanson PE, Old LJ, Schreiber RD (April 2001). "IFNgamma and lymphocytes prevent primary tumour development and shape tumour immunogenicity".
1578:
301:. The need for MHC profile selection can be overcome by using longer peptides ("synthetic long peptides") or purified protein, which are then processed into epitopes by APCs.
1600:
1635:
1109:
667:
was approved in Cuba in 2011. Similar to
Oncophage, it is not yet approved for use in the United States, although it is already undergoing phase II trials to that end.
271:(Provenge), which only improved survival by four months. The efficacy of dendritic cell vaccines may be limited due to difficulty in getting the cells to migrate to
1657:
673:(BCG) was approved by the FDA in 1990 as a vaccine for early-stage bladder cancer. BCG can be administered intravesically (directly into the bladder) or as an
1687:
771:
can recognize. Furthermore, viruses usually only provide a few viable variants. By contrast, developing vaccines for viruses that mutate constantly such as
1983:
1725:
417:
gastroesophageal cancer, lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, and colorectal cancers. The antigens included peptides from
3038:
1095:
1550:
205:
from proteins that are not typically found in normal cells but are activated in cancer cells or peptides containing cancer-specific mutations.
2181:
1168:
2070:
851:
Base development decisions on clinical data rather than immune responses. Time-to-event end points are more valuable and clinically relevant.
256:
Cancer vaccines can be cell-based, protein- or peptide-based, gene-based (DNA/RNA). or using live attenuated bacterial or viral organisms.
2221:
2216:
399:
201:
containing tumor antigens should train the immune system to target cancer cells not healthy cells. Cancer-specific tumor antigens include
1785:
Nishikawa M, Takemoto S, Takakura Y (April 2008). "Heat shock protein derivatives for delivery of antigens to antigen presenting cells".
789:
that never spontaneously regresses, suggests that cancers other than melanoma and renal cancer may be equally amenable to immune attack.
1570:
755:
of destroyed cells including cancer cells, this protein may be used as an effective adjuvant in the development of antitumor vaccines.
1164:
Amgen press release. Amgen announces top-line results of phase 3 talimogene laherparepvec trial in melanoma. Mar 19, 2013. Available
901:
367:
The clinicaltrials.gov website lists over 1900 trials associated with the term "cancer vaccine". Of these, 186 are Phase 3 trials.
196:
Tumor antigen vaccines work the same way that viral vaccines work, by training the immune system to attack cells that contain the
131:, in the hope of stimulating the immune system to kill the cancer cells. Research on cancer vaccines is underway for treatment of
2618:
1951:
1627:
2402:
1604:
2231:
896:
63:. Some of the vaccines are "autologous", being prepared from samples taken from the patient, and are specific to that patient.
1299:
Denham, James D.; Lee, Dae Hyun; Castro, Manuel; Pandya, Shuchi; Aslam, Sadaf; Nanjappa, Sowmya; Greene, John N. (July 2018).
3089:
3017:
1113:
763:
A vaccine against a particular virus is relatively easy to create. The virus is foreign to the body, and therefore expresses
127:
One approach to cancer vaccination is to separate proteins from cancer cells and immunize patients against those proteins as
2623:
800:
Disease stage too advanced: bulky tumor deposits actively suppress the immune system using mechanisms such as secretion of
461:. Notably, the IDO1 vaccine is being tested in patients with melanoma in combination with the immune checkpoint inhibitor
243:
immunotherapy aimed at stimulating the immune system. Since tumors often evolve mechanisms to suppress the immune system,
2655:
2407:
2333:
2186:
1551:
Idiotype vaccine therapy (BiovaxID) in follicular lymphoma in first complete remission: Phase III clinical trial results.
2013:
3065:
2372:
2005:
654:
2477:
3106:
3044:
2014:
1301:"Two cases of disseminated infection following live organism anti-cancer vaccine administration in cancer patients"
222:
2665:
2633:
2628:
2457:
1504:
437:, melanoma, and breast, cervical, ovarian, colorectal, and non-small lung cell cancers and include antigens from
17:
2723:
2328:
1973:
1979:
2521:
2226:
458:
398:, a cancer vaccine designed to treat prostate cancer, had demonstrated an increase in survival. It received
1717:
1574:
833:
In
January 2009, a review article made recommendations for successful oncovaccine development as follows:
442:
705:
2643:
2080:
2063:
244:
101:, prevent those types of cancer. Other cancers are to some extent caused by bacterial infections (e.g.
2693:
824:
healthier patients with a better prognosis, and would have survived longest even without the vaccine.
1658:"Roswell Park Lung Cancer Expert Shares Initial Findings From First North American Study of CIMAvax"
854:
Design regulatory into the program from inception; invest in manufacturing and product assays early.
66:
Some researchers claim that cancerous cells routinely arise and are destroyed by the immune system (
3133:
2648:
2613:
2608:
2603:
1962:
1165:
535:
406:
206:
169:
805:
residual disease after surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy that does not harm the immune system.
792:
However, most vaccine clinical trials have failed or had modest results according to the standard
176:
engineered to selectively replicate in tumor tissue and to express the immune stimulatory protein
3094:
3027:
3008:
2804:
2776:
2738:
2733:
2713:
2236:
31:
3075:
3004:
1998:
1300:
713:
402:(FDA) approval for use in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer patients on April 29, 2010.
320:
226:
1688:"With Safety Analysis Now Complete, Roswell Park Moves Forward With Expanded Study of CIMAvax"
289:) to stimulate the immune system and enhance antigenicity. Examples of these epitopes include
3070:
2904:
2899:
2350:
2296:
2206:
1089:
1036:
116:
2953:
2894:
2685:
2323:
2201:
2152:
2119:
2053:
1750:
Pejawar-Gaddy S, Finn OJ (August 2008). "Cancer vaccines: accomplishments and challenges".
1560:
S. J. Schuster, et al. 2009 ASCO Annual
Meeting, J Clin Oncol 27:18s, 2009 (suppl; abstr 2)
1399:
Pol J, Bloy N, Buqué A, Eggermont A, Cremer I, Sautès-Fridman C, et al. (April 2015).
981:
869:
752:
709:
701:
380:
173:
67:
1135:
Giarelli E (October 2007). "Cancer vaccines: a new frontier in prevention and treatment".
8:
2876:
2842:
2728:
2551:
2494:
2489:
2435:
2266:
2134:
2106:
2058:
891:
376:
107:
98:
2546:
2286:
1528:
1500:"Evolution and Progress of mRNA Vaccines in the Treatment of Melanoma: Future Prospects"
1499:
985:
350:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2909:
2743:
2484:
2445:
2430:
2306:
2291:
2276:
2196:
2114:
1930:
1905:
Johnson RS, Walker AI, Ward SJ (January 2009). "Cancer vaccines: will we ever learn?".
1882:
1857:
1480:
1425:
1400:
1371:
1346:
1345:
Tagliamonte M, Petrizzo A, Tornesello ML, Buonaguro FM, Buonaguro L (31 October 2014).
1273:
1246:
1215:
1188:
1077:
1005:
949:
922:
259:
1834:
521:
30:
This article is about therapeutic cancer vaccines. For preventive cancer vaccine, see
3032:
2999:
2832:
2673:
2563:
2452:
2313:
2138:
2101:
1991:
1922:
1887:
1838:
1802:
1767:
1763:
1533:
1484:
1472:
1430:
1376:
1322:
1278:
1220:
1144:
1040:
1009:
997:
954:
874:
841:
606:
529:
165:
2978:
1934:
1081:
387:(on average) prolonged remission by 44.2 months, versus 30.6 months for the control.
55:
or prevents development of cancer. Vaccines that treat existing cancer are known as
2958:
2943:
2799:
2660:
2573:
1914:
1877:
1869:
1830:
1794:
1759:
1523:
1513:
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1420:
1412:
1366:
1358:
1312:
1268:
1258:
1210:
1200:
1067:
1032:
989:
944:
934:
881:
2499:
1798:
1058:
Babu RA, Kumar KK, Reddy GS, Anuradha C (2010). "Cancer
Vaccine : A Review".
939:
2963:
2761:
2568:
2526:
2412:
2392:
2362:
2345:
2271:
2261:
2191:
2130:
2126:
2075:
1557:
1453:
1416:
1362:
1172:
840:
Conduct randomized Phase II trials so that the Phase III program is sufficiently
704:
to activate antigen-presenting cells to stimulate immune responses, is required.
618:
515:
372:
298:
281:-based vaccines usually consist of cancer specific-epitopes and often require an
264:
210:
152:
78:
74:
1967:
413:
showed a significant tumour response compared to administration of GM-CSF alone.
3100:
2718:
2678:
2558:
2379:
2318:
1467:
1448:
1317:
594:
491:
309:
102:
1023:
Dunn GP, Old LJ, Schreiber RD (2004). "The three Es of cancer immunoediting".
796:
criteria. The precise reasons are unknown, but possible explanations include:
3127:
2983:
2968:
2938:
2933:
2788:
2541:
2536:
2440:
2085:
1518:
1326:
1072:
864:
809:
768:
724:
640:
503:
313:
181:
148:
132:
2340:
1918:
1263:
27:
Vaccine that either treats existing cancer or prevents development of cancer
3060:
2703:
2598:
2531:
2472:
2467:
2147:
2038:
2018:
1926:
1891:
1842:
1806:
1771:
1537:
1476:
1434:
1380:
1282:
1224:
1205:
1148:
1044:
1001:
958:
781:
646:
434:
395:
305:
268:
140:
82:
297:. However, this approach requires MHC profiling of the patient because of
2847:
2837:
2698:
2504:
2387:
2355:
2281:
2143:
2034:
2026:
886:
670:
664:
470:
466:
272:
185:
144:
136:
94:
1954:(coordinated early-phase clinical trials of therapeutic cancer vaccines)
2973:
2948:
2638:
2588:
568:
462:
422:
239:
1819:
1344:
1189:"Manipulation of Innate and Adaptive Immunity through Cancer Vaccines"
70:); and that tumors form when the immune system fails to destroy them.
3022:
2593:
2461:
2030:
993:
801:
772:
685:
636:
90:
2864:
2857:
2852:
2822:
2578:
2514:
2509:
1873:
785:
674:
658:
650:
599:
555:
543:
496:
426:
410:
391:
384:
282:
214:
202:
197:
112:
2583:
2022:
1628:"Cuba Announces Release of the World's First Lung Cancer Vaccine"
764:
741:
697:
278:
218:
160:
128:
48:
2886:
2871:
2157:
793:
587:
583:
560:
446:
294:
286:
177:
52:
2881:
2766:
2367:
2301:
748:
700:
as distinct from self-proteins. Selection of the appropriate
576:
564:
394:
Corporation announced that their Phase III clinical trial of
86:
1957:
225:
proteins. If T-cells recognize the epitope as foreign, the
2176:
1244:
623:
611:
508:
454:
450:
438:
418:
290:
93:). Traditional vaccines against those viruses, such as the
923:"Cancer and COVID-19: On the Quest for Effective Vaccines"
1970:
entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms
1784:
776:
548:
430:
229:
is activated and target cells that express the antigens.
1245:
Lollini PL, Cavallo F, Nanni P, Quaglino E (June 2015).
971:
1745:
1743:
653:, was approved by the FDA in April 2010 for metastatic
1858:"Cancer immunotherapy: moving beyond current vaccines"
1057:
716:
must be activated to achieve total tumor elimination.
1398:
1298:
213:
take up antigens from the vaccine, process them into
1856:
Rosenberg SA, Yang JC, Restifo NP (September 2004).
1855:
1740:
1110:"Oral vaccine could fight source of stomach cancers"
158:Another approach is to generate an immune response
180:. This enhances the anti-tumor immune response to
3039:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
1904:
1789:. Special Issue in Honor of Prof. Tsuneji Nagai.
1749:
3125:
1401:"Trial Watch: Peptide-based anticancer vaccines"
1347:"Antigen-specific vaccines for cancer treatment"
1022:
696:Cancer vaccines seek to target a tumor-specific
111:). Traditional vaccines against cancer-causing
1186:
1999:
1094:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
920:
119:) are not further discussed in this article.
1305:International Journal of Infectious Diseases
691:
1963:Association for the Immunotherapy of Cancer
1247:"The Promise of Preventive Cancer Vaccines"
808:Escape loss variants (that target a single
780:normal cells. Some scientists believe that
232:
2006:
1992:
1497:
1449:"Precision medicine meets cancer vaccines"
1187:Sayour EJ, Mitchell DA (6 February 2017).
1143:(11 Suppl Nurse Ed): 11–7, discussion 18.
921:Kwok M, Fritsch EF, Wu CJ (January 2021).
837:Target settings with a low disease burden.
405:Interim results from a phase III trial of
1881:
1527:
1517:
1466:
1424:
1370:
1316:
1294:
1292:
1272:
1262:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1214:
1204:
1071:
948:
938:
188:and provides a patient-specific vaccine.
1692:Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center
1662:Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center
1394:
1392:
1390:
1134:
1037:10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104803
902:Personalized mRNA cancer vaccine therapy
758:
631:
319:Live attenuated, ampicillin-susceptible
304:Gene-based vaccines are composed of the
1752:Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology
1601:"What Comes After Dendreon's Provenge?"
1441:
1351:Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics
1051:
727:have been divided into two categories:
14:
3126:
1974:List of cancer vaccine clinical trials
1787:International Journal of Pharmaceutics
1625:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1289:
1231:
1112:. Vaccine News Reports. Archived from
191:
1987:
1387:
1182:
1180:
897:Cancer vaccine targeting CD4+ T cells
719:
680:
323:strains are part of CRS-207 vaccine.
168:. This approach was used in the drug
1728:from the original on 13 October 2019
1160:
1158:
643:. It is marketed by Antigenics Inc.
330:
1958:Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer
1907:Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy
1638:from the original on 25 August 2017
1333:
639:was approved in Russia in 2008 for
383:), investigators reported that the
312:, is investigating newly developed
24:
3066:Eradication of infectious diseases
2823:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
1718:"Immunotherapy for Bladder Cancer"
1177:
828:
655:hormone-refractory prostate cancer
326:
25:
3145:
2656:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
1945:
1835:10.2174/1566524015666150630125024
1626:Dillow, Clay (8 September 2011).
1603:. 18 October 2010. Archived from
1581:from the original on 23 July 2017
1155:
400:U.S. Food and Drug Administration
3045:Alternative vaccination schedule
2015:Artificial induction of immunity
1764:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.02.010
1698:from the original on 12 May 2023
1668:from the original on 12 May 2023
335:
223:Major Histocompatibility Complex
1952:Cancer Immunotherapy Consortium
1898:
1849:
1813:
1778:
1710:
1680:
1650:
1619:
1593:
1563:
1544:
1491:
751:plays an important role in the
2877:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
1498:Bafaloukos, Dimitrios (2023).
1193:Journal of Immunology Research
1128:
1102:
1016:
965:
914:
217:, and present the epitopes to
13:
1:
2408:Group B streptococcal disease
2227:Vaccines for Children Program
1799:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.09.030
1060:Journal of Orofacial Sciences
940:10.1158/2643-3230.BCD-20-0205
907:
429:(BIRC5), and Wilms' tumor 1 (
316:for use in this application.
1575:Food and Drug Administration
1571:"Approval Letter - Provenge"
1417:10.4161/2162402X.2014.974411
1363:10.4161/21645515.2014.973317
575:Non small lung cell cancer (
51:that either treats existing
7:
1025:Annual Review of Immunology
858:
443:Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase
275:and interact with T-cells.
10:
3150:
1823:Current Molecular Medicine
1468:10.1038/s41591-023-02432-2
1318:10.1016/j.ijid.2018.04.004
1076:(inactive 24 April 2024).
677:in other cancer vaccines.
293:peptides, such as GP2 and
245:immune checkpoint blockade
29:
3084:
3053:
2992:
2924:
2815:
2787:
2754:
2423:
2254:
2247:
2166:
2094:
2046:
1722:Cancer Research Institute
1461:(6): 1287. 16 June 2023.
692:Desirable characteristics
344:This section needs to be
122:
2403:Clostridioides difficile
1519:10.3390/vaccines11030636
1073:10.4103/0975-8844.103507
753:presentation of antigens
706:Bacillus Calmette-Guérin
671:Bacillus Calmette-Guérin
536:Carcinoembryonic antigen
407:talimogene laherparepvec
251:
233:Prevention vs. treatment
207:Antigen-presenting cells
170:talimogene laherparepvec
2666:Tick-borne encephalitis
1919:10.1586/14737140.9.1.67
1264:10.3390/vaccines3020467
1171:21 January 2014 at the
714:adaptive immune systems
32:Cancer immunoprevention
3076:List of vaccine topics
2071:Mathematical modelling
1976:at clinicaltrials.gov.
927:Blood Cancer Discovery
381:non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
321:Listeria monocytogenes
227:adaptive immune system
61:tumor antigen vaccines
3071:Vaccinate Your Family
2522:Japanese encephalitis
1968:Tumor antigen vaccine
1664:. 26 September 2018.
759:Hypothesized problems
632:Approved oncovaccines
164:in the patient using
2954:John Franklin Enders
1206:10.1155/2017/3145742
892:Therapeutic vaccines
870:Cancer immunotherapy
731:tumor antigens; and
657:. It is marketed by
174:herpes simplex virus
2135:Virus-like particle
2059:Vaccine ingredients
986:2001Natur.410.1107S
980:(6832): 1107–1111.
747:For example, since
522:Papillomaviridae#E7
390:On April 14, 2009,
377:follicular lymphoma
260:Cell-based vaccines
192:Mechanism of action
184:released following
155:and other cancers.
108:Helicobacter pylori
99:hepatitis B vaccine
59:cancer vaccines or
3111:Never to phase III
2910:Hexavalent vaccine
2724:Epstein–Barr virus
2619:Oxford–AstraZeneca
2307:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
1556:2011-09-27 at the
720:Antigen candidates
681:Abandoned research
68:immunosurveillance
3121:
3120:
3033:Vaccines and SIDS
2920:
2919:
2694:Hepatitis A and B
2670:Varicella zoster
2127:Subunit/component
1694:. 30 March 2019.
1607:on 14 August 2016
1577:. 29 April 2010.
1357:(11): 3332–3346.
629:
628:
607:Pancreatic cancer
530:Colorectal cancer
365:
364:
166:oncolytic viruses
16:(Redirected from
3141:
3012:MMR autism fraud
2959:Maurice Hilleman
2944:Hilary Koprowski
2252:
2251:
2008:
2001:
1994:
1985:
1984:
1939:
1938:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1567:
1561:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1531:
1521:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1470:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1396:
1385:
1384:
1374:
1342:
1331:
1330:
1320:
1296:
1287:
1286:
1276:
1266:
1242:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1208:
1184:
1175:
1162:
1153:
1152:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1116:on 24 April 2015
1106:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1085:
1075:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1020:
1014:
1013:
994:10.1038/35074122
969:
963:
962:
952:
942:
918:
882:Chemoprophylaxis
480:
479:
360:
357:
351:
339:
338:
331:
85:, are caused by
21:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3134:Cancer vaccines
3124:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3116:
3101:Clinical trials
3080:
3049:
2988:
2964:Stanley Plotkin
2926:
2916:
2828:Cancer vaccines
2811:
2805:Schistosomiasis
2783:
2777:Trypanosomiasis
2750:
2714:Cytomegalovirus
2624:Pfizer–BioNTech
2419:
2243:
2192:Vaccine wastage
2162:
2090:
2042:
2012:
1948:
1943:
1942:
1903:
1899:
1862:Nature Medicine
1854:
1850:
1818:
1814:
1783:
1779:
1748:
1741:
1731:
1729:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1701:
1699:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1671:
1669:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1641:
1639:
1632:Popular Science
1624:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1584:
1582:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1558:Wayback Machine
1549:
1545:
1496:
1492:
1454:Nature Medicine
1447:
1446:
1442:
1397:
1388:
1343:
1334:
1297:
1290:
1243:
1232:
1185:
1178:
1173:Wayback Machine
1163:
1156:
1133:
1129:
1119:
1117:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1087:
1086:
1056:
1052:
1021:
1017:
970:
966:
919:
915:
910:
861:
831:
829:Recommendations
761:
722:
694:
683:
634:
619:Prostate cancer
516:Cervical cancer
373:Phase III trial
361:
355:
352:
349:
340:
336:
329:
327:Clinical trials
299:MHC restriction
265:dendritic cells
254:
235:
211:dendritic cells
209:(APCs) such as
194:
172:, a variant of
125:
79:cervical cancer
75:types of cancer
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Cancer vaccines
15:
12:
11:
5:
3147:
3137:
3136:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2981:
2979:Katalin KarikĂł
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2930:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2825:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2734:Herpes simplex
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2688:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2634:Sinopharm BIBP
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2584:Bharat Biotech
2581:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2438:
2433:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2331:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2258:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2207:Vaccine injury
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2167:Administration
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2141:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2056:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2011:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1947:
1946:External links
1944:
1941:
1940:
1897:
1874:10.1038/nm1100
1868:(9): 909–915.
1848:
1829:(5): 462–468.
1812:
1793:(1–2): 23–27.
1777:
1739:
1709:
1679:
1649:
1618:
1592:
1562:
1543:
1490:
1440:
1411:(4): e974411.
1405:Oncoimmunology
1386:
1332:
1288:
1257:(2): 467–489.
1230:
1176:
1154:
1127:
1101:
1050:
1031:(i): 329–360.
1015:
964:
912:
911:
909:
906:
905:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
878:
877:
875:Coley's toxins
867:
860:
857:
856:
855:
852:
849:
845:
838:
830:
827:
826:
825:
821:
817:
813:
806:
760:
757:
725:Tumor antigens
721:
718:
693:
690:
682:
679:
633:
630:
627:
626:
621:
615:
614:
609:
603:
602:
597:
595:Ovarian cancer
591:
590:
580:
572:
571:
558:
552:
551:
546:
540:
539:
532:
526:
525:
518:
512:
511:
506:
500:
499:
494:
492:Bladder cancer
488:
487:
484:
475:
474:
414:
403:
388:
363:
362:
343:
341:
334:
328:
325:
310:mRNA-4157/V940
285:(for example,
253:
250:
234:
231:
193:
190:
182:tumor antigens
124:
121:
103:stomach cancer
41:cancer vaccine
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3146:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2984:Drew Weissman
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2969:H. Fred Clark
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2939:Louis Pasteur
2937:
2935:
2934:Edward Jenner
2932:
2931:
2929:
2923:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2905:DTwP-HepB-Hib
2903:
2901:
2900:DTaP-IPV-HepB
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2891:combination:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2789:Helminthiasis
2786:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2690:combination:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2388:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
2386:
2385:
2384:combination:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2297:Meningococcus
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2287:Leptospirosis
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2222:Vaccine court
2220:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2177:GAVI Alliance
2175:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2004:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:(2): 93–102.
1757:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1566:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1293:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1181:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1161:
1159:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1097:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
968:
960:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
932:
928:
924:
917:
913:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
876:
873:
872:
871:
868:
866:
865:Immunotherapy
863:
862:
853:
850:
846:
843:
839:
836:
835:
834:
822:
818:
814:
811:
810:tumor antigen
807:
803:
799:
798:
797:
795:
790:
787:
783:
778:
774:
770:
769:immune system
766:
756:
754:
750:
745:
743:
737:
734:
730:
726:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
689:
687:
678:
676:
672:
668:
666:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
642:
641:kidney cancer
638:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
613:
610:
608:
605:
604:
601:
598:
596:
593:
592:
589:
585:
581:
578:
574:
573:
570:
566:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
537:
533:
531:
528:
527:
523:
519:
517:
514:
513:
510:
507:
505:
504:Breast cancer
502:
501:
498:
495:
493:
490:
489:
485:
482:
481:
478:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
415:
412:
408:
404:
401:
397:
393:
389:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
369:
368:
359:
347:
342:
333:
332:
324:
322:
317:
315:
314:mRNA vaccines
311:
307:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
274:
270:
266:
261:
257:
249:
246:
241:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
199:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
162:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
120:
118:
114:
110:
109:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
37:
33:
19:
3061:Epidemiology
3037:
3009:
2895:DTaP-IPV/Hib
2827:
2686:Yellow fever
2599:EpiVacCorona
2351:Tuberculosis
2324:Pneumococcal
2292:Lyme disease
2120:Heterologous
2019:Immunization
1913:(1): 67–74.
1910:
1906:
1900:
1865:
1861:
1851:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1790:
1786:
1780:
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1114:the original
1104:
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782:renal cancer
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2993:Controversy
2927:researchers
2843:Hepatitis B
2729:Hepatitis C
2674:Chicken pox
2500:Hepatitis E
2495:Hepatitis B
2490:Hepatitis A
2436:Chikungunya
2413:Shigellosis
2267:Brucellosis
2153:Therapeutic
2107:Inactivated
2047:Development
2035:Inoculation
2027:Vaccination
1585:16 December
1199:: 3145742.
665:CimaVax-EGF
483:Cancer type
471:vemurafenib
467:BRAF (gene)
453:receptors,
379:(a type of
273:lymph nodes
238:undergoing
186:viral lysis
95:HPV vaccine
91:oncoviruses
57:therapeutic
45:oncovaccine
3028:Thiomersal
2974:Paul Offit
2949:Jonas Salk
2925:Inventors/
2796:research:
2773:research:
2710:research:
2639:Skycovione
2629:Sanofi–GSK
2574:SARS-CoV-2
2485:Hantavirus
2446:rVSV-ZEBOV
2431:Adenovirus
2399:research:
2277:Diphtheria
2115:Attenuated
1732:13 October
1611:18 October
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569:tyrosinase
520:HPV16 E7 (
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423:telomerase
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3107:Phase III
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2644:Sputnik V
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2102:Conjugate
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773:influenza
767:that the
686:CancerVax
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2853:Cervarix
2800:Hookworm
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2248:Vaccines
2202:Schedule
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2081:Timeline
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651:Provenge
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556:Melanoma
544:Leukemia
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486:Antigen
465:and the
441:, IDO1 (
427:survivin
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215:epitopes
203:peptides
198:antigens
153:prostate
129:antigens
113:bacteria
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3054:Related
3000:General
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2609:Moderna
2604:Janssen
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2363:Typhoid
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2076:Storage
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