Cash (Chinese coin)

2344:(母錢) were used to cast these coins which were always exact it indicates that these "flower holes" were added post-casting, the largest amount of known cash coins with "flower holes" have very prominent octagonal holes in the middle on both sides of the coin, comparatively their legends are usually as defined as they appear on "normal cash coins", for this reason the hypothesis that they were accidentally added is disproven. All sides of these coins (either octagonal with "flower holes" or hexagonal with "turtle shell holes") are clearly contained inside of the cash coin's central rim. After the casting of cash coins had shifted to using bronze moulds these coins would appear as if they were branches of a "coin tree" (錢樹) where they had to be broken off, all excess copper-alloy had to be manually chiseled or filed off from the central holes. It is suspected that the "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" were produced during chiseling process, presumably while the employee of the manufacturing mint was doing the final details of the cash coins. As manually filing and chiseling cash coins was both an additional expense as well as time-consuming it is likely that the creation of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" was ordered by the manufacturer. However, as the quality of Tang and Song dynasty coinages was quite high it's unlikely that the supervisors would have allowed for a large number of these variant coins to be produced, pass quality control or be allowed to enter circulation. Cash coins with "flower holes" were produced in significant numbers by the 1354: 1855: 1843: 1731: 1882: 2458: 1704: 1096: 2756: 2705: 2316:. The exact origin and purpose of these variant holes is currently unknown but several hypotheses have been proposed by Chinese scholars. The traditional explanation for why these "flower holes" started appearing was accidental shifts of two halves of a prototype cash coin in clay, bronze, and stone moulds, these shifts would then produce the shape of the square hole to resemble multiple square holes placed on top of each other when the metal was poured in. A common criticism of this hypothesis is that if this were to happen then the inscription on the coin would also have to appear distorted, as well as any other marks that appeared on these cash coins, however this was not the case and the "flower holes" are equally distinctive as the square ones. 1771: 1758: 2741: 1412: 1298: 799: 9490: 3380:(年號), sometimes translated as "reign title" or "reign era", refers to the period title used by Chinese monarchs, these period titles typically consisted of an auspicious phrase (such as Immeasurable Splendour, Heavenly Favour, Abundant Happiness, or United Government) and was used to describe some or all years of the reign of an individual emperor. After the year 621, cash coins typically had 4 character obverse Inscriptions consisting of " (Tong/Yuan/Zhong)bao", reading as "(通/元/重)寳". Not all era names were considered to be useable for cash coin Inscriptions, causing them to substitute the 9930: 4327: 1922: 2266: 1787: 4355: 1716: 1828: 2906:. Not all Chinese cash coins found overseas were brought there by Chinese people, as they were inexpensive to purchase; before 1820, a foreign merchant could buy 1000 cash coins in China for one tael (36 grams) of silver; after 1845, this amount of silver could purchase 2200 or more cash coins. European merchants started purchasing cash coins in large quantities following the currency reforms enacted by the Ming dynasty between 1570 and 1580. During the many centuries of trade between Europe and China, cash coins would find their way to the 2167: 1816: 1870: 1743: 1240: 1800: 2955:

objects and that more attention should be given to determine whether cash coins were used as buttons, as basket decorations, as talismans, or joined together in red threads as misinterpreting their usage as pocket change may cause them to overlook other potential uses. She also notes that not all uses are identifiable and that careful examination of a pharmacy site might evidence their usage in traditional forms of medicine. Akin further cited a number of interviews with elderly Chinese residents of

2771: 2152:, which they believed would protect them from knife attacks and bullets. One contemporary Russian account from a battle with the Tlingits in 1792 states "bullets were useless against the Tlingit armour" - however this may speak to the inaccuracy of contemporary Russian smoothbore muskets than to the body armour and the Chinese cash coins sewn into the Tlingit armour. Other than for military purposes the Tlingit used Chinese cash coins on ceremonial robes. 4341: 4141:(折銀錢, "conversion coins") by Chinese numismatists, is a term used to designate Shunzhi Tongbao cash coins produced from the year 1653 that had the inscription "一厘" on the left to the square centre hole on their reverse sides, this inscription indicates that the nominal value of the cash coin corresponded to 0.001 tael of silver (1 li (釐 or 厘, "cash"), as a weight). This would mean that the official government conversation rate was set as 934:

string of cash could contain 970 coins in one city and 990 in the next. In some places in the North of China short of currency the custom counted one cash as two and fewer than 500 cash would be exchanged for an ounce of silver. A string of cash weighed over ten pounds and was generally carried over the shoulder. (See Hosea Morse's "Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire" p. 130 ff.) Paper money equivalents known as

2312:

distinctive shape. During this period a relatively small number of Chinese cash coins were minted with what are termed "flower holes", "chestnut holes" or "rosette holes", these holes were octagonal but resembled the shape of flowers. If the shape of these holes were only hexagonal then they were referred to as "turtle shell hole coins" (龜甲穿錢), in some occidental sources they may be called "star holes" because they resemble

2367:, after these coins were superseded by cash coins that included the year of production on their reverse sides the practice of casting cash coins with "flower holes" also seems to have drastically decreased. Due to this one hypothesis states that "flower holes" were added to Chinese cash coins to signify a year or period of the year or possibly a location where a cash coin was produced. Only a few cash coins produced by the 2990:" which were commonly given to newlyweds to hang over the marriage bed as a means to insure bliss and harmony. These coin-swords are typically an approximate length of 35 cm to 50 cm and require a minimum of 50 coins to make, while the older, larger, and more elaborately decorated coin-swords would typically contain around 150 cash coins. Other ritualistic uses of cash coins include being used as 40: 3133:. The introduction and circulation of counterfeit cash coins onto the market caused inflation, which hindered economic development and caused a series of social problems throughout history. These illegally produced cash coins typically had reduced weights or were adulterated with lower-cost metals (such as iron, lead, etc.), reducing the copper content in the alloys relative to genuine cash coins. 8753: 2982:) disputed the role of Chinese cash coins as money objects in any overseas Chinese community in the world. Ritchie and Park stated that their usage as a currency is "highly improbable" after analysing both archaeological and historical sources. They noted that Chinese cash coins among overseas communities were principally imported for gambling purposes, most notably as gaming counters. 2793: 2187:(吊) and were accepted by traders and merchants per string because counting the individual coins would cost too much time. Because the strings were often accepted without being checked for damaged coins and coins of inferior quality and copper-alloys these strings would eventually be accepted based on their nominal value rather than their weight, this system is comparable to that of a 1276:

the mould was placed into the top area, then the bronze smiths would pour molten metal into an opening that was formed by a cavity that was located in its centre. As this was done without using a prior model, early Chinese coinage tends to look very diverse, even from the same series of coins as these all were cast from different (and unrelated) moulds bearing the same inscriptions.

8703: 4101:. A number of surviving late Ming dynasty cash coins are found to have certain amounts of black lacquer substance that is found at the lower parts between characters. This lacquer tends to make the design of the coins look a bit cleaner and was possibly only applied to enhance the beauty of the coins and as an anti-counterfeiting measure. As the alloys of 2105:(乾隆通寶), and Jiaqing Tongbao (嘉慶通寶). These inscriptions are further seen as auspicious because "Shunzhi" (順治) translates into English "to rule smoothly", "Kangxi" (康熙) translates into English as "Healthy and prosperous", "Yongzheng" (雍正) translates into "harmony and upright", the first Chinese character "qián" (乾) from "Qianlong" (乾隆) is a 1317:. The mother coins were placed on the sand, and another pear wood frame would be placed upon the mother coin. The molten metal was poured in through a separate entrance formed by placing a rod in the mould. This process would be repeated 15 times and then molten metal would be poured in. After the metal had cooled down, the "coin tree" ( 3677:), or "commemorative cash coins", were a special type of cash coin produced to commemorate the opening of a mint or a new furnace. The largest ever recorded of these cash coins, and also the largest and heaviest ancient Chinese coin ever found, was a giant Jiajing Tongbao (嘉靖通寶) cash coin produced for the opening of a mint in 6358:

Ithaca New York 1991; James R. Rush, Opium to Java, Revenue Farming and Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Indonesia 1860–1910, Ithaca New York, 1990; Leo Suryadinata, Peranakan Chinese Politics in Java 1917–1942, Singapore 1981; Persoonlijke interviews met enkele Chinese Indonesiërs 2008–2011. Access date: 10 August 2017. (in

8700: 2986:

Chinese people living in the western regions of the North American continent. A large number of cash coins were transferred to the United States and Canada for a variety of talismanic and religious purposes. Akin states that a common talisman used by Chinese people living in the United States and Canada was the "

3911:. This is because cash coins until the mid-Ming dynasty period onwards most cash coins were made from bronze, though later cash coins were mostly made from brass causing them to oxidise differently, but because the old superstitions still applied people would manually apply cinnabar dye to make them appear red. 7860:"Silver Ingots as Money in Premodern China. Silver ingots (yinding 銀錠, yinkuai 銀塊, yinliang 銀兩) were one of the common currencies in imperial China. Since the Han period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) they served as a means of payment, but were not very widespread in contrast to the standard type of money, copper cash" 1321:錢樹) was extracted from the mould (which would be destroyed due to the process). The coins would be taken off the tree and placed on long square rods to have their edges rounded off, often for hundreds of coins simultaneously. After this process, the coins were strung together and brought into circulation. 6528:

Heritage Canada says the coin was minted between 1667 and 1671. It says the coin adds to the body of evidence that the Chinese market connected with Yukon First Nations through Russian and coastal Tlingit trade. The coin is different from others of its type because it has four additional small holes

2949:

Scholar Marjorie Kleiger Akin notes that it would have been impossible for Chinese cash coins to be used as money by overseas Chinese communities because "No object can circulate as money if it has a substantially greater value when removed from circulation and used for other purposes. The variety of

2929:

as money among themselves while living in the United States. Farris noted this possibility has been suggested by a number of scholars who have analysed coins that were found in the western United States and western Canada. Farris claims that this hypothesis was validated by the finding of 141 Chinese

2515:

and had both a higher width and thickness than regular cash coins. Red cash coins are also generally marked by their rather crude craftsmanship when compared to the cash coins of China proper. The edges of these coins are often not filed completely and the casting technique is often inaccurate or the

1275:

period, the method for casting coins consisted of first carving the individual characters of a coin together with its general outline into a mould made of either soapstone or clay. The casting process in these early moulds worked in a way that two mould-sections were placed together, then the core of

3803:

with "Tongbao" (通寶), or rarely "Zhongbao" (重寶), in their obverse inscription and the reverse inscription "Tianxia Taiping" (天下太平). These special cash coins were wrapped inside of a piece of rectangular cloth and every time that an Emperor died (or "ascended to his ancestors") the coins were replaced

3331:

period in 621 and was used as the most common inscription on cash coins for more than 1300 years and occupies a dominant position in the monetary history of China. Prior to the introduction of the Kaiyuan Tongbao, cash coins typically featured the weight of the coin as (a part of) their inscription,

6357:

by Imexbo. Bronnen vermeld door de website (sources named by the reference): Tropenmuseum; KB.nl , Waanders Uitgeverij; Ong Eng Die, Chinezen in Nederlandsch-Indië, Assen 1943; Role of the Indonesian Chinese in Shaping Modern Indonesian Life, Special Issue Indonesia, Cornell Southeast Asia Program,

1066:

argues that the late-Imperial Chinese polity was much more preoccupied with maintaining national grain reserves and making the price of grain affordable to the Chinese people and the attention of the government of the Qing dynasty to the exchange rate of copper and silver would have to be viewed in

933:

form traded for a fluctuating price of approximately 1000 cash. A string of cash was divided into ten sections of 100 cash each. Local custom allowed the person who put the string together to take a cash or a few from each hundred for his effort (one, two, three or even four in some places). Thus a

2985:

Scholar Marjorie Kleiger Akin noted that Chinese cash coins are "a dramatic example of artifacts whose primary function changed completely when they changed cultural context", noting that rather than being used as currency, they started to fulfil a large number of non-monetary functions among the

2510:

to reclaim the old pūl coins and using them as scrap for the production of new cash coins, these "red cash coins" had an official exchange rate with the pūl coins that remained in circulation of 1 "red cash" for 2 pūl coins. As Zhao Hui wanted the new can coins to have the same weight as pūl coins

2117:

Another type of supernatural belief involving cash coins is to have them buried with a corpse for good luck as well as to provide protection to the grave or tomb from evil spirits, although this tradition doesn't exclusively involve cash coins as early 20th century silver coins bearing the face of

3046:

that Asian cash coins are associated with one of 5 different uses: for gaming, as medicine, as talismans, as decorations, and in trade with Native Americans. She also notes that Vietnamese cash coins were unlikely to be traded or used as decorative items because the Chinese regarded them as "dirt

2954:

in North America and the numbers of the coins needed for some purposes have been underestimated in the past." Akin warned that archeologists should be more careful to describe unearthed cash coins in the United States as not underestimate how many cash coins were needed in the creation of various

2545:

ordered that 10% of all cash coins cast in Xinjiang should bear the inscription "Qianlong Tongbao" the majority of "red cash coins" with this inscription were actually produced after the Qianlong era as their production lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 making many of them hard to

2432:

The practice of creating cash coins with "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" was also adopted by Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, however cash coins with these features are extremely rare in these countries despite using the same production techniques which further indicates that their addition was

2311:

the square hole in the middle experienced only minor modifications such as being slightly bigger, smaller, more elongated, shaped incorrectly, or sometimes being filled with a bit of excess metal left over from the casting process. However, for over 2000 years Chinese cash coins mostly kept their

1381:

rather than from more pure copper as cast coins often were, and later the copper content of the alloy decreased while cheaper metals like lead and tin were used in larger quantities giving the coins a yellowish tint. Another effect of the contemporary copper shortages was that the Qing government

2519:

At the introduction of red cash system in Southern Xinjiang in 1760, the exchange rate of standard cash (or "yellow cash") and "red cash" was set at 10 standard cash coins were worth 1 "red cash coin". During two or three subsequent years this exchange rate was decreased to 5:1. When used in the

3973:

and make other religious artifacts which also meant that it was easy for them to also cast these special kind of cash coins which could then be used by faithful adherents of Buddhism as offerings to Buddha. In general, these temple coins tend to be much smaller and crudely made compared to

891:

resembled the ancient jade circles (璧環) which symbolised the supposed round shape of the sky, while the centre hole in this analogy is said to represent the planet earth (天圓地方). The body of these early round coins was called their "flesh" (肉) and the central hole was known as "the good" (好).

2215:

were often still nominally valued at 1000 cash coins. The number of coins in a single string was locally determined as in one district a string could consist of 980 cash coins, while in another district this could only be 965 cash coins, these numbers were based on the local salaries of the

2893:

Archeologists have also used Chinese cash coins found outside China to date various historical Chinese settlements. However, the cash coins recovered from these sites aren't exclusively Chinese, and archaeologists don't always recommend this method for dating. The cash coins recovered at

2826:

and areas with concentrations of Chinese people has been proposed and disputed by multiple archeologists over the years. With modern scholars generally agreeing that they exclusively served non-currency functions and had gaming, religious, and cultural roles among the overseas Chinese.

2178:

The square hole in the middle of cash coins served to allow for them to be strung together in strings of 1000 cash coins and valued at 1 tael of silver (but variants of regional standards as low as 500 cash coins per string also existed), 1000 coins strung together were referred to as a

2608:) were also materials that have been used for money at various points in Chinese history. Iron cash coins and lead cash coins were often used in cases when there was an insufficient supply of copper. 2 iron cash coins were usually worth only a single bronze cash coin. Because of 6960:(越南古代铅锌钱金属成分分析与探讨) – Guangxi Financial Research, 3–11, 2007 (广西金融研究, 3–11, 2007: 3–11页共9页). – Quote: "在唐武宗（公元841年）时期的窖藏钱币中就发现了有少量的铅质开元通宝。" (A small amount of lead Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were found in the coin hoards dating to the reign of Emperor Wuzong of Tang (841 AD).). 3974:

earlier and later Chinese cash coins. However, because these temple coins, due to their copper content, still had intrinsic value, they would sometimes serve as an alternative currency in China, this would particularly happen during difficult economic times when the

1881: 1998:; this required the healer to scrape the patient's skin with cash coins as they believed that the pathogen remained stagnant underneath the patient's skin in a process called "coining". Though in general any cash coin could be used in traditional Chinese medicine, the 1345:祖錢). Eventually this resulted in greater uniformity among cast Chinese coinage from that period onwards. A single ancestor coin would be used to produce tens of thousands of mother coins; each of these in turn was used to manufacture tens of thousands of cash coins. 957:

but after the reestablishment of the Han dynasty, the production of Wu Zhu cash coins resumed, and continued to be manufactured long after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty for another 500 years. Minting was definitively ended in 618 with the establishment of the

3129:'Bad money') refers to illegally produced cash coins, often of inferior quality. Coin counterfeiting has been recorded as early as the Qin dynasty period and has negatively affected social stability and caused economic problems that would continue in later 6529:

above each corner of the central square. 'The extra holes could have been made in China. Coins were sometimes nailed to a gate, door or ridgepole for good luck. Alternatively, First Nations might have made the extra holes to attach them to clothing,' said Mooney.

5308:

The Eduard Kann Collection of Chinese Coins and Odd & Curious Monies, H.D. Gibbs Collection, Part V, and Gold, Silver Rarities of the World: To be Offered at Public Auction Sale, June 18, 19, 20, 1971 Publisher: Schulman Coin & Mint, Inc. Published:

1049:

stated that in the year 1900 traditional cast copper-alloy cash coins only made up 17.78% of the total Chinese currency stock, privately-produced banknotes made up only 3%, and foreign trade dollars circulating in China (which mostly included the silver

3699:), where the cash coin is on display, conducted a sampling and analysis of the coin, conducted an assay and concluded that the coin had a composition of 90. 81% copper, 0. 584% aluminum, 0. 532% zinc, and 3% iron. In the year 2002 it was added to the 1353: 3681:, Sichuan. This Kai Lu cash coin has a diameter of 57.8 centimeters (or 22.8 inches), a thickness of 3.7 centimeters (or 1.5 inches), and it has a weight of 41.5 kilograms (or 91.5 pounds). On June 27, 1990, the Quality Inspection Section of the 2335:

the number of Chinese cash coins with "flower holes" started to increase and circulated throughout the entire empire, concurrently the casting of Chinese cash coins was switched from using clay moulds to using bronze ones, however the earliest

2615:

In some cases the usage of certain types of materials to produce cash coins are only more recently discovered due to the lack of historical records mentioning them. For example, it has only been since more recent times that the fact that the

7880:

Silver ingots were cast in the shape of small "boats" called baoyuan 元寶 or baoyin 寶銀. Still today, this shape is used as a symbol for wealth and prosperity, and seen in New Year's prints, as well as used for lavish wedding gifts of precious

4105:

was different from unlacquered cash coins in circulation at the time, the lacquer may have served as a coating that protected the coin from corrosion. During circulation, the lacquer on the raised parts of the coin would have likely rubbed

660:

In the modern era, these coins are considered to be Chinese "good luck coins"; they are hung on strings and round the necks of children, or over the beds of sick people. They hold a place in various traditional Chinese techniques, such as

4294:(文) could be paid out using only one physical cash coins instead of two, in this system a string of Beijing cash coins (吊) required only 500 cash coins as opposed to the majority of China which used 1000 cash coins for a string (串). 4057:) that were used to pay the wages of employees of the imperial government (including the mint workers themselves) and was one of the most commonly circulating types of cash coins during the Ming dynasty among the general population. 3294:(四訣), four lines radiating outward from the four corners of the square centre hole which may or may not extend entirely to the rim of the reverse of a cash coin, these lines were exclusively included on some Song dynasty cash coins. 7907:

Peng Zeyi (彭澤益). ‘1853–1868 nian de Zhongguo tonghuo pengzhang 1853–1868 (年的中國通貨膨脹)’, in Peng Zeyi (彭澤益) (ed.), Shijiu shiji houbanqi Zhongguo de caizheng yu jingji (十九世紀后半期中國的財政與經濟) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983). Page 88. (in

1130:, trial cash coins are reported to have been minted as part of the "Hong Xiang Tong Bao" (洪憲通寶) series in 1916 but not circulated. During the Republican period cash coins with the inscription Fujian Tongbao (福建通寶) were produced in 3907:. This occurs when local corrosion and electrochemical corrosion will also occur, producing red and green rust forming small pinholes (referred to as "bone rust"). Cash coins typically first rust green before they turn red into 1230:

or iron. In the mid-19th century, the coins were made of 3 parts copper and 2 parts lead. Cast silver coins were periodically produced but considerably more rare. Cast gold coins are also known to exist but are extremely rare.

3927:

during the Song dynasty and bear the inscriptions Xianping Yuanbao (咸平元寶) and Xiangfu Yuanbao (祥符元寶), respectively. Bingqian can range from being 26.5 millimeters in diameter and weighing 10.68 grams to being 66 millimeters in

6393:

The Tlingit believed that these old Chinese coins, made of bronze or brass and having a square hole in the middle, would provide protection from knives and bullets when fighting territorial wars against other tribes or the

2532:

were the sites of mints operated by the Qing government, as the official mint of the Dzungar Khanate was in the city of Yarkent the Qing used this mint to cast the new "red cash coins" and new mints were established in

2113:

of where Song dynasty cash coins were found in a Ming dynasty period tomb, it has been speculated by some archeologists that people during the Ming dynasty might have held similar beliefs with Song dynasty cash coins.

6831:

Chen Lianting (陈联廷) – 怎样寻觅花穿钱 – Shouchang Jie, issue 88, 2008 (收藏界, 88, 2008). Quote: "在方孔钱上,盛开着一朵奇异的小花,这就是独树一帜的花穿钱.所谓花穿钱,是指方孔钱的穿廓部位在外形上有些微妙变化.其钱的穿孔呈八角形态,穿似花朵,新颖别致.它改变了方孔钱的单调形式,在表现形式上更具有独特的艺术魅力.这种异形穿孔钱,称之为花穿钱(如图1).".

6573:

Village Life in China: A study in sociology door Arthur H. Smith, D.D. New York, Chicago, Toronto. Uitgever: Fleming H. Revell Company (Publishers of Evangelical Literature) Auteursrecht: 1899 door Fleming H. Revell

3346:(元寳), literally "inaugural treasure", "first treasure", "primal treasure", "original treasure", or "round treasure", originated as a misreading of the Inscription Kaiyuan Tongbao where the inscription was read 6991: 4300:(庫平錢), refers to a unit that was part of the official standardisation of the Chinese monetary system during the late Qing period by the imperial treasury to create a decimal system in which 1 Kuping Qian was 3894:

dye. Ancient Chinese people believed that making cash coins into a bright red colour played a role in warding off evil spirits by hanging it on a beam in the house or wearing such coins around their waist.

3244:), or "corner coins", is a term used to refer to Wu Zhu cash coins with four oblique lines that extend outward from each corner of the square centre hole to the rim of the reverse side of the cash coin. In 2520:

Northern or Eastern circuits of Xinjiang, the "red cash coins" were considered equal in value as the standard cash coins that circulated there. The areas where the Dzungar pūls had most circulated such as

1854: 5843: 1961:

lying on their obverse or reverse sides, and how these coins scratched the shell, this process was repeated three or six times. After this a very intricate system based on the position of the coins with

6921:(以铅铸钱始于燕) – "China Numismatics", Issue 1, 1990 (《中国钱币》1990年第1期 – 55–57页共4页). Quote: "我国是最早以铅铸钱的国家,这己为人们所公认。" (China is the first country to cast money with lead, which has been recognised by people.). 3969:) were supporters of Buddhism, which meant that the Buddhist temples tended to receive official government support. During this period the larger Buddhist temples in China were able to cast bronze 3372:(重寳), literally "heavy treasure", an inscription typically used on high denomination cash coins, initially introduced in 758 with the Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寳) nominally valued at 10 ordinary cash coins. 3038:

communities. The continued usage or cash coins in this practice is because suitably large US coins are not considered to be appropriate, as the edges of the coin must be smooth to avoid skin abrasion.

2306:

Although Chinese cash coins kept their round shape with a square hole from the Warring States period until the early years of the Republic of China, under the various regimes that ruled during the long

886:

cash coins were said to have been made in the shape of wheels, similar to other Ancient Chinese forms of coinage resembling agricultural tools. It is commonly believed that the early round coins of the

6853: 2502:(乾隆通寶) cash coins, as pūl coins were usually around 98% copper they tended to be very red in colour which gave the cash coins based on the pūl coins the nickname "red cash coins". In July 1759 General 1309:母錢) were cast as the basis for coin production. These were engraved in generally easily manipulated metals such as tin. Coins were cast in sand moulds. Fine wet sand was placed in rectangles made from 8215: 3682: 3157: 6470: 5454:"The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali – While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin" 5427:"The inevitable marriage of bitcoin and Silicon Bali – While not glaringly evident, the cultural, financial, historical and even geographical facts of Bali make it the perfect place for bitcoin" 3599:(900–914) confiscated all bronze cash coins and buried them in a cave, because of this the people had to rely on cash coins made out of clay while later bad quality iron cash coins were issued. 1988:, one method of using cash coins for "medicine" was boiling them in water and letting the patient consume that water. Other than that they were also used as "medical tools" particularly in the 1730: 8701:“Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed. 833:

began to be used to conduct smaller exchanges with the tokens later melted down to produce real farm implements. These tokens came to be used as media of exchange themselves and were known as

8855: 4145:(折銀一厘錢), which was proof that silver was of continuing importance as a currency of account. Similar cash coins with this reverse inscription were also being produced by some rulers of the 4067:

that entered China during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the Imperial Chinese court eventually prohibited them. These are sometimes discovered in China among Chinese cash coins.

3899:

refers to old cash coins which had oxidated in an alkaline environment (PH7-10) and appeared red in colour, this is because the soil reduced substances such as organic sugars to produce

2299:) are a type of Chinese cash coin with an octagonal hole as opposed to a square one, they have a very long history possibly dating back to the first Ban Liang cash coins cast under the 7792: 6810:中國歷代幣貨 A History of Chinese Currency (16th Century BC – 20th Century AD), 1983 Jointly Published by Xinhua (New China) Publishing House N.C.N. Limited M.A.O. Management Group Ltd. 6987: 7950:"Mold for wuzhu coins – Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) – Bronze; H. 22.7 cm, W. 7.7cm, D. 0.9 cm – Excavated from Cangshan – Collection of Shandong Provincial Museum – (cat. #19A)" 5939:

To foretell the future, toss three coins six times. Some people use pennies. Others insist on Chinese coins. The fall of heads and tails yields six lines, either solid or broken.

2620:

had attempted to produce lead cash coins been discovered. Because of this almost no Chinese coin catalogues list their existence while they have mentioned in works such as the

1054:) made up 25% of the total Chinese currency stock by the 1900s. The context of traditional Chinese cash coins in the Chinese economy during the 1900s and its late stage in the 7004:

The characters on the coin were written by the famous calligrapher of early Tang Dynasty, OUYANG Xun,they translate to "circulated treasures at the beginning of the dynasty".

3768: 6544: 3023:

While there's no evidence for historical medicinal uses of Chinese cash coins among the overseas Chinese communities living in the United States, today their usage in the

2636:

This table reflects current knowledge, but future archaeological research might reveal that other materials were used for cash coins in other periods of Chinese history.

5292: 7825: 10000: 6983: 2580:), lead, silver, and gold. While silver and gold were also used for other currencies in Chinese history, as it has in most other cultures around the world, but also 1862: 6515: 645:

coins occasionally used less often throughout Chinese history. Rare silver and gold cash coins were also produced. During most of their production, cash coins were

6418: 1842: 5840: 3016:

Cash coins were also reported to have been used in decorative manners, for example 19th and early 20th century Chinese American mineworkers often strung them as

2881: 6440: 8883: 5862:"Styles of calligraphy on coins. – Examples of the five major styles of calligraphy: zhuanshu, lishu, kaishu, xingshu and caoshu as well as two special styles" 5461: 4938: 4749: 895:

The hole enabled the coins to be strung together to create higher denominations, as was frequently done due to the coin's low value. The number of coins in a

6850: 6564:

Lloyd Eastman, Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550–1949, Oxford University Press (1988), 108–112.

6269: 2457: 1835: 5631: 4983: 3009:. Though their usage as markers or counters wasn't exclusively done so in betting games, as children used them in a similar manner in a variety of the game 2946:, California, United States. Other scholars dispute these claims and have used a large number of both historical and contemporary evidence to debunk this. 5656: 2067:

A common superstitious belief involving Chinese cash coins specifically based on their inscriptions are "the five emperor coins" (traditional Chinese:

7645: 7349:

HATTORI, EUGENE M. 1978 The Lovelock Coins: Analysis of coins from the Lovelock “Chinatown” site (26Pe356). Ms. on file, Nevada State Museum, Carson City

6551:

by Debin Ma. Economic History Department London School of Economics Dec. 2011 Chapter contribution to Encyclopedia of Financial Globalization edited by

6380: 6178: 2755: 2387: 1095: 7325: 3596: 1517:(泉) was commonly used to refer to cash coins however this was not a real monetary unit but did appear in the inscriptions of several cash coins, in the 1081:

shortly before the fall of the Empire in 1911, though even after the fall of the Qing dynasty production briefly continued under the Republic of China.

6773: 6658: 6485: 6081: 3718: 3714: 1090: 8458:

In: Leonard, Jane Kate, Ulrich Theobald (eds) Money in Asia (1200–1900): small currencies in social and political contexts. Brill, Leiden, pp 220–223.

5549:

Vogel, Hans Ulrich. ‘Chinese Central Monetary Policy, 1600–1844’, in Late Imperial China, 8/2 (1987), pp. 1–52. Wagner, Donald B. Ferrous Metallurgy (

1703: 8059: 5736: 4708: 4120: 3994:, these at certain times were considered to be legal tender if the current Chinese government didn't produce enough cash coins to meet market demand. 3433: 3425: 8802:

Horesh, Niv (2004). "The Transition from Coinage to Paper Money in China: Hallmarks of Statehood in Global Perspective, 8th Century BC to 1935 AD".

8022: 7217: 4730: 2089:

because during the reign of these five emperors China was powerful and prosperous. Furthermore, the term "five emperors" (五帝) also alludes to the "

1108: 5567: 5111: 4916: 3384:

with a dynastic title, consisting of the name of the dynasty in conjunction with a honorific adjective, for example Hanyuan Tongbao (漢元通寳) by the

2046:, for this reason some businesses hang Chinese cash coins as store signs for good luck and to allegedly avoid misfortune similar to how images of 6208: 1063: 8733: 8476: 7990: 5950:古文錢，但得五百年之外者即可用，而唐高祖所鑄開元通寶，得輕重大小之中，尤為古今所重 (Ancient money can be used if it is more than five hundred years old, but the Kaiyuan Tongbao cast by 4073:(鏇邊錢), literally "lathed-rim cash coins", was a popular name (folk name) used during the Ming dynasty period to refer to cash coins produced in 10238: 9340: 7709: 5606: 5430: 2137:) strung together by cotton threads would guarantee that all the organs and body parts of the deceased will be in the right place during their 6305: 2085:(following their conquest of China in 1644). These cash coins are believed to have the power to ensure prosperity and to give protection from 2056:

where they are associated with an abundance of resources, personal wealth, money, and prosperity. Cash coins are featured on the logos of the

9993: 7372: 3280:), or "royally inscribed currency", is a term used to describe Song dynasty era cash coins which, according to legend, were inscribed by the 8679: 3858:(小平錢) refers to the smallest and most common cash coins, they usually had a diameter of about 2.4–2.5 cm and weights between 3–4 grams. 882:, the most common formation was the round-shaped copper coin with a square or circular hole in the center, the prototypical cash. The early 653:

cash coins began to be made. As the cash coins produced over Chinese history were similar, thousand year old cash coins produced during the

7780: 2340:

cash coins were still cast with clay moulds so the mould type alone cannot explain why these "flower holes" became increasingly common. As

8531: 9455: 8831:

The book has been translated into English by Edward 11. Kaplan as A Monetary History of China (Bellingham, WA: Western Washington, 1994).

7251:

In Archaeological and Historical Studies at Ninth and Amherst, Lovelock, Nevada, edited by Eugene Hattori, Mary Rusco, and Donald Tuohy.

6601: 4085:(鏇車). These cash coins were stable, had a yellowish colour that contemporary sources describe as "beautiful", and round and smooth rims. 4017:

to refer to copper-alloy cash coins produced by the imperial mints according to the standards which were fixed by the central government.

6330: 5376: 5027: 4669:"Counterfeiting activities during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) revealed by the special alloy coins in the Chenzhou hoard, Hunan, China" 4053:(賞錢, "Tip money"), is a term used during the Ming dynasty to refer to cash coins that were small, thin, and very fragile (comparable to 2576:. However, other materials had at different times in Chinese history also been used for the manufacture of cash coins such as iron (see 2498:(ﭘول) coins of Dzungaria circulated earlier the pūl-system was continued but some of the old Dzungar pūl coins were melted down to make 1283:, to gain consistency in the circulating coinage, master bronze moulds were manufactured to be used as the basis for other cash moulds. 9759: 8876: 8152:"Palace issue coin. – Obverse – reign title Dao Kuang Tung Pao; Reverse – T'ien Hsia T'ai P'ing (An Empire at Peace or Peace on Earth)" 5403: 5010: 2503: 1926: 1916: 6021: 4785: 2624:

which deal with the topic. Lead cash coins have only been produced at a few times in the monetary history of china, mainly during the

9479: 8909: 7561: 4878: 4384: 1406: 942: 8499: 8182: 7867: 5711: 4095:

applied to the coins during finishing aspect of the manufacturing process. The only evidence of their existence is mentioned in the

3923:

to refer to cash coins that have extremely broad outer rims and are extremely thick and heavy. These cash coins were produced under

3808:

while others were produced by private mints. Palace issues tend to be larger than circulation cash coins with the same inscriptions.

2042:

In modern times though no longer issued by any government, cash coins are believed to be symbols of good fortune and are considered

1389:

The production of machine-struck cash coins in Qing China ran contemporary with the production of machine-struck French Indochinese

9986: 6109: 2203:

would receive payment for their services in the form of taking a few cash coins from every string they composed, because of this a

8314: 7953: 7195: 7145: 7046: 1559:

kept being used as an accounting unit for banknotes and later on larger copper coins to measure how many cash coins it was worth.

9395: 5912: 5117: 5069: 4978: 4091:(火漆錢), literally "fire lacquer coins", refers to a Ming dynasty period type of cash coins that were produced by having a special 1377:, Guangdong opened where the majority of the machine-struck cash would be produced. Machine-made cash coins tend to be made from 6541: 4828: 3158:

Han dynasty coinage § Dots, crescents, circles, numbers, counting rods, Chinese characters, and other symbols appearing on coins

2704: 9563: 6753: 6103: 3771:. They were primarily used during the holidays, such as the birthdays of the reigning emperor or empress as well during as the 3757:

despite no Daqian from these periods being produced at any of these mints. These special cash coins were created to serve as a

2677: 2625: 8272: 6840:

Zhang Hongming (张宏明) – 花穿钱的时代与成因问题 – China Numismatics (中国钱币), 33–36, 1994. Quote: "有一种被人们称之为"花穿"或"龟甲穿"的穿孔,其钱穿形状六角或八角,极其新颖别致".

8869: 8792: 8357: 5028:"Samarqand's Cast Coinage of the Early 7th–Mid-8th Centuries AD: Assessment based on Chinese sources and numismatic evidence" 4556: 3090:(錢樹), are the "tree-shaped" result of the casting process off of which the cash coins were taken to later be strung together. 1027:, and Vietnamese all cast their own copper cash in the latter part of the second millennium similar to those used by China. 587:, used from the 4th century BC until the 20th century AD, characterised by their round outer shape and a square center hole ( 6896: 5289: 4666: 4203:(青錢, "green cash"), is a term used to refer to Qing dynasty era cash coins produced from 1740 where 2% tin was added to the 4023:(舊錢), a term used during the Ming and Qing dynasties to refer to Song dynasty era cash coins that were still in circulation. 9869: 9703: 9297: 9118: 7834: 7612: 6815: 6350: 5602: 4585: 4379: 4254: 4246: 3805: 3710: 2161: 1394: 1020:, which would influence the inscriptions of cash coins, both inside and outside of China, minted from this period onwards. 5865: 3462:

where cash coins with the same weight, inscription, and denomination was simultaneously cast in different scripts such as

1431:

The earliest standard denominations of cash coins were theoretically based on the weight of the coin and were as follows:

10284: 8972: 7676: 6507: 4043:(俸錢, "Stipend coin"), is a term used during the Ming dynasty to refer to second rate cash coins that had a weight of 0.9 2421:) as in the term "chestnut holes" could be a homophonic pun in Mandarin Chinese with the phrase "establishing sons" (立子, 2402: 2106: 2035:

or a type of ointment. The "tea" produced from these zinc cash coins would then for the treatment of the eyes, ears, and

2031:, which have the highest levels of zinc of any cash coins, were ground up into zinc powder that was mixed into either an 1529:(貨) with the Chinese character "化" being a simplified form of "貨" without the "貝". This character was often mistaken for 1192:) were also cast, but never circulated. The coin continued to be used unofficially in China until the mid-20th century. 995: 6406: 6051: 1419:, the first coin reads clockwise while the others read top-bottom-right-left, the first and second coins are written in 7309: 5991: 5352: 3313:(銖), weight measures used as the main obverse inscriptions on ancient Chinese cash coins until the introduction of the 3156:, a curved mark often found on the reverse side of cash coins, these are referred to as "moons" (月), further reading: " 2918: 2911: 2090: 1199: 6638: 6448: 3001:

Chinese cash coins were also commonly reported to be used by Chinese Americans in a number of gambling games, such as

8244: 7326:

https://www.alaskaanthropology.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/akanth-articles_385_v10_n12_Mooney-Kristensen-Walde.pdf

6794: 5925: 5167: 4944: 4906: 4680: 2935: 1589:

A great majority of cash coins had no denomination specifically designated but instead carried the issuing emperor's

1100: 962:. Wu Zhu cash coins were cast from 118 BC to 618 AD having a span of 736 years, which is the longest for any coin in 6233: 5453: 4950: 4746: 4614: 3474: 1334:(葉錢, "leaf coins") because of the way that they resemble leaves on a branch when they were being cast in the mould. 7419: 7288: 7252: 7235: 7178: 7128: 7029: 6728: 6261: 2885: 2149: 2109:

with "qián" (錢) meaning "money", and "Jiaqing" (嘉慶) translates into English as "good and celebrate". Because of an

758:

There are a variety of Chinese terms for cash coins, usually descriptive and most commonly including the character

8155: 5686: 4159:(輕錢), is a Qing dynasty era term that refers to lightweight cash coins created from 1702 that had a weight of 0.7 10274: 9448: 8999: 5628: 5322: 4972: 4853: 2673: 1393:

cash coins, but unlike in China milled cash coinage would eventually become popular in French Indochina with the

634: 5648: 4502:

Chinese numismatists use the term "conversion coins" because of their official fixed value compared with silver.

4264:(長錢) refers to the regular cash coin system used across China where 1000 cash coins make up a single string (串). 8580: 8381: 8284: 5537: 5099: 3195: 2274: 1770: 1161: 908: 323: 189: 55: 7637: 6372: 6170: 5969:清朝紀曉嵐在《閱微草堂筆記·槐西雜誌》中提到過一個事例："交河黃俊生言，折傷接骨者，以開通元寶錢燒而醋淬，研為末，以酒服下，則銅末自結而為圈，周束折處，曾以折足雞試之，果接續如故。及烹此雞驗其骨，銅束宛然。" (in 4667:

Li Fang, Shengqiang Luo, Wenli Zhou, Chunxin Wang, Zhengyao Jin, Fang Huang, and Anchuan Fan (11 March 2023).

44:

Replicas of various ancient to 19th century cast cash coins in various metals found in China, Korea and Japan.

10264: 9749: 9375: 9365: 8962: 8543: 8256: 7395: 7371:

HELVEY, PAMELA n.d. Archeological Investigations at Yreka Chinatown. Ms. on file, Cultural Heritage Section,

3603: 3203: 2979: 2975: 2931: 2282: 1908: 1169: 1127: 987: 900: 434: 337: 300: 203: 166: 69: 20: 6770: 6655: 6073: 4288:(中錢), an exchange rate used in the capital city of Beijing, the Jingqian system allowed a nominal debt of 2 2269:

A Yuan Feng Tong Bao (元豐通寶) from the Northern Song dynasty with a "flower (or 'rosette') hole" in the middle

10289: 10279: 10160: 9878: 9696: 9380: 9370: 9360: 9224: 9052: 8924: 5956: 4290: 4238: 4220: 3991: 3130: 3024: 2191:. Because the counting and stringing together of cash coins was such a time consuming task people known as 2110: 2082: 1985: 1583: 1555: 1136: 666: 8048: 5728: 4668: 1930: 9837: 8904: 8762: 8018: 7445: 7410:. Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology (Australasian Society for Historical Archaeology): 41–48. 5033: 4368: 2685: 2372: 1967: 1757: 1058:

is comparable to that of Western Europe's tiered currency systems used prior to the steam-powered mints,

1055: 9070: 5147: 9441: 7468: 7313: 6645:

Section: “Guan 貫, Suo 索, Min 緡, Diao 吊, Chuan 串.” by Lars Bo Christensen. Retrieved: 05 February 2018.

5575: 5554: 5251: 5122: 4900: 4193:(黃錢, "yellow cash"), a term used to refer to early Qing dynasty era cash coins that didn't contain any 4169:(重錢, "full-weight cash" or "heavy cash"), refers to cash coins produced from 1702 with a weight of 1.4 3332:

but as cash coins were now valued based on government regulation rather than their weight as a form of

2021:, in China's first emergency medicine manual. Bronze cash coins are typically used to treat a person's 584: 6200: 4124: 2840:, such as are now current in China and imported expressly for gambling purposes in large quantities." 1541:

as a currency unit is because it means "to exchange" and could be interpreted as exchanging money for

9754: 9315: 9020: 8768: 8725: 8468: 8421: 7982: 7672: 6622: 2002:

was most preferred, and preferences were given for some specific coins for certain ailments E.g. the

1912: 1546: 7701: 6160:時氣溫病，頭痛壯熱脈大，始得一日者。比輪錢一百五十七文，水一斗，煮取七升，服汁。須臾復以水五升，更煮一升，以水二升投中，合得三升，出錢飲汁，當吐毒出也。（東晉·《肘後方》：中國第一部臨床急救手冊） 6014:"What To Expect From A Chinese Fortune Teller: A Guide to Prices, Fortune Telling Methods, and More" 5598: 5515:(中國貨幣史, "A history of Chinese currency") – Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1965. Page: 41. (in 5426: 3362:

had the word "Yuan" (元) in his name. The term "Yuanbao" is also an alternative name for boat-shaped

3005:. While the cash coins were being used as counters or markers, all bets were exclusively made using 2448: 2017:

incorporate cash coins as ingredients. This usage of cash coins has been documented as early as the

9862: 9647: 9272: 9175: 9170: 8401: 8397: 5810: 5276: 5272: 5231: 3924: 3862: 3166:, a round mark often found on the reverse side of cash coins, these are referred to as "stars" (星). 2959:

who all claimed that they have never heard of anyone using cash coins as a type of currency there.

2477: 2394: 1896: 1411: 527: 9105: 7171: 6301: 1578:) with 10 mace equal to one tael. The mace denominations were so ubiquitous that the Chinese word 1297: 9952: 9938: 9904: 9744: 9062: 8914: 8671: 5484:

Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: In the U.S. Sloop-of-war Peacock

4411: 4401: 4064: 3982: 3713:

made from an alloy of tin, iron, copper, silver, and gold. They contain the obverse inscriptions

3285: 3072:(母錢), are model cash coins used in the casting process from which other cash coins were produced. 3056: 2426: 2061: 1954: 1904: 1252: 1203: 1113: 850: 676: 7925:(略谈安南白铅(锌)钱的特色). – "Regional Finance Research", Issue S1, 1999 (《区域金融研究》1999年第S1期: 40–41页共2页). 2740: 9899: 9847: 9811: 9678: 8528: 6555:

and Larry Neal forthcoming with Elsevier. Published: January 2012. Retrieved: 05 February 2018.

4406: 3700: 2866: 2628:. Because of how soft lead is, most lead cash coins that are found today tend to be very worn. 2195:(錢鋪) would string cash coins together in strings of 100 coins of which ten would form a single 7306:

Reliability of Dating Archaeological and Ethnographic Materials Associated with Chinese Coins.

6593: 4875:

Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives)

4662: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4654: 2612:, iron cash coins are rarely in very good condition today, especially if they were excavated. 2166: 8947: 8604: 7211: 6860:

by Ondřej Klimeš (ANNALS OF THE NÁPRSTEK MUSEUM 25 • PRAGUE 2004). Retrieved: 28 August 2018.

6327: 5951: 5399: 5397: 5368: 5255: 5039: 4724: 3837: 3459: 3393: 3389: 2785: 2733: 2669: 2481: 2349: 2345: 2207:

was more likely to consist of 990 coins rather than 1000 coins and because the profession of

2028: 1958: 1946: 1921: 1586:, smaller subdivisions of the tael, were also used as currency denominations for cash coins. 1416: 1195: 979: 888: 654: 626: 9489: 7754: 7752: 7750: 6508:"17th-century Chinese coin found in Yukon – Russian traders linked China with First Nations" 5007: 1313:, and small amounts of coal and charcoal dust were added to refine the process, acting as a 1107:

After the fall of the Qing empire, local production of cash coins continued, including the "

798: 9817: 9282: 9185: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8952: 8932: 8377: 7362:, edited by Roberta Greenwood, pp. 497–508. San Buenaventura Redevelopment Agency, Ventura. 6958:

Analysis and discussion on the metal composition of ancient lead-zinc cash coins in Vietnam

6013: 5533: 4773: 4692: 4651: 4207:, however despite being called "green cash" it looked indistinguishable from "yellow cash". 3953: 3608: 3385: 3006: 2991: 2926: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2857: 2819: 1007: 1003: 999: 983: 812: 9929: 7549: 4870: 3886:) refers to cash coins and cash coin amulets that have been artificially made to resemble 3844:. This term was used to differentiate these coins from other shapes of coins, such as the 8: 10269: 9855: 9004: 8967: 8942: 8937: 8507: 8178: 7859: 7851: 7747: 7449: 7113: 7111: 7109: 7107: 7105: 7103: 7101: 7099: 7097: 5827: 5779: 5762: 5708: 4910: 4033:(北錢, "Northern coin"), is a term used during the Ming dynasty to refer to full weight (1 3485: 3035: 2725: 2689: 2473: 2364: 2018: 1821: 1763: 1736: 1672: 1661: 991: 873: 865: 710: 550: 457: 7095: 7093: 7091: 7089: 7087: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7079: 7077: 4973:"Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the subsequent Ten States Five Kingdoms era (907–960 or so)" 4820: 4696: 3978:

paper money issued by the Mongol government was no longer considered to be of any value.

3076: 2265: 1981:

found the usage of cash coins for fortune-telling to be superior to any other methods.

8306: 7411: 7173: 7119: 7024: 6583:

Wang Yü-Ch’üan, Early Chinese coinage, The American numismatic society, New York, 1951.

4562: 4360: 3678: 2564:

During most of their history the cast cash coins of China were predominantly made from

2094: 2003: 1542: 1390: 1341:, the mother coins were no longer carved separately but derived from "ancestor coins" ( 8622:

T’ien-Kung K’ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century, by Sung Ying-Hsing.

8149: 7949: 7270: 6945:

Exploration of Western Han Dynasty lead cash coins unearthed in Yanchi County, Ningxia

6625:(1921) Uitgegever: Guttag Bros. Numismatics New York, U.S.A. Accessed: 3 October 2017. 5061: 3919:(餅錢, "biscuit coins" or "cake coins"), is a term used by modern Chinese and Taiwanese 2148:

of the Pacific Northwest (present-day Alaska and Canada) used Chinese cash coins for

1786: 616: 420: 286: 152: 10243: 10113: 10101: 9739: 9336: 9328: 9323: 9307: 9155: 9150: 8851: 8788: 8374:

The Magistrate's Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch’ing China

8353: 8054: 7292: 7074: 6811: 6790: 6552: 6476: 5970: 5921: 5918: 5348: 5163: 5095: 4566: 4552: 4441: 4373: 4275: 4163:, these coins all disappeared from circulation around the middle of the 18th century. 3904: 2956: 2943: 2922: 2622:

Meng Guohua: Guilin Faxian Qian Xi Hejin Qian. Zhongguo Qianbi No. 3. 1994 (Vol. 46.)

2393:

It is also possible that these "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" functioned as

1974: 1900: 1314: 728: 9433: 6750: 6445:

Everett Millman (Gainesville News – Precious Metal, Financial, and Commodities News)

6115: 5984:"Fortune-Telling and Old Chinese Cash Coins. Traditional Methods of Fortune-Telling" 3323:(通寳), literally "circulating treasure", is an inscription first introduced with the 1869: 1715: 9962: 9636: 9582: 9422: 9403: 9385: 9160: 8539: 8345: 8280: 8269: 8252: 8044: 7935: 7909: 7767: 7187: 7137: 7038: 6947:(宁夏盐池县出土西汉铅钱探索) – "Xinjiang Numismatics" 2005 No. 3 (《新疆钱币》2005年第3期: 44–56页共13页). 6819: 6798: 5516: 5235: 4743: 4700: 4548: 4544: 4224: 3866:(花錢, "Flower coin"), charms, amulets, and talismans that often resemble cash coins. 3788: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3758: 3654: 3501: 3376: 3281: 3245: 3184: 2807: 2650: 2507: 2499: 2466: 2363:) which were cash coins with identical inscriptions written in different styles of 2308: 2102: 2032: 1641: 1590: 1357:

Machine-struck cash coins issued under the Guangxu Emperor in Guangzhou, Guangdong.

1185: 1149: 1078: 938:

sometimes showed pictures of the appropriate number of cash coins strung together.

763: 588: 368: 234: 100: 9978: 7444:. Booklet to accompany exhibit of the same name. C. E. Smith Anthropology Museum, 3284:

himself. For example the Chunhua Yuanbao (淳化元寶) is said to have been inscribed by

1827: 1742: 10216: 9967: 9957: 9919: 9655: 9552: 9408: 9256: 9133: 8707: 8535: 8341: 8276: 8248: 7358:

KLEEB, GERALD N. 1976 Analysis of the Coins from a Chinese Trash Pit in Ventura.

6892: 6857: 6777: 6757: 6662: 6642: 6548: 6354: 6334: 6237: 6148: 5847: 5715: 5635: 5326: 5296: 5151: 5014: 4857: 4753: 4704: 4540: 4436: 4431: 4078: 4047:

and were distributed through the salaries of government officials and emoluments.

3920: 3796: 3792: 3780: 3417: 3409: 3333: 3324: 2995: 2542: 2485: 2337: 2225: 2043: 1938: 1815: 1723: 1709: 1649: 1370: 1362: 1244: 1239: 1119: 1074: 1017: 975: 700: 688: 8349: 7604: 7174:"The Luck of Third Street: Archaeology of Chinatown, San Bernardino, California" 6347: 5497:

Clay molds for casting metal molds used in minting techniques in the Han Dynasty

4581: 3804:

with new reign titles. Some Tianxia Taiping cash coins were manufactured by the

3607:(土錢), a name given to clay cash coins commonly found in tombs that were used as 3420:, Etc. Hence, only a single inscription was typically used during their reigns ( 2390:(崇禎通寶) series being the last recorded known cash coins to have "flower holes". 1799: 1502:) coins, the latter being the most common coin denomination in Chinese history. 878:

As standard circular coins were developed following the unification of China by

739:, and also came to be used for the similarly small value copper coins of China. 657:

continued to circulate as valid currency well into the early twentieth century.

10069: 9630: 9611: 9605: 9040: 9035: 9030: 8957: 8729: 8675: 8573:"Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems" 7923:

A brief discussion on the characteristics of Annan White Lead (Zinc) cash coins

7863: 7555: 6412: 6359: 5861: 5229:

The making of National Money: territorial currencies in historical perspective.

4779: 4097: 3463: 3429: 3421: 3413: 3405: 3359: 3180:(花穿錢), cash coins with octagonal holes, known as "flower (rosette) hole coins". 2917:

According to a 1979 article by Glenn J. Farris published in the journal of the

2521: 2462: 2452: 2383: 2379: 2368: 2145: 2098: 2097:" consists of Chinese cash coins with the inscriptions Shunzhi Tongbao (順治通寶), 1978: 1779: 1750: 1420: 1366: 1256: 1059: 1024: 717: 650: 630: 8335: 8145: 8143: 7668: 7018: 7016: 7014: 7012: 6598:

Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture)

6205:

Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture)

6175:

Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture)

6048:

Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture)

5988:

Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture)

5299:

Written on December 9, 2012 • Last edit: June 13, 2013 Retrieved: 16 June 2017

3044:

The Luck of Third Street: Archaeology of Chinatown, San Bernardino, California

2050:(the Chinese god of wealth) are used. Cash coins also hold a central place in 1533:(刀) due to the fact that this early version of the character resembles it and 1034:

throughout most of Chinese history, before 1505 they were typically made from

471: 10258: 10089: 9672: 9533: 9287: 9206: 9180: 9080: 9025: 8977: 8757: 8624:(University Park and London: [[Pennsylvania State University Press]], 1966). 8473: