1161:. The secondary assembly was an elongated truncated cone. From its front part (excluding the blast-heat shield) to its aft section it was steeply tapered. Tapering was used for two reasons. First, radiation drops by the square of the distance, hence radiation coupling is relatively poor in the aftermost sections of the secondary. This made the use of a higher mass of the then scarce fusion fuel in the rear end of the secondary assembly ineffective and the overall design wasteful. This was also the reason why the lower-enriched slugs of fusion fuel were placed far aft of the fuel capsule. Second, as the primary could not illuminate the whole surface of the hohlraum, in part due to the large axial length of the secondary, relatively small solid angles would be effective to compress the secondary, leading to poor radiation focusing. By tapering the secondary, the hohlraum could be shaped as a cylinder in its aft section obviating the need to machine the radiation case to a parabola at both ends. This optimized radiation focusing and enabled a streamlined production line, as it was cheaper, faster and easier to manufacture a radiation case with only one parabolic end. The tapering in this design was much steeper than its cousins, the
1231:, transcended 1. Its purpose was to compress the fusion material around it from its inside, equally applying pressure with the tamper. The compression factor of the fusion fuel and its adiabatic compression energy determined the minimal energy required for the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel and the tamper's momentum. The spark plug weighed about 18 kg, and its initial firing yielded 0.6 kilotonnes of TNT (2.5 TJ). Then it would be completely fissioned by the fusion neutrons, contributing about 330 kilotonnes of TNT (1,400 TJ) to the total yield. The energy required by the spark plug to counteract the compression of the fusion fuel was lower than the primary's yield because coupling of the primary's energy in the hohlraum is accompanied by losses due to the difference between the X-ray fireball and the hohlraum temperatures. The neutrons entered the assembly by a small hole through the ≈28 cm thick U blast-heat shield. It was positioned in front of the secondary assembly facing the primary. Similar to the tamper-fusion capsule assembly, the shield was shaped as a circular frustum, with its small diameter facing the primary's side, and with its large diameter locked by a type of
1112:. The rocket effect on the surface of tamper's wall created by the ablation of its several superficial layers would force an equal mass of uranium that rested in the remainder of the tamper to speed inwards, thus imploding the thermonuclear core. At the same time, the rocket effect on the surface of the hohlraum would force the radiation case to speed outwards. The ballistic case would confine the exploding radiation case for as long as necessary. The fact that the tamper material was uranium enriched in U is primarily based on the final fission reaction fragments detected in the radiochemical analysis, which conclusively showed the presence of U, found by the Japanese in the shot debris. The first-generation thermonuclear weapons (MK-14, 16, 17, 21, 22 and 24) all used uranium tampers enriched to 37.5% U. The exception to this was the
1669:(Lucky Dragon No. 5), came in direct contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to grow ill due to radiation sickness. One member died of a secondary infection six months later after acute radiation exposure, and another had a child that was stillborn and deformed. This resulted in an international incident and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially as Japanese citizens were once more adversely affected by US nuclear weapons. The official US position had been that the growth in the strength of atomic bombs was not accompanied by an equivalent growth in radioactivity released, and they denied that the crew was affected by radioactive fallout. Japanese scientists who had collected data from the fishing vessel disagreed with this.
1157:
cone (the projection of the radiation case). Any other major supporting structure would interfere to radiation transfer from the primary to the secondary and complex vibrational behavior. With this form of joint bearing most of the structural loads of the secondary, the latter and the hohlraum-ballistic case ensemble behaved as a single mass sharing common eigenmodes. To reduce excessive loading of the joint, especially during deployment of the weapon, the forward section of the secondary (i.e. the thermal blast/heat shield) was anchored to the radiation case by a set of thin wires, which also aligned the center line of the secondary with the primary, as they diminished bending and torsional loads on the secondary, another technique adopted from the
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1679:, London, demonstrated that the contamination caused by the fallout from the test was far greater than that stated officially. Rotblat deduced that the bomb had three stages and showed that the fission phase at the end of the explosion increased the amount of radioactivity a thousand-fold. Rotblat's paper was taken up by the media, and the outcry in Japan reached such a level that diplomatic relations became strained and the incident was even dubbed by some as a "second Hiroshima". Nevertheless, the Japanese and US governments quickly reached a political settlement, with the transfer to Japan of $ 15.3 million as compensation, with the surviving victims receiving about
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981:. Copper possesses excellent reflecting properties, and its low cost, compared to other reflecting materials like gold, made it useful for mass-produced hydrogen weapons. Hohlraum albedo is a very important design parameter for any inertial-confinement configuration. A relatively high albedo permits higher interstage coupling due to the more favorable azimuthal and latitudinal angles of reflected radiation. The limiting value of the albedo for high-
1575:, is filmed aboard the control ship in that film, showing the final conference. Hadley points out that 20,000 people live in the potential area of the fallout. He asks the control panel scientist if the test can be aborted and is told "yes", but it would ruin all their preparations in setting up timed measuring instruments. In Mike, the fallout correctly landed north of the inhabited area but, in the 1954 Bravo test, there was a large amount of
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1143:, to better define and quantify the timing and energies of the x-rays and neutrons produced by these early thermonuclear devices. One of the outcomes of this diagnostic work resulted in this graphic depiction of the transport of energetic x-ray and neutrons through a vacuum line, some 2.3 km long, whereupon it heated solid matter at the "station 1200" blockhouse and thus generated a secondary fireball.
944:," their fusion fuel may have been spiked with additional tritium, in the form of LiT. All of the high-energy 14 MeV neutrons would cause fission in the uranium fusion tamper wrapped around the secondary and the spark plug's plutonium rod. The ratio of deuterium (and tritium) atoms burned by 14 MeV neutrons spawned by the burning was expected to vary from 5:1 to 3:1, a standardization derived from
61:
2436:(ICF) indirect drive experiments, caused local radiation decoupling and hence poor radiation reflection by the hohlraum. Radiation decoupling in turn reduced locally the efficiency of the ablation process on the surface of secondary's tamper, destabilizing implosion by a small degree. Nevertheless, even minor instabilities during ablation amplified the already dreaded Taylor mixing.
883:
618:. The assembled module weighed 1,840 lb (830 kg), measuring 30.5 in (770 mm) across. It was located at the end of the device, which, as seen in the declassified film, shows a small cone projecting from the ballistic case. This cone is the part of the paraboloid that was used to focus the radiation emanating from the primary into the secondary.
796:/g at that time. The fusion burn efficiency was close to 25.1%, the highest attained efficiency of the first thermonuclear weapon generation. This efficiency is well within the figures given in a November 1956 statement, when a DOD official disclosed that thermonuclear devices with efficiencies ranging from 15% to up about 40% had been tested.
2168:. The report is a guide to off-site radiation exposures, a narrative history, and a guide to primary historical references concerning the Castle Bravo test. The report focuses on the circumstances that resulted in radioactive exposure of the uninhabited atolls, and makes no attempt to address in detail the effects on or around Bikini Atoll.
1219:, a tritium-boosted fission device. It was assembled by plutonium rings and had a hollow volume inside that measured about 0.5 cm in diameter. This central volume was lined with copper, which like the liner in the primary's fissile core prevented DT gas diffusion in plutonium. The spark plug's boosting charge contained about 4 grams of
1571:, the Scientific Director of Operation Castle. Graves had total authority over detonating the weapon, above that of the military commander of Operation Castle. Graves appears in the widely available film of the earlier 1952 test "Ivy Mike", which examines the last-minute fallout decisions. The narrator, the western actor
1089:, meaning that the generated energy balances the energy lost to fuel's vicinity (as radiation, particle losses). After all, for any hydrogen weapon system to work, this energy equilibrium must be maintained through the compression equilibrium between the fusion tamper and the spark plug (see below), hence their name
1992:
fuel in the fusion secondary to critical density and pressure, setting off thermonuclear (fusion) chain reactions, which in turn set off a tertiary fissioning of the bomb's U fusion tamper and casing. Consequently, this type of bomb is also known as a "fission-fusion-fission" device. The Soviet researchers, led by
1610:, makmok, and fish, had either disappeared or gave residents various illnesses, and they were again removed. Ultimately, 15 islands and atolls were contaminated, and by 1963 Marshall Islands natives began to suffer from thyroid tumors, including 20 of 29 Rongelap children at the time of Bravo, and many
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were impacted by the radioactive fallout. This single test exposed the surrounding populations to varying levels of radiation. The fallout levels attributed to the Castle Bravo test are the highest in history. Populations neighboring the test site were exposed to high levels of radiation resulting in
1991:
Castle Bravo had the greatest yield of any U.S. nuclear test, 15 Mt, though again, a substantial fraction came from fission. In the Teller–Ulam design, the fission and fusion stages were kept physically separate in a reflective cavity. The radiation from the exploding fission primary brought the
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In 2016, 45 Japanese fishermen from other ships sued their government for not disclosing records about their exposure to
Operation Castle fallout. Records released in 2014 acknowledge that the crews of 10 ships were exposed but under health-damaging levels. In 2018 the suit was rejected by the Kochi
1080:
effect that would otherwise "choke" radiation from compressing the secondary. The reemitted X-rays from the radiation case must be deposited uniformly on the outer walls of the secondary's tamper and ablate it externally, driving the thermonuclear fuel capsule (increasing the density and temperature
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from the primary to the secondary assembly; the interstage. It is one of the most closely guarded secrets of a multistage thermonuclear weapon. Implosion of the secondary assembly is indirectly driven, and the techniques used in the interstage to smooth the spatial profile (i.e. reduce coherence and
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joint. The hohlraum at its cylindrical end had an internal projection, which nested the secondary and had better structural strength to support the secondary's assembly, which had most of the device's mass. A visualization to this is that the joint looked much like a cap (the secondary) fitted in a
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Since the ablative process takes place on both walls of the radiation channel, a numerical estimate made with ISRINEX (a thermonuclear explosion simulation program) suggested that the uranium tamper also had a thickness of 2.5 cm, so that an equal pressure would be applied to both walls of the
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by stray neutrons from the primary without interfering with the subsequent fissioning of the U of the fusion tamper wrapping the secondary. Boron also played a role in increasing the compressive plasma pressure around the secondary by blocking the sputtering effect, leading to higher thermonuclear
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inches (220 mm) in diameter and 40 feet (12 m) long and were butt-welded end-to-end to the ballistic case leading out to the top of the shot cab. They would carry the initial reaction's light up to the array of 12 mirror towers built in an arc on the artificial 1-acre (0.40 ha) shot
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was nominally 40% lithium-6 (the remainder was the much more common lithium-7, which was incorrectly assumed to be inert). The fuel slugs varied in enrichment from 37 to 40% in Li, and the slugs with lower enrichment were positioned at the end of the fusion-fuel chamber, away from the primary. The
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reached a height of 47,000 feet (14,000 m) and a diameter of 7 miles (11 km) in about a minute, a height of 130,000 feet (40 km) and 62 mi (100 km) in diameter in less than 10 minutes and was expanding at more than 160 meters per second (580 km/h; 360 mph). As a
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Boron was used at many locations in this dry system; it has a high cross-section for the absorption of slow neutrons, which fission U and Pu, but a low cross-section for the absorption of fast neutrons, which fission U. Because of this characteristic, B deposited onto the surface of the secondary
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The unexpectedly high yield of the device severely damaged many of the permanent buildings on the control site island on the far side of the atoll. Little of the desired diagnostic data on the shot was collected; many instruments designed to transmit their data back before being destroyed by the
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Ring Lenses were used in conjunction with 1E23 type bridge-wire detonators. The ring lenses reduced weapon's external diameter by making the HE layer thinner, and their simultaneity of shock wave emergence was considerably higher compared to previous hyperboloid lenses, enabling better and more
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The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as
Australia, India and Japan, and even the United States and parts of Europe. Though organized as a secret test, Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear
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primary predetonated the spherical fission spark plug, which in turn "cooked" the fusion fuel, leading to an overall poor compression.) The plastic's low molecular weight is unable to implode the secondary's mass. Its plasma-pressure is confined in the boiled-off sections of the tamper and the
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materials is reached when the thickness is 5–10 g/cm, or 0.5–1.0 free paths. Thus, a hohlraum made of uranium much thicker than a free path of uranium would be needlessly heavy and costly. At the same time, the angular anisotropy increases as the atomic number of the scatterer material is
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nails, lined to the top of their head with copper, attached the radiation case to the ballistic case. The nails were bolted in vertical arrays in a double-shear configuration to better distribute the shear loads. This method of attaching the radiation case to the ballistic case was first used
1509:
This resultant extra fuel (both lithium-6 and lithium-7) contributed greatly to the fusion reactions and neutron production and in this manner greatly increased the device's explosive output. The test used lithium with a high percentage of lithium-7 only because lithium-6 was then scarce and
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and, imploding together with the secondary's compression, was timed to detonate by the first generations of neutrons that arrived from the primary. Timing was defined by the geometric characteristics of the sparkplug (its uncompressed annular radius), which detonated when its criticality, or
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31:
1480:, and another neutron. As a result, much more tritium was produced than expected, the extra tritium fusing with deuterium and producing an extra neutron. The extra neutron produced by fusion and the extra neutron released directly by lithium-7 decay produced a much larger
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component of the weapon. The weapon, like most contemporary thermonuclear weapons at that time, bore the same codename as the secondary component. The secondary was situated in the cylindrical end of the device, where its end was locked to the radiation case by a type of
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ballistic case. Aluminum was used to drastically reduce the bomb's weight and simultaneously provided sufficient radiation confinement time to raise yield, a departure from the heavy stainless steel casing (304L or MIM 316L) employed by other weapon-projects at the time.
602:
used in most stockpiled bombs at that time, as
Cyclotol 75/25 was denser than Composition B and thus could generate the same amount of explosive force in a smaller volume (it provided 13 percent more compressive energy than Comp B). The composite uranium-plutonium
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of their ship, or refrain from inhaling the fallout dust, the firing crew that triggered the explosion safely sheltered in their firing station when they noticed the wind was carrying the fallout in the unanticipated direction towards the island of Enyu on the
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Both the ballistic case and hohlraum were perforated in these points so that light emanating from the nuclear components could travel unobstructed to the recording station. A slight drop in yield was expected because of those apertures, much like in the
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stations was established to monitor fallout following
Operation Castle. Although meteorological data was poor, a general connection of tropospheric flow patterns with observed fallout was evident. There was a tendency for fallout/debris to remain in
1445:. They considered only the lithium-6 isotope in the lithium deuteride secondary to be reactive; the lithium-7 isotope, accounting for 60% of the lithium content, was assumed to be inert. It was expected that the lithium-6 isotope would absorb a
611:
was Los Alamos' most recent product of design work on the "new principles" of the hollow core. A copper pit liner encased within the weapon-grade plutonium inner capsule prevented DT gas diffusion into the plutonium, a technique first tested in
2333:(p. 490) and Mike's fusion fuel volume assumed by Andre Gsponer and Jean-Pierre Hurni in their paper "The physical principles of thermonuclear explosives, inertial confinement fusion, and the quest for fourth generation nuclear weapons", p. 68.
2038:, of which 275 units were produced, weighing 17,600 pounds (8,000 kg) and measuring 12.5 feet (3.8 m) long and 58 inches (1.5 m) in diameter. This 18-megaton bomb was produced until July 1956. In 1957, it was converted into the
590:, designed to explore the same question about a suitable primary for thermonuclear bombs, could be canceled. The implosion system was quite lightweight at 900 lb (410 kg), because it eliminated the aluminum pusher shell around the
1001:
of the scatterer. There are two sources of X-rays in the hohlraum: the primary's irradiance, which is dominant at the beginning and during the pulse rise; and the wall, which is important during the required radiation temperature's
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to properly implode. This constant wall temperature is dictated by the ablation pressure requirements to drive compression, which lie on average at about 0.4 keV (out of a range of 0.2 to 2 keV), corresponding to several million
1029:
which peaked at about 5.4 keV during boosted-fission. The final wall-temperature, which corresponds to energy of the wall-reradiated X-rays to the secondary's pusher, also drops due to losses from the hohlraum material itself.
3302:; Kozioziemski, B. J.; Nikroo, A.; Wilkens, H. L.; Bhandarkar, S.; Forsman, A. C.; Haan, S. W.; Hoppe, M. L.; Huang, H.; Mapoles, E.; Moody, J. D.; Sater, J. D.; Seugling, R. M.; Stephens, R. B.; Takagi, M.; Xu, H. W. (2008).
1854:, and therefore very similar chemically. Islanders consuming contaminated coconut milk were found to have abnormally high concentrations of caesium in their bodies and so had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time.
1523:
In an additional unexpected event, albeit one of far less consequence, X-rays traveling through line-of-sight (LOS) pipes caused a small second fireball at
Station 1200 with a yield of 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ).
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lacked a decontamination washdown system, and was therefore ordered on
February 27, to return to Pearl Harbor at the highest possible speed. A breakdown in her engine systems, namely a cracked cylinder liner, slowed
1707:
Unanticipated fallout and the radiation emitted by it also affected many of the vessels and personnel involved in the test, in some cases forcing them into bunkers for several hours. In contrast to the crew of the
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was 565 to 586 nautical miles from ground zero. The fallout was at first thought to be harmless and there were no radiation detectors aboard, so no decontamination measures were taken. Measurements taken after
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tamper material would mix rapidly with the relatively low-density fusion fuel—leading to unacceptably large radiation losses—the stand-off gap also acted as a buffer to mitigate the unavoidable and undesirable
2067:
mild radiation sickness of many (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). The unexpected strength of the detonation, combined with shifting wind patterns, sent some of the radioactive fallout over the inhabited atolls of
1691:
District Court, who acknowledged the fishermen's radiation exposure but could not "conclude that the state persistently gave up providing support and conducting health surveys to hide the radiation exposure".
948:, while for these estimations, the ratio of 3:1 was predominantly used in ISRINEX. The neutronicity of the fusion reactions harnessed by the fusion tamper would dramatically increase the yield of the device.
792:
devices, or about 500 liters (110 imp gal; 130 U.S. gal), corresponding to about 400 kg of lithium deuteride (as LiD has a density of 0.78201 g/cm). The mixture cost about 4.54
1200:
island created for the event. From those pipes, mirrors would reflect early bomb light from the bomb casing to a series of remote high-speed cameras, and so that Los Alamos could determine both the
2031:" during the month after the Castle Bravo test, the final piece of the puzzle being the idea that the compression of the secondary can be accomplished by the primary's X-rays before fusion began.
1779:. Total exposure estimates range from 3.3 R to 18 R of whole-body radiation, taking into account the effects of natural washdown from rain, and variations between above- and below-deck exposure.
594:
and used the more compact ring lenses, a design feature shared with the Mark 5, 12, 13 and 18 designs. The explosive material of the inner charges in the MK 7 was changed to the more powerful
2403:
1288:
efficiency. Because the structural foam holding the secondary in place within the casing was doped with B, the secondary was compressed more highly, at a cost of some radiated neutrons. (The
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in the ICF laser assemblies. This medium was a polystyrene plastic foam filling, extruded or impregnated with a low-molecular-weight hydrocarbon (possibly methane gas), which turned to a low-
1842:
and other testing on the atoll also affected islanders who had previously inhabited the atoll, and who returned there some time after the tests. This was due to the presence of radioactive
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749:. The proposed weight reduction (from TX-17's 42,000 pounds (19,000 kg) to TX-21's 25,000 pounds (11,000 kg)) would provide the Air Force with a much more versatile deliverable
1242:. All parts of the tamper were similarly locked together to provide structural support and rigidity to the secondary assembly. Surrounding the fusion-fuel–spark-plug assembly was the
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Although the atmospheric fallout plume drifted eastward, once fallout landed in the water it was carried in several directions by ocean currents, including northwest and southwest.
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fallout plume spread dangerous levels of radioactivity over an area over 280 miles (450 km) long, including inhabited islands. The contour lines show the cumulative radiation
2354:
deposited into the hohlraum liner from primary's interface with the interstage (i.e. the primary's outer surface) were "cooler" than the maximum temperature of a fission device.
1350:
result of the blast, the cloud contaminated more than 7,000 square miles (18,000 km) of the surrounding
Pacific Ocean, including some of the surrounding small islands like
306:, including the death six months later of Kuboyama Aikichi, the boat's chief radioman. The blast incited a strong international reaction over atmospheric thermonuclear testing.
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1556:. That, combined with the larger than expected yield and a major wind shift, produced some very serious consequences for those in the fallout range. In the declassified film
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of the design (i.e. the time interval between primary's firing and secondary's ignition) and the thermonuclear burn rate in these two crucial areas of the secondary device.
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563:
device was housed in a cylinder that weighed 23,500 pounds (10,700 kg) and measured 179.5 inches (456 cm) in length and 53.9 inches (137 cm) in diameter.
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1472:) to a pair of alpha particles on a timescale of nearly a second, vastly longer than the timescale of nuclear detonation. However, when lithium-7 is bombarded with
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Attached to the cylindrical ballistic case was a natural-uranium liner, the radiation case, that was about 2.5 cm thick. Its internal surface was lined with
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event and yielded 61 kilotons of TNT (260 TJ) (out of 50–70 kt expected yield range). It was considered successful enough that the planned operation series
1441:
The yield of 15 (± 5) Mt was triple that of the 5 Mt predicted by its designers. The cause of the higher yield was an error made by designers of the device at
803:
The thermonuclear burn would produce (like the fission fuel in the primary) pulsations (generations) of high-energy neutrons with an average temperature of 14
2126:, and the Castle Bravo test was frequently part of the plots of numerous Japanese media, especially in relation to Japan's most widely recognized media icon,
1614:
were reported. The islanders received compensation from the U.S. government, relative to how much contamination they received, beginning in 1956; by 1995 the
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813:
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levels and thyroid cancer is still being researched. There are also correlations between fallout exposure levels and diseases such as thyroid disease like
2023:, present in the fallout. This information could potentially reveal the means by which megaton-yield nuclear devices achieve their yield. Soviet scientist
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1331:. A sizable array of diagnostic instruments were trained on it, including high-speed cameras trained through an arc of mirror towers around the shot cab.
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blast were instead vaporized instantly, while most of the instruments that were expected to be recovered for data retrieval were destroyed by the blast.
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reportedly stated independently that the first generation of thermonuclear weapons had (fusion) efficiencies varying from as low as 15% to up about 25%.
2402:
Sputtering is the manifestation of the underdense plasma corona of the ablating hohlraum and the tamper surfaces. It is a problem also shared with (see
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2321:. SAUSAGE used an 840-liter version of a cryogenic vessel developed for the PANDA committee (PANDA was SAUSAGE's unclassified name) and in part by the
4417:"Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 years ago still have health implications today that will continue into the future"
4463:
Grossman, Charles M.; Morton, William E.; Nussbaum, Rudi H.; Goldberg, Mark S.; Mayo, Nancy E.; Levy, Adrian R.; Scott, Susan C. (January 1, 1999).
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672:, even though the TX-21 as proof-tested in the Bravo event was not weaponized. The successful test rendered obsolete the cryogenic design used by
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test used almost pure lithium-6. Had sufficient lithium-6 been available, the usability of the common lithium-7 might not have been discovered.
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to one-third of her full speed, and when the Castle Bravo detonation took place, she was still about 180 to 195 nautical miles east of Bikini.
780:(ADP) started production in late 1953. The volume of LiD fuel used was approximately 60% the volume of the fusion fuel filling used in the wet
1602:
deemed
Rongelap safe to return, and allowed 82 inhabitants to move back to the island. Upon their return, they discovered that their previous
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1476:
with an energy greater than 2.47 MeV, rather than simply absorbing a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission into an alpha particle, a tritium
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over 250 miles (400 km) away. The explosion left a crater 6,500 feet (2,000 m) in diameter and 250 feet (76 m) in depth. The
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862:
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2102:. Populations of the Marshall Islands that received significant exposure to radionuclides have a much greater risk of developing cancer.
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fusion fuel in a stainless-steel canister. Running down to the center of the secondary was a 1.3 cm thick hollow cylindrical rod of
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design to tailor its opacity), which fly inside the radiation channel and absorb radiation or reflect it, hampering radiation "ducting".
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The physical principles of thermonuclear explosives, inertial confinement fusion, and the quest for fourth generation nuclear weapons
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2123:
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When Bravo was detonated, within one second it formed a fireball almost 4.5 miles (7.2 km) across. This fireball was visible on
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In the Mark 7 HE system, the irregularities in the implosion front were relatively small rendering the pusher component unnecessary.
1618:
reported that it had awarded $ 43.2 million, nearly its entire fund, to 1,196 claimants for 1,311 illnesses. A medical study, named
1076:
plasma from the X-rays, and along with channeling radiation it modulated the ablation front on the high-Z surfaces; it "tamped" the
5472:
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with a standoff air-gap about 0.9 cm wide that was to increase the tamper's momentum, a levitation technique used as early as
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53:
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Page 36 from the
Project 4.1 final report, showing four photographs of exposed Marshallese. Faces blotted out for privacy reasons.
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1085:). This point is above the threshold where the fusion fuel would turn opaque to its emitting radiation, as determined from its
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and deuterium, and in two reactions (with energies of 17.6 MeV and 4.8 MeV, mediated by a neutron and tritium) it produces two
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and gaseous fallout spread around the world. The inhabitants of the islands were evacuated only three days later and suffered
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2857:"Dangerous Thermonuclear Quest: The Potential of Explosive Fusion Research for the Development of Pure Fusion Weapons", p. 4.
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material because the fission bomb's tamper, pusher and high-explosive lenses as well as interstage's plastic foam strongly
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as part of the normal biological process, but will also readily absorb caesium if present, being of the same group on the
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pointed to a diagram indicating that the wind shift was still in the range of "acceptable fallout", although just barely.
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1683: million each ($ 5,550 in 1954, or about $ 63,000 in 2024). It was also agreed that the victims would not be given
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respectively. On paper it was a scaled-down version of these devices, and its origins can be traced back to 1953. The
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1977:" in the U.S.), in 1953. It was not a true hydrogen bomb; fusion provided only 15–20% of its yield, most coming from
1960:
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Map showing points (X) where contaminated fish were caught or where the sea was found to be excessively radioactive.
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The
Japanese government and people dubbed it "a second Hiroshima" and it nearly led to severing diplomatic relations
1920:
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1981:
reactions. Its yield was 400 kilotons, and it could not be infinitely scaled, as with a true thermonuclear device.
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was in the range of nuclear fallout, which began landing on the ship in the mid-afternoon of March 2. By this time
574:
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1988:, but most of this also came from fission: 77% of the total came from fast fission of its natural-uranium tamper.
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nonuniformities) of the primary's irradiance are of utmost importance. This was done with the introduction of the
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2665:
2410:
granular particles (made off uranium of Pb–Bi eutectic; the selected material depends on the "cocktail", or high-
2161:
1269:
4578:"Historical events associated with fallout from Bravo Shot – Operation Castle and 25 Y of medical findings"
1548:(R) for the first 96 hours after the test. Although widely published, this fallout map is not perfectly correct.
1048:
primary that was employed to create the conditions needed to start the fusion reaction, and its other end was a
5308:
5212:
4721:
1898:
1442:
735:
444:
2406:), that has to do with the ablated heavy particles; For a hydrogen weapon, these particles are blown-off high-
1927:
1487:
Summarizing, the reactions involving lithium-6 result in some combination of the two following net reactions:
1177:
tapering and its mounting to the hohlraum apparently made the whole secondary assembly resemble the body of a
280:, the heaviest of which was in the form of pulverized surface coral from the detonation, fell on residents of
5111:
5104:
4942:
1894:
776:
and many later hydrogen weapons, were due to shortages in enriched lithium at that time, as the first of the
201:
2108:
There is a presumed association between radiation levels and functioning of the female reproductive system.
977:
that was about 240 μm thick, and made from 0.08-μm thick copper foil, to increase the overall albedo of the
5156:
5013:
2322:
1676:
110:
4630:
5457:
4763:
3256:"How Archive Data Contribute to Certification. Fred N. Mortensen, John M. Scott, and Stirling A. Colgate"
2433:
1909:
1140:
1082:
4675:
4388:
3397:
2631:
2256:
1809:
1698:
The device's firing crew was located on Enyu island, variously spelled as Eneu island, as depicted here
1464:
It was assumed that the lithium-7 would absorb one neutron, producing lithium-8, which decays (through
1201:
170:
2086:
The exposure to fallout has been linked to increase the likelihood of several types of cancer such as
5151:
4997:
2238:
271:
3951:
Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Lovelace Biomedical & Environmental Research Institute
266:), 2.5 times the predicted 6 Mt (25 PJ), due to unforeseen additional reactions involving
5355:
5034:
1997:
1327:
The device was mounted in a "shot cab" on an artificial island built on a reef off Namu Island, in
1246:
1236:
303:
2326:
1552:
The fission reactions of the natural uranium tamper were quite dirty, producing a large amount of
5360:
5281:
3607:
3241:
1887:
1615:
723:
591:
3733:
2136:, Castle Bravo becomes the call sign for Monarch Outpost 54 located in the Atlantic Ocean, near
1579:, and the wind that was blowing north the day before the test steadily veered towards the east.
392:
5097:
3954:
3822:"Former fishermen lose H-bomb damages suit linked to Bikini Atoll tests U.S. conducted in 1954"
2317:
Both SAUSAGE and the two RUNTs (SAUSAGE's "lithiated" versions) had fusion fuel volumes of 840
2016:
1978:
1256:
1235:
joint to the rest of the secondary assembly. The shield-tamper ensemble can be visualized as a
570:
4136:
5340:
4914:
4784:
4310:
3854:
3772:
2781:
1498:
But when lithium-7 is present, one also has some amounts of the following two net reactions:
1469:
4155:
2118:
2019:
of the Castle Bravo device by studying the ratio and presence of tell-tale isotopes, namely
1804:
associated with meteorological disturbances of the predominantly zonal flow. Outside of the
1664:
298:
5477:
5090:
4991:
4898:
4863:
4798:
4777:
4341:
4151:
3318:
3053:
2986:
2885:
2561:
2039:
2035:
1973:
The Soviet Union had previously used lithium deuteride in its Sloika design (known as the "
1743:
1168:
1162:
1113:
1043:
1026:
941:
771:
742:
705:
699:
677:
413:
255:
221:
1934:
8:
5118:
5076:
5041:
4870:
4617:
3606:. October 11, 2009. A&E Television Networks. Military History Channel. Archived from
3575:
Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War
3217:
3098:
2465:
2445:
The cylindrical hole was plugged with B-doped paraffin wax to time the neutrons' arrival.
2432:
test. The hot-spot openings, similar to the "starburst" diagnostics in hohlraums used in
1484:. The result was greatly increased fissioning of the uranium tamper and increased yield.
1473:
1251:
1010:
762:
687:
267:
4345:
3322:
3057:
3044:(1992). "Progress toward Ignition and Burn Propagation in Inertial Confinement Fusion".
2990:
2889:
2565:
2520:
1727:("buttoning up") for several hours until outside radiation decayed to safer levels. "25
986:
reduced. Therefore, hohlraum liners require the use of copper (or, as in other devices,
5265:
5202:
4984:
4935:
4891:
4856:
4835:
4805:
4728:
4486:
4438:
4421:
4357:
4283:
4270:
4250:
4227:
4214:
4194:
3682:
3002:
2584:
2547:
1672:
1461:
and increase the yield in a predicted manner. Lithium-6 indeed reacted in this manner.
410:
293:
251:
3642:
3232:"Declassified U.S. Nuclear Test Film #34 0800034 – Project Gnome – 1961. 6:14 minutes"
2961:
2207:
1625:
1334:
The detonation took place at 06:45 on March 1, 1954, local time (18:45 on February 28
1185:
pipes attached to the middle and left section of the device. These pipe sections were
5365:
5062:
5048:
5027:
4977:
4963:
4949:
4877:
4849:
4812:
4791:
4756:
4749:
4597:
4593:
4531:
4494:
4481:
4464:
4392:
4365:
4288:
4232:
4115:
4090:
4041:
4034:; List, Robert J. (March 1, 1959). Analysis of Stratospheric Strontium Measurements.
4006:
3973:
3944:
3672:
3646:
3579:
3446:
3401:
3120:
3112:
3102:
3006:
2897:
2589:
2364:
2008:
1801:
1232:
1208:
1153:
645:
247:
1567:
The decision to carry out the Bravo test under the prevailing winds was made by Dr.
5244:
5177:
5161:
5125:
5083:
5069:
5055:
5020:
4970:
4770:
4649:
4636:
4623:
4589:
4565:
Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining control in a Post-Nuclear, Post Colonial World
4476:
4430:
4349:
4307:"The Legacy of U.S. Nuclear Testing and Radiation Exposure in the Marshall Islands"
4278:
4262:
4222:
4206:
4159:
3998:
3638:
3550:
3326:
3144:
3136:
3061:
2994:
2893:
2734:
2579:
2569:
2368:
2063:
1859:
1724:
1393:
is the sixth largest nuclear explosion in history, exceeded by the Soviet tests of
1297:
device did not use B in its design; as a result, the intense neutron flux from its
1132:
1086:
917:
238:
233:
93:
4353:
4060:
2930:
Current Trends in International Fusion Research Proceedings of the Third Symposium
2546:
Hughes EW; Molina MR; Abella MKIL; Nikolić-Hughes I; Ruderman MA (July 30, 2019).
1081:
of the fusion fuel) to the point needed to sustain a thermonuclear reaction. (see
5376:
5320:
5286:
5260:
4928:
4828:
4742:
4735:
3827:
3440:
3422:
3128:
2076:
2024:
1993:
1776:
1587:
1568:
1553:
1342:
1031:
698:
was at least in theory and in many critical aspects identical in geometry to the
614:
579:
577:, a very compact MK 7 device. This boosted fission device had been tested in the
302:("Lucky Dragon No. 5") were also contaminated by the heavy fallout, experiencing
2646:
2075:. Within 52 hours, the 86 people on Rongelap and 167 on Utrik were evacuated to
1181:. The secondary's length is defined by the two pairs of dark-colored diagnostic
1139:
test of 1952, the 1954 Castle Bravo test was likewise heavily instrumented with
5182:
5007:
4819:
3285:
3090:
3023:
2651:
2301:
2099:
2091:
2068:
2012:
1985:
1851:
1750:
1595:
1591:
1477:
1450:
1374:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1308:
can enter the radiation channel that has to be open for the radiation transit.
906:
727:
637:
281:
259:
243:
181:
40:
4643:
4266:
4163:
3994:
3686:
3331:
3231:
2363:
These losses were associated with material's properties like back-scattering,
1984:
The Teller–Ulam-based "Ivy Mike" device had a much greater yield of 10.4
1812:
received the greatest total fallout, about five times that received in Japan.
1714:, who did not anticipate the hazard and therefore did not take shelter in the
726:
indicated the importance of lighter thermonuclear weapons for delivery by the
5426:
5335:
5207:
4921:
4905:
4031:
3124:
3041:
2545:
2261:
2149:
1740:
1541:
1418:
718:
669:
599:
358:
345:
327:
314:
225:
132:
119:
4183:
Strategic Air Command History Development of Atomic Weapons 1956, pp. 29, 39
3140:
2574:
2122:
led to an increase in antinuclear protests in Japan. It was compared to the
2116:
The Castle Bravo detonation and the subsequent poisoning of the crew aboard
761:
as its fusion fuel. Natural lithium is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7
5406:
5401:
5383:
5330:
5192:
4670:
4498:
4369:
4292:
3650:
3189:
3158:
3132:
2811:
2701:
2593:
2380:
Tamper is the metal cladding encasing the secondary, and it is also termed
2342:
This temperature range is compatible with a hohlraum filling made of a low-
2198:
2144:
1831:
and fallout times, and arrive at more accurate meteorological models after
1828:
1816:
1720:
1611:
1512:
1481:
1386:
1359:
1328:
1127:
804:
750:
731:
712:
285:
229:
206:
103:
4601:
4236:
3445:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. p. 437.
2216:
1694:
912:
The reaction would produce high-energy neutrons with 14 MeV, and its
5325:
5228:
5187:
4517:
3882:
3795:"Fishermen Sue Japan for Hiding Records of Fallout From US Nuclear Tests"
3427:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. p. 462.
2347:
2072:
2020:
1843:
1820:
1792:
1775:
had returned to Pearl Harbor suggested an exposure range of 0.18 to 0.62
1715:
1619:
1603:
1598:
atolls, which were evacuated 48 hours after the detonation. In 1957, the
1572:
1290:
289:
4705:
4442:
4434:
4274:
2079:
for medical care. Several weeks later, many people began suffering from
1633:=original "danger zone" around Bikini announced by the U.S. government.
1096:
770:
lower levels of lithium enrichment in the fuel slugs, compared with the
5197:
5002:
4575:
4490:
4415:
Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (January 1, 2006).
4361:
4218:
3458:
2998:
2300:
accurate compression (LA-1632, table 4.1). At the same time, since the
2266:
2095:
1901: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1576:
1465:
1395:
1382:
1077:
797:
4514:
Mushroom Clouds and Mushroom Men: The Fantastic Cinema of Ishiro Honda
4045:
4010:
2050:
738:
responded to this indication with a follow-up enriched version of the
3065:
2251:
2179:
1847:
1728:
1684:
1607:
1545:
1458:
1429:
1365:
1239:
1212:
1068:—an optical element used as a refractive medium, also encountered as
991:
902:
894:
657:
653:
4210:
4002:
2752:
1876:
940:, were to be high-yield shots required to assure the thermonuclear "
630:, and had the same basic configuration (radiation implosion) as the
4883:
4659:
3028:
Plasma Astrophysics; Kinetic Processes in Solar and Stellar Coronae
2415:
2246:
2154:
2127:
2087:
2080:
1832:
1401:
1299:
1136:
1109:
1049:
978:
668:
was the first test by the United States of a practical deliverable
632:
595:
242:. Detonated on March 1, 1954, the device remains the most powerful
4671:
Strategic Air Command History – Development of Atomic Weapons 1956
3573:
2977:; Hälg, Walter (1981). "Radiation dynamics of nuclear explosion".
3768:
3236:
2137:
1823:
used to sample the air at stratospheric altitudes; the research (
1805:
1797:
1532:
1454:
1446:
1434:
1243:
1220:
1042:
device. The radiation case had a parabolic end, which housed the
898:
890:
758:
277:
3116:
1025:. Wall temperature depended on the temperature of the primary's
1009:) plateau. The primary emits radiation in a manner similar to a
3946:
Human Radiation Exposures Related to Nuclear Weapons Industries
2739:
LA-1632: Weapons Activities of Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
2548:"Radiation maps of ocean sediment from the Castle Bravo crater"
2001:
1316:
1178:
1022:
974:
962:
30:
4462:
2753:"The Nuclear Weapon Archive – A Guide to Nuclear Weapons"
4128:
3671:, Britain’s Pacific H-bomb tests, ANU Press, pp. 55–68,
3298:
2351:
2318:
2305:
1974:
1457:
in the process, of which the latter would then fuse with the
1060:
994:), as the absorption probability increases with the value of
923:
263:
185:
3193:
3162:
2815:
2705:
4313:
in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. September 15, 2012
3667:
Oishi, Matashichi; Maclellan, Nic (2017), "The fisherman",
3348:
Bombs in the Backyard: Atomic Testing and American Politics
2624:"Operation Castle tests focus of April 20 panel discussion"
1369:
Castle Bravo mushroom cloud a few seconds after detonation
987:
296:. Twenty-three crew members of the Japanese fishing vessel
16:
1954 U.S. thermonuclear weapon test in the Marshall Islands
4193:
Lauerman, John F.; Reuther, Christopher (September 1997).
3765:"Bikini Atoll H-bomb damaged fisheries, created prejudice"
3304:"National Ignition Facility target design and fabrication"
2515:
2513:
2511:
2509:
1304:
radiation case so that material from neither of these two
454:$ 2.7 million (1954) ($ 24.3 million in 2023 dollars)
3943:
Newton, Richard G.; Cuddihy, George J. (September 1985).
2393:
Not to be confused with the function of the fusion tamper
2329:). This vessel fits the description of Richard Rhodes in
1335:
889:
The Jetter cycle is a combination of reactions involving
882:
793:
765:(with 7.5% of the former). The enriched lithium used in
2609:
The Ecological Revolution: Making Peace with the Planet
2506:
1863:
warned of the contamination of milk with strontium-90.
1846:
in locally grown coconut milk. Plants and trees absorb
1622:, studied the effects of the fallout on the islanders.
1131:
In a similar manner to the earlier pipes filled with a
1819:
from the test were later captured with balloon-borne
1263:. Since there were also technical concerns that high-
1059:, and the case formed a radiation channel to conduct
745:
to a 3/4 scale radiation-implosion system called the
5346:
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
4707:
Nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States
4576:
Cronkite, E. P.; Conard, R. A.; Bond, V. P. (1997).
4150:(4). Gordon and Breach Science Publishers: 351–363.
4087:
The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society
2228:
1381:
was about 1,000 times more powerful than the atomic
3662:
3660:
3478:Kunkel, Thomas; Ristvet, Brian (January 25, 2013).
3473:
3471:
3469:
3467:
2962:
https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq4-4.html
2910:
1702:
5453:1954 in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
4648:is available for free viewing and download at the
4635:is available for free viewing and download at the
4622:is available for free viewing and download at the
3820:
2770:
2644:
2492:"Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion"
340:. The remains of the Castle Bravo causeway are at
246:ever detonated by the United States and the first
4414:
3541:
3539:
3537:
1373:In terms of energy released (usually measured in
5424:
4632:Military Effects Studies Operation Castle (1954)
4571:Republic of the Marshall Islands Embassy website
4465:"Reproductive Outcomes after Radiation Exposure"
4137:"The Radioactive Signature of the Hydrogen Bomb"
3657:
3464:
3394:Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy
3034:
2979:Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Physik
2806:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2034:The Shrimp device design later evolved into the
1103:device delivered via truck awaiting installation
4332:"Radioactive Fallout in the Marshall Islands".
4192:
3845:Clark, John C. (July 1957). Robert Cahn (ed.).
3362:"Commander Task Group 7.1 Eniwetok to U.S. AEC"
2868:
2866:
2864:
2645:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023).
2553:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1662:
682:, which was slated to be tested as the initial
664:), which required elaborate cooling equipment.
4666:First-person article about conducting the test
3692:
3666:
3534:
3480:"Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore"
3438:
3392:Parsons, Keith M.; Zaballa, Robert A. (2017).
3391:
2844:T-4 Handbook of Material Properties Data Bases
2696:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2638:
686:. It also used a 3.7-inch-thick (9.5 cm)
250:-fueled thermonuclear weapon tested using the
4691:
3942:
3477:
3282:"LANL: Los Alamos Science: LA Science No. 28"
2797:
2722:
2304:layer was thinner it was less opaque for the
1582:
1215:, nested in the steel canister. This was the
1207:This secondary assembly device contained the
1052:, as also seen in Bravo's declassified film.
3571:
3439:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. (1977).
3220:. May 12, 1954 – via Internet Archive.
3018:
3016:
2973:
2904:
2861:
2166:Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore
2027:hit upon what the Soviet Union regarded as "
1723:where they were located, with the fire crew
636:wet device, except with a different type of
4645:Nuclear Test Film – Operation Castle (1954)
4376:
3972:. London: Jonathan Cape. pp. 196–198.
3699:Keever, Beverly Deepe (February 25, 2004).
3184:
3182:
2916:Co and Au γ-ray albedo of various materials
2876:(1963). "High Energy X-Ray Photon Albedo".
2745:
2675:
2621:
1119:that used a 93.5% enriched fission jacket.
823:shortly before installation in its shot cab
648:(LiD), which is solid at room temperature;
4698:
4684:
4065:WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements
4030:
3938:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3840:
3838:
3592:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2776:
1449:from the fissioning plutonium and emit an
1283:stage would prevent pre-detonation of the
951:
924:Possible additional tritium for high-yield
391:
29:
5396:Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie
4619:Operation Castle Commanders Report (1954)
4558:U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History
4480:
4382:
4282:
4226:
3629:Sevitt, S. (July 23, 1955). "The Bombs".
3429:(Dose given in roentgens in the 1962 ed.)
3420:
3330:
3095:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
3085:
3083:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3013:
2733:
2583:
2573:
2350:the radiation emitted by the core. Thus,
1961:Learn how and when to remove this message
1827:) was conducted to better understand the
1782:
1734:
1731:per hour" was recorded above the bunker.
1560:, the task force commander Major General
1527:
1122:
4511:
3995:World-Wide Fallout from Operation Castle
3442:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.)
3179:
3151:
2489:
2384:; both terms can be used interchangeably
2049:
2004:their first Teller–Ulam device in 1955.
1693:
1624:
1531:
1428:
1364:
1315:
1126:
1095:
961:
621:
542:Expected: 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ)
220:was the first in a series of high-yield
5351:International Day against Nuclear Tests
3967:
3929:
3875:
3835:
3756:
3244:from the original on December 21, 2021.
2936:
2147:song "Memorabilia" from his 2012 album
2011:was a militarily sensitive issue, with
1590:was spread eastward onto the inhabited
545:Actual: 15 megatons of TNT (63 PJ)
5425:
3878:"Forgotten atrocity of the atomic age"
3762:
3698:
3628:
3262:from the original on December 23, 2016
3188:
3157:
3089:
3072:
2872:
2838:
2810:
2700:
2606:
2490:Rowberry, Ariana (November 30, 2001).
2083:(hair loss) and skin lesions as well.
2062:estimated that 253 inhabitants of the
1147:The secondary assembly was the actual
4679:
4410:
4408:
4109:
3844:
3734:"50 Facts About U.S. Nuclear Weapons"
3387:
3385:
3383:
3345:
3292:
3218:"Operation CASTLE Commander's Report"
3040:
2967:
2111:
5390:Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test
5315:Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy
4385:Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation
4340:(3181): 1178–1179. January 1, 1955.
4134:
4084:
3992:
3876:Hoffman, Michael (August 28, 2011).
3022:
2955:
1899:adding citations to reliable sources
1870:
1437:bonus provided by Lithium-7 isotope.
607:core was levitated in a type-D pit.
60:
5371:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
4112:Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for Peace
4089:(6th ed.). New York: Longman.
4085:Nash, Gary B.; et al. (2007).
3787:
3763:Hirano, Keiji (February 29, 2004).
3496:from the original on March 10, 2014
2622:Danneskiold, Jim (April 14, 2005).
2611:. Monthly Review Press. p. 73.
2153:mentions both the Castle Bravo and
2042:and entered into production again.
1815:Stratospheric fallout particles of
1013:, and the secondary needs constant
676:and its weaponized derivative, the
13:
4405:
4243:
4058:
3744:from the original on July 19, 2011
3380:
2922:
2832:
2124:bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
2060:United States Department of Energy
1383:bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima
881:
14:
5489:
4610:
4199:Environmental Health Perspectives
3600:"The Ghost Fleet of Bikini Atoll"
2045:
1866:
1417:) ≈20 Mt Soviet tests in 1962 at
877:
554:
4656:US tests hydrogen bomb in Bikini
4594:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00014
4482:10.1097/00001648-199903000-00024
4061:"Caesium biological information"
3993:List, Robert J. (May 17, 1955).
3847:"Trapped by Radioactive Fallout"
2231:
2215:
2206:
2187:
2178:
1875:
1703:Bomb test personnel take shelter
1656:
861:
843:
828:
812:
575:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
59:
52:
5473:Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
5468:Nuclear accidents and incidents
5412:Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll
4524:
4505:
4456:
4325:
4299:
4261:(5496): 1132. January 1, 1966.
4186:
4177:
4103:
4078:
4052:
4037:Journal of Geophysical Research
4024:
3986:
3961:
3907:"Operation Castle: Bravo Blast"
3904:
3898:
3869:
3813:
3726:
3622:
3578:. University of Hawai'i Press.
3565:
3508:
3487:Defense Threat Reduction Agency
3432:
3414:
3354:
3339:
3284:. June 12, 2007. Archived from
3274:
3248:
3224:
3210:
2878:Nuclear Instruments and Methods
2850:
2666:Gross Domestic Product deflator
2439:
2421:
2396:
2387:
2374:
2357:
2336:
2311:
2293:
2284:
2162:Defense Threat Reduction Agency
1886:needs additional citations for
1637:="danger zone" extended later.
1277:
916:was estimated at ≈0.885 (for a
502:455.93 cm (179.50 in)
494:10,659 kg (23,499 lb)
309:The Bravo Crater is located at
5309:National Atomic Testing Museum
5213:Nevada Test and Training Range
4567:(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2004)
4383:Jorgensen, Timothy J. (2017).
4251:"Fallout Radiation And Growth"
3424:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
2628:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2615:
2600:
2539:
2483:
2458:
2133:Godzilla: King of the Monsters
1649: are equatorial currents.
1505:Li + H → 2 He + n + 15.123 MeV
1443:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1055:The space between the uranium
753:. The final version tested in
736:Los Alamos National Laboratory
510:136.90 cm (53.90 in)
467:
445:Los Alamos National Laboratory
374:
224:design tests conducted by the
1:
5433:1950s in the Marshall Islands
4354:10.1126/science.122.3181.1178
4144:Science & Global Security
3643:10.1016/s0140-6736(55)92780-x
3604:Mystery of Old World Cultures
3572:Smith-Norris, Martha (2016).
3350:. Reno: University of Nevada.
3346:Titus, A. Costandina (2001).
2647:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?"
2607:Foster, John Bellamy (2009).
2272:
2007:The publication of the Bravo
1424:
1405:at 24.2 Mt, and three other (
1311:
872:device, with humans for scale
710:devices later proof-fired in
571:deuterium-tritium gas-boosted
68:Location within Pacific Ocean
5463:March 1954 events in Oceania
3516:"Les cobayes du Dr Folamour"
2898:10.1016/0029-554X(64)90131-4
2323:National Bureau of Standards
428:Ben Diven (project engineer)
7:
4512:Brothers, Peter H. (2009).
4255:The British Medical Journal
4135:Geer, Lars-Erik De (1991).
3949:. Albuquerque, New Mexico:
2434:inertial confinement fusion
2224:
2094:. The relationship between
1800:, with incursions into the
1663:
1491:n + Li → H + He + 4.783 MeV
1255:and described by physicist
10:
5494:
4560:(Arlington: AeroFax, 1988)
4533:Donald Fagen – Memorabilia
4389:Princeton University Press
3522:(in French). June 22, 2009
3421:Glasstone, Samuel (1962).
3398:Cambridge University Press
2257:History of nuclear weapons
2171:
1810:Southwestern United States
1583:Inhabited islands affected
1494:Li + H → 2 He + 22.373 MeV
1135:of helium, as used in the
39:detonation and subsequent
5438:1954 disasters in Oceania
5299:
5274:
5253:
5237:
5221:
5170:
5144:
5135:
4713:
4267:10.1136/bmj.1.5496.1132-a
4164:10.1080/08929889108426372
3738:The Brookings Institution
3366:National Security Archive
3332:10.1017/S0263034608000499
2239:Nuclear technology portal
1677:St Bartholomew's Hospital
1661:A Japanese fishing boat,
1261:hammer-on-the-nail-impact
1141:Line-of-Sight (LOS) pipes
868:Shot-cab installation of
566:The primary device was a
535:
531:400 kg (880 lb)
527:
519:
514:
506:
498:
490:
485:
477:
466:
458:
450:
440:
432:
424:
419:
406:
390:
381:
274:in the surrounding area.
272:radioactive contamination
197:
192:
176:
166:
148:
109:
99:
89:
81:
76:
47:
28:
23:
5443:1954 in military history
5356:Nevada Desert Experience
3968:DeGroot, Gerard (2004).
3311:Laser and Particle Beams
2757:nuclearweaponarchive.org
2525:nuclearweaponarchive.org
2470:nuclearweaponarchive.org
2414:element mixture, of the
2058:Following the test, the
1600:Atomic Energy Commission
1399:at approximately 50 Mt,
1323:detonation and fireball.
807:through Jetter's cycle.
778:Alloy Development Plants
757:used partially enriched
304:acute radiation syndrome
5448:1954 in the environment
5361:Nuclear weapons testing
5282:Pacific Proving Grounds
4156:1991S&GS....2..351D
3669:Grappling with the Bomb
2575:10.1073/pnas.1903478116
2494:. Brookings Institution
1791:A worldwide network of
1753:in late February 1954.
1616:Nuclear Claims Tribunal
838:’s parabolic projection
724:United States Air Force
288:atolls, while the more
5162:Carson National Forest
4110:Braun, Reiner (2007).
2325:(see more information
2055:
2015:possibly deducing the
1857:The American magazine
1783:International incident
1735:US Navy ships affected
1699:
1650:
1549:
1528:High levels of fallout
1438:
1370:
1324:
1144:
1123:The secondary assembly
1104:
970:
969:SHRIMP device shot-cab
886:
626:The device was called
598:75/25, instead of the
401:device in its shot cab
359:11.70167°N 165.28528°E
328:11.69722°N 165.27194°E
202:Upshot–Knothole Climax
154:; 70 years ago
133:11.69722°N 165.27194°E
5341:Desert Rock exercises
4195:"Trouble in Paradise"
3855:Saturday Evening Post
2053:
2029:Sakharov's third idea
1697:
1628:
1535:
1510:expensive; the later
1432:
1368:
1319:
1130:
1099:
1083:Nuclear weapon design
965:
885:
622:Deuterium and lithium
3195:Swords of Armageddon
3164:Swords of Armageddon
3099:Simon & Schuster
2817:Swords of Armageddon
2707:Swords of Armageddon
2197:crater, relative to
2040:Mark 36 nuclear bomb
2036:Mark 21 nuclear bomb
1895:improve this article
1035:successfully in the
942:emergency capability
573:atomic bomb made by
414:thermonuclear weapon
222:thermonuclear weapon
4435:10.1511/2006.57.982
4346:1955Sci...122.1178.
3917:on October 22, 2013
3485:. Albuquerque, NM:
3323:2008LPB....26..479C
3058:1992PhT....45i..32L
2991:1981ZaMP...32....1P
2912:Bulatov and Garusov
2890:1964NucIM..27...23P
2840:Holian, Kathleen S.
2741:. Vol. Part I.
2668:figures follow the
2566:2019PNAS..11615420H
2560:(31): 15420–15424.
2308:emitted by the pit.
2130:. In the 2019 film
1725:sheltering in place
1588:Radioactive fallout
1502:Li + n → H + He + n
1252:Operation Sandstone
528:Filling weight
523:Lithium-6 deuteride
364:11.70167; 165.28528
355: /
333:11.69722; 165.27194
324: /
138:11.69722; 165.27194
129: /
5458:Explosions in 1954
5208:Sand Springs Range
4422:American Scientist
3701:"Shot in the Dark"
3400:. pp. 53–56.
2999:10.1007/BF00953545
2521:"Operation Castle"
2466:"Operation Castle"
2119:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
2112:In popular culture
2056:
1798:tropical latitudes
1711:Lucky Dragon No. 5
1700:
1673:Sir Joseph Rotblat
1665:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
1651:
1550:
1474:energetic neutrons
1439:
1371:
1325:
1145:
1105:
1091:equilibrium supers
1070:random-phase plate
971:
887:
420:Production history
411:Teller-Ulam design
299:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
294:radiation sickness
252:Teller-Ulam design
152:March 1, 1954
5420:
5419:
5366:Project Plowshare
5295:
5294:
4563:Holly M. Barker,
4398:978-0-691-17834-9
4121:978-3-527-40690-6
4096:978-0-205-80553-2
3979:978-0-224-06232-9
3775:on April 29, 2013
3678:978-1-76046-137-9
3637:(6882): 199–201.
3585:978-0-8248-5814-8
3553:on April 24, 2016
3452:978-0-318-20369-0
3407:978-1-108-50874-2
3288:on June 12, 2007.
3108:978-0-68-480400-2
3093:(1 August 1995).
2975:Pritzker, Andreas
2778:Sutherland, Karen
2735:Glasstone, Samuel
2365:quantum tunneling
1971:
1970:
1963:
1945:
1838:The fallout from
1802:temperate regions
1641:=position of the
1233:mortise and tenon
1209:lithium deuteride
1154:mortise and tenon
1087:Rosseland opacity
932:, along with the
856:s cylindrical end
646:lithium deuteride
552:
551:
436:February 24, 1953
254:. Castle Bravo's
248:lithium deuteride
215:
214:
5485:
5178:Nevada Test Site
5142:
5141:
4700:
4693:
4686:
4677:
4676:
4650:Internet Archive
4637:Internet Archive
4624:Internet Archive
4605:
4544:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4484:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4412:
4403:
4402:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4286:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4230:
4190:
4184:
4181:
4175:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4141:
4132:
4126:
4125:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4082:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4017:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3970:The Bomb: A Life
3965:
3959:
3958:
3940:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3913:. Archived from
3902:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3873:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3851:
3842:
3833:
3832:
3831:. July 21, 2018.
3824:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3771:. Archived from
3760:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3730:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3716:
3711:on July 12, 2011
3707:. Archived from
3696:
3690:
3689:
3664:
3655:
3654:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3610:on April 2, 2019
3596:
3590:
3589:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3549:. Archived from
3547:"Nuclear Issues"
3543:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3495:
3484:
3475:
3462:
3456:
3436:
3430:
3428:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3389:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3358:
3352:
3351:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3308:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3186:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3145:Internet Archive
3087:
3070:
3069:
3066:10.1063/1.881318
3038:
3032:
3031:
3020:
3011:
3010:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2945:
2934:
2933:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2870:
2859:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2808:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2783:Density of Steel
2774:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2731:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2698:
2673:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2630:. Archived from
2619:
2613:
2612:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2577:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2517:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2462:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2425:
2419:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2385:
2378:
2372:
2361:
2355:
2340:
2334:
2315:
2309:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2241:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2219:
2210:
2191:
2182:
2064:Marshall Islands
2009:fallout analysis
1966:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1903:
1879:
1871:
1860:Consumer Reports
1712:
1682:
1668:
1558:Operation Castle
1198:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1133:partial pressure
958:s indirect drive
957:
918:Lawson criterion
865:
855:
847:
832:
816:
536:Blast yield
469:
395:
386:
379:
378:
370:
369:
367:
366:
365:
360:
356:
353:
352:
351:
348:
339:
338:
336:
335:
334:
329:
325:
322:
321:
320:
317:
239:Operation Castle
234:Marshall Islands
162:
160:
155:
144:
143:
141:
140:
139:
134:
130:
127:
126:
125:
122:
94:Operation Castle
63:
62:
56:
33:
21:
20:
5493:
5492:
5488:
5487:
5486:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5423:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5377:The Atomic Cafe
5321:Alvin C. Graves
5301:
5291:
5270:
5249:
5233:
5217:
5166:
5137:
5131:
5112:Upshot–Knothole
5105:Tumbler–Snapper
4709:
4704:
4642:The short film
4629:The short film
4616:The short film
4613:
4608:
4547:
4538:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4525:
4510:
4506:
4461:
4457:
4447:
4445:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4381:
4377:
4331:
4330:
4326:
4316:
4314:
4305:
4304:
4300:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4211:10.2307/3433870
4191:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4168:
4166:
4139:
4133:
4129:
4122:
4108:
4104:
4097:
4083:
4079:
4069:
4067:
4057:
4053:
4029:
4025:
4015:
4013:
4003:10.2172/4279860
3991:
3987:
3980:
3966:
3962:
3941:
3930:
3920:
3918:
3903:
3899:
3889:
3887:
3874:
3870:
3860:
3858:
3849:
3843:
3836:
3828:The Japan Times
3819:
3818:
3814:
3804:
3802:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3778:
3776:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3740:. August 1996.
3732:
3731:
3727:
3714:
3712:
3705:Honolulu Weekly
3697:
3693:
3679:
3665:
3658:
3627:
3623:
3613:
3611:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3586:
3570:
3566:
3556:
3554:
3545:
3544:
3535:
3525:
3523:
3514:
3513:
3509:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3482:
3476:
3465:
3457:(Dose given in
3453:
3437:
3433:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3390:
3381:
3371:
3369:
3368:. March 6, 1954
3360:
3359:
3355:
3344:
3340:
3306:
3297:
3293:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3263:
3254:
3253:
3249:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3201:
3199:
3187:
3180:
3170:
3168:
3156:
3152:
3109:
3091:Rhodes, Richard
3088:
3073:
3039:
3035:
3021:
3014:
2972:
2968:
2960:
2956:
2947:
2946:
2937:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2909:
2905:
2871:
2862:
2855:
2851:
2846:. Vol. Ic.
2837:
2833:
2823:
2821:
2820:. Vol. III
2809:
2798:
2788:
2786:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2759:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2732:
2723:
2713:
2711:
2710:. Vol. III
2699:
2676:
2657:
2655:
2643:
2639:
2634:on May 7, 2009.
2620:
2616:
2605:
2601:
2544:
2540:
2530:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2507:
2497:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2472:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2426:
2422:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2379:
2375:
2362:
2358:
2341:
2337:
2316:
2312:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2220:
2211:
2202:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2157:nuclear tests.
2114:
2105:
2048:
2025:Andrei Sakharov
1994:Andrei Sakharov
1979:boosted fission
1967:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1904:
1902:
1892:
1880:
1869:
1785:
1737:
1710:
1705:
1680:
1659:
1585:
1569:Alvin C. Graves
1530:
1427:
1375:TNT equivalence
1343:Kwajalein Atoll
1314:
1280:
1230:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1125:
1032:Natural uranium
1019:
1008:
1000:
960:
955:
926:
907:alpha particles
880:
873:
866:
857:
853:
848:
839:
833:
824:
817:
663:
624:
615:Greenhouse Item
580:Upshot-Knothole
557:
548:
515:
402:
382:
377:
363:
361:
357:
354:
349:
346:
344:
342:
341:
332:
330:
326:
323:
318:
315:
313:
311:
310:
270:, which led to
260:megatons of TNT
211:
210:
204:
193:Test chronology
182:megatons of TNT
158:
156:
153:
137:
135:
131:
128:
123:
120:
118:
116:
115:
72:
71:
70:
69:
66:
65:
64:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5491:
5481:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5392:
5387:
5380:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5311:
5305:
5303:
5297:
5296:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5289:
5287:South Atlantic
5284:
5278:
5276:
5272:
5271:
5269:
5268:
5263:
5257:
5255:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5247:
5241:
5239:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5231:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5218:
5216:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5203:Central Nevada
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5183:Frenchman Flat
5180:
5174:
5172:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5148:
5146:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5129:
5122:
5115:
5108:
5101:
5094:
5087:
5080:
5073:
5066:
5059:
5052:
5045:
5038:
5035:Roller Coaster
5031:
5024:
5017:
5010:
5008:Project 58/58A
5005:
5000:
4995:
4988:
4981:
4974:
4967:
4960:
4953:
4946:
4939:
4932:
4925:
4918:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4895:
4888:
4887:
4886:
4874:
4867:
4860:
4853:
4846:
4839:
4832:
4825:
4824:
4823:
4820:Starfish Prime
4809:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4781:
4774:
4767:
4760:
4753:
4746:
4739:
4732:
4725:
4717:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4703:
4702:
4695:
4688:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4653:
4640:
4627:
4612:
4611:External links
4609:
4607:
4606:
4588:(1): 176–186.
4582:Health Physics
4573:
4568:
4561:
4556:Chuck Hansen,
4553:
4552:
4551:
4546:
4545:
4523:
4504:
4475:(2): 202–203.
4455:
4404:
4397:
4375:
4324:
4298:
4242:
4205:(9): 914–917.
4185:
4176:
4127:
4120:
4102:
4095:
4077:
4059:Winter, Mark.
4051:
4032:Machta, Lester
4023:
3985:
3978:
3960:
3928:
3897:
3868:
3834:
3812:
3801:. May 10, 2016
3786:
3755:
3725:
3691:
3687:j.ctt1ws7w90.9
3677:
3656:
3621:
3591:
3584:
3564:
3533:
3507:
3463:
3451:
3431:
3413:
3406:
3379:
3353:
3338:
3291:
3273:
3247:
3223:
3209:
3198:. Vol. IV
3178:
3167:. Vol. II
3150:
3107:
3071:
3033:
3012:
2966:
2954:
2935:
2921:
2903:
2860:
2849:
2831:
2796:
2769:
2744:
2721:
2674:
2670:MeasuringWorth
2664:United States
2652:MeasuringWorth
2637:
2614:
2599:
2538:
2527:. May 17, 2006
2505:
2482:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2438:
2420:
2395:
2386:
2373:
2356:
2335:
2310:
2302:high explosive
2292:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2212:
2205:
2203:
2193:
2186:
2184:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2113:
2110:
2100:hypothyroidism
2092:thyroid cancer
2047:
2046:Health impacts
2044:
2017:staging nature
2013:Joseph Rotblat
1969:
1968:
1910:"Castle Bravo"
1883:
1881:
1874:
1868:
1867:Weapon history
1865:
1852:periodic table
1825:Project Ashcan
1784:
1781:
1751:Enewetak Atoll
1736:
1733:
1704:
1701:
1658:
1655:
1647:NE, EC, and SE
1645:fishing boat.
1584:
1581:
1562:Percy Clarkson
1529:
1526:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1451:alpha particle
1426:
1423:
1347:mushroom cloud
1313:
1310:
1279:
1276:
1228:
1124:
1121:
1066:channel filler
1017:
1006:
998:
959:
950:
925:
922:
901:. It consumes
879:
878:Jetter's cycle
876:
875:
874:
867:
860:
858:
849:
842:
840:
834:
827:
825:
818:
811:
728:B-47 Stratojet
661:
623:
620:
556:
555:Primary system
553:
550:
549:
547:
546:
543:
539:
537:
533:
532:
529:
525:
524:
521:
517:
516:
512:
511:
508:
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500:
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495:
492:
488:
487:
486:Specifications
483:
482:
479:
475:
474:
471:
464:
463:
460:
456:
455:
452:
451:Unit cost
448:
447:
442:
438:
437:
434:
430:
429:
426:
422:
421:
417:
416:
408:
404:
403:
396:
388:
387:
376:
373:
244:nuclear device
213:
212:
205:
199:
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194:
190:
189:
178:
174:
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168:
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163:
150:
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113:
107:
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79:
78:
74:
73:
67:
58:
57:
51:
50:
49:
48:
45:
44:
41:mushroom cloud
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5490:
5479:
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5469:
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5364:
5362:
5359:
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5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5336:Corbin Harney
5334:
5332:
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5322:
5319:
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5018:
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5011:
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4993:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4968:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4947:
4944:
4943:Little Feller
4940:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4923:
4919:
4916:
4912:
4907:
4906:Hardtack Teak
4903:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4872:
4868:
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4851:
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4826:
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4814:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4786:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4768:
4765:
4764:Buster–Jangle
4761:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4723:
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4708:
4701:
4696:
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4689:
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4682:
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4678:
4672:
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4603:
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4459:
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4409:
4400:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4379:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
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4339:
4335:
4328:
4312:
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4294:
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4285:
4280:
4276:
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4268:
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4234:
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4212:
4208:
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4200:
4196:
4189:
4180:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4138:
4131:
4123:
4117:
4114:. Wiley-VCH.
4113:
4106:
4098:
4092:
4088:
4081:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4027:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3989:
3981:
3975:
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3964:
3956:
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3939:
3937:
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3933:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3872:
3857:
3856:
3848:
3841:
3839:
3830:
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3823:
3816:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3759:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3729:
3722:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3695:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3661:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3625:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3587:
3581:
3577:
3576:
3568:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3435:
3426:
3425:
3417:
3409:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3349:
3342:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3301:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3227:
3219:
3213:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3190:Hansen, Chuck
3185:
3183:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3159:Hansen, Chuck
3154:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3046:Physics Today
3043:
3037:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3017:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2963:
2958:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2931:
2925:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2858:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2812:Hansen, Chuck
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2773:
2762:September 23,
2758:
2754:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2702:Hansen, Chuck
2697:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2610:
2603:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2542:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2498:September 23,
2493:
2486:
2475:September 23,
2471:
2467:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2451:
2442:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2390:
2383:
2377:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2262:Operation Ivy
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2229:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2160:In 2013, the
2158:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2150:Sunken Condos
2146:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1965:
1962:
1954:
1951:February 2019
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1912: –
1911:
1907:
1906:Find sources:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1884:This section
1882:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1686:
1678:
1675:, working at
1674:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1657:Fishing boats
1654:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1612:birth defects
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1431:
1422:
1420:
1419:Novaya Zemlya
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1309:
1307:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1286:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1271:Taylor mixing
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1057:fusion tamper
1053:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1005:
997:
993:
989:
984:
980:
976:
968:
964:
954:
949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
921:
919:
915:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
884:
871:
864:
859:
852:
846:
841:
837:
831:
826:
822:
815:
810:
809:
808:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
774:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
720:
719:Castle Yankee
715:
714:
709:
708:
703:
702:
697:
692:
689:
688:7075 aluminum
685:
684:Castle Yankee
681:
680:
675:
671:
667:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
634:
629:
619:
617:
616:
610:
606:
601:
600:Composition B
597:
593:
589:
585:
582:
581:
576:
572:
569:
564:
562:
544:
541:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
481:TX-21C, TX-26
480:
476:
472:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
446:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
418:
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389:
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372:
368:
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269:
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257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
240:
236:, as part of
235:
231:
227:
226:United States
223:
219:
209: →
208:
203:
200:←
196:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
172:
169:
165:
151:
147:
142:
114:
112:
108:
105:
102:
98:
95:
92:
88:
85:United States
84:
80:
75:
55:
46:
42:
38:
32:
27:
22:
19:
5407:Louis Vitale
5402:Vela Uniform
5394:
5384:Radio Bikini
5382:
5375:
5331:Chuck Hansen
5313:
5193:Rainier Mesa
4644:
4631:
4618:
4585:
4581:
4564:
4557:
4550:Bibliography
4537:, retrieved
4532:
4526:
4513:
4507:
4472:
4469:Epidemiology
4468:
4458:
4446:. Retrieved
4429:(1): 48–57.
4426:
4420:
4384:
4378:
4337:
4333:
4327:
4315:. Retrieved
4311:U.S. Embassy
4301:
4258:
4254:
4245:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4179:
4169:February 22,
4167:. Retrieved
4147:
4143:
4130:
4111:
4105:
4086:
4080:
4068:. Retrieved
4064:
4054:
4035:
4026:
4014:. Retrieved
3988:
3969:
3963:
3945:
3919:. Retrieved
3915:the original
3910:
3900:
3888:. Retrieved
3886:. p. 11
3881:
3871:
3859:. Retrieved
3853:
3826:
3815:
3805:November 20,
3803:. Retrieved
3798:
3789:
3777:. Retrieved
3773:the original
3758:
3746:. Retrieved
3737:
3728:
3720:
3713:. Retrieved
3709:the original
3704:
3694:
3668:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3612:. Retrieved
3608:the original
3603:
3594:
3574:
3567:
3555:. Retrieved
3551:the original
3524:. Retrieved
3519:
3510:
3498:. Retrieved
3461:in 1977 ed.)
3441:
3434:
3423:
3416:
3393:
3370:. Retrieved
3365:
3356:
3347:
3341:
3314:
3310:
3294:
3286:the original
3276:
3266:December 23,
3264:. Retrieved
3250:
3235:
3226:
3212:
3200:. Retrieved
3194:
3169:. Retrieved
3163:
3153:
3143:– via
3094:
3052:(9): 32–40.
3049:
3045:
3036:
3027:
3024:Benz, Arnold
2982:
2978:
2969:
2957:
2948:
2929:
2924:
2915:
2906:
2884:(1): 23–28.
2881:
2877:
2852:
2843:
2834:
2822:. Retrieved
2816:
2789:December 28,
2787:. Retrieved
2782:
2772:
2760:. Retrieved
2756:
2747:
2738:
2714:December 28,
2712:. Retrieved
2706:
2669:
2658:November 30,
2656:. Retrieved
2650:
2640:
2632:the original
2627:
2617:
2608:
2602:
2557:
2551:
2541:
2529:. Retrieved
2524:
2496:. Retrieved
2485:
2473:. Retrieved
2469:
2460:
2441:
2429:
2423:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2389:
2381:
2376:
2359:
2343:
2338:
2330:
2313:
2295:
2286:
2199:Bikini Atoll
2194:
2165:
2159:
2148:
2145:Donald Fagen
2142:
2131:
2117:
2115:
2107:
2104:
2085:
2057:
2033:
2006:
1990:
1983:
1972:
1957:
1948:
1938:
1931:
1924:
1917:
1905:
1893:Please help
1888:verification
1885:
1858:
1856:
1840:Castle Bravo
1839:
1837:
1829:stratosphere
1817:strontium-90
1814:
1790:
1786:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1745:
1739:The US Navy
1738:
1721:Bikini Atoll
1709:
1706:
1689:
1671:
1660:
1652:
1646:
1643:Lucky Dragon
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1606:, including
1604:staple foods
1586:
1566:
1557:
1551:
1537:
1522:
1518:
1513:Castle Union
1511:
1508:
1497:
1486:
1482:neutron flux
1463:
1440:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1391:Castle Bravo
1390:
1387:World War II
1379:Castle Bravo
1378:
1372:
1340:
1333:
1329:Bikini Atoll
1326:
1320:
1305:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1281:
1278:Use of boron
1270:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1225:
1216:
1206:
1202:simultaneity
1182:
1174:
1169:
1163:
1158:
1148:
1146:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1090:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1056:
1054:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1014:
1003:
995:
982:
972:
966:
952:
945:
937:
933:
929:
927:
914:neutronicity
911:
888:
869:
850:
835:
820:
802:
789:
785:
781:
777:
772:
766:
754:
751:gravity bomb
746:
739:
732:B-58 Hustler
717:
713:Castle Romeo
711:
706:
700:
695:
693:
683:
678:
673:
666:Castle Bravo
665:
649:
641:
631:
627:
625:
613:
608:
604:
587:
583:
578:
567:
565:
561:Castle Bravo
560:
558:
462:October 1953
441:Manufacturer
398:
383:
308:
297:
276:
237:
230:Bikini Atoll
218:Castle Bravo
217:
216:
207:Castle Romeo
104:Bikini Atoll
36:
35:Film of the
24:Castle Bravo
18:
5478:Ralik Chain
5326:Reed Hadley
5229:Salmon Site
5222:Mississippi
5188:Pahute Mesa
5014:Quicksilver
4915:Hardtack II
4785:Cornerstone
4539:October 31,
4518:AuthorHouse
3905:Ely, Dave.
3883:Japan Times
3300:Cook, R. C.
3042:Lindl, John
2985:(1): 1–11.
2021:uranium-237
1844:caesium-137
1833:hindcasting
1821:air filters
1793:gummed film
1620:Project 4.1
1573:Reed Hadley
1470:beryllium-8
1433:Diagram of
1295:MORGENSTERN
1291:Castle Koon
1170:ALARM CLOCK
938:ALARM CLOCK
773:ALARM CLOCK
743:scaled down
670:fusion bomb
470: built
375:Bomb design
362: /
331: /
319:165°16′19″E
290:particulate
171:Atmospheric
136: /
124:165°16′19″E
111:Coordinates
90:Test series
77:Information
5427:Categories
5198:Yucca Flat
5152:Alamogordo
5145:New Mexico
5091:Touchstone
5003:Project 57
4998:Project 56
4992:Praetorian
4899:Hardtack I
4864:Greenhouse
4799:Crossroads
4778:Charioteer
4714:Operations
4040:(Report).
3997:(Report).
3953:. p.
3921:August 25,
3631:The Lancet
3317:(3): 479.
3141:Q105755363
2273:References
2267:Tsar Bomba
2164:published
2096:iodine-131
1921:newspapers
1577:wind shear
1466:beta decay
1425:High yield
1396:Tsar Bomba
1312:Detonation
1285:spark plug
1257:Ted Taylor
1217:spark plug
1167:, and the
1078:sputtering
1011:flash bulb
920:of ≈1.5).
798:Hans Bethe
350:165°17′7″E
316:11°41′50″N
159:1954-03-01
121:11°41′50″N
5261:Parachute
5119:Whetstone
5077:Tinderbox
5042:Sandstone
4957:Musketeer
4871:Grenadier
4843:Flintlock
3911:dgely.com
3125:456652278
3007:122035869
2453:Citations
2348:attenuate
2252:Chagai-II
2077:Kwajalein
1998:developed
1848:potassium
1788:devices.
1744:USS
1729:roentgens
1685:Hibakusha
1608:arrowroot
1546:roentgens
1459:deuterium
1240:bifrustum
1213:plutonium
1173:devices.
992:aluminium
903:lithium-6
895:deuterium
658:deuterium
654:cryogenic
347:11°42′6″N
268:lithium-7
262:(63
184:(63
167:Test type
100:Test site
5254:Colorado
5245:Amchitka
5157:Carlsbad
4985:Plumbbob
4936:Latchkey
4892:Guardian
4884:Cannikin
4857:Fusileer
4836:Fishbowl
4806:Crosstie
4729:Aqueduct
4660:BBC News
4499:10069262
4443:27858707
4370:17807268
4293:20790967
4275:25407693
3799:ABC News
3742:Archived
3651:13243688
3520:Le Monde
3491:Archived
3372:March 1,
3260:Archived
3242:Archived
3192:(1995).
3161:(1995).
3137:Wikidata
3133:7720934M
3117:95011070
3026:(1992).
2914:(1958).
2842:(1984).
2814:(1995).
2780:(2004).
2737:(1954).
2704:(1995).
2672:series.
2594:31308235
2416:hohlraum
2369:exitance
2331:Dark Sun
2247:Chagai-I
2225:See also
2155:Ivy King
2128:Godzilla
2088:leukemia
2081:alopecia
2069:Rongelap
1773:Patapsco
1768:Patapsco
1764:Patapsco
1760:Patapsco
1755:Patapsco
1746:Patapsco
1687:status.
1596:Rongerik
1592:Rongelap
1542:exposure
1415:Test 174
1411:Test 173
1407:Test 147
1402:Test 219
1356:Rongelap
1352:Rongerik
1300:RACER IV
1237:circular
1183:hot spot
1175:SHRIMP's
1137:Ivy Mike
1110:hohlraum
1050:cylinder
979:hohlraum
784:and dry
763:isotopes
674:Ivy Mike
650:Ivy Mike
633:Ivy Mike
596:Cyclotol
507:Diameter
478:Variants
459:Produced
433:Designed
425:Designer
282:Rongelap
5300:Related
5098:Trinity
5063:Sunbeam
5049:Sculpin
5028:Redwing
4978:Phalanx
4964:Niblick
4950:Mandrel
4878:Grommet
4850:Fulcrum
4813:Dominic
4792:Cresset
4757:Bowline
4750:Bedrock
4602:9199227
4491:3703102
4448:July 8,
4362:1749478
4342:Bibcode
4334:Science
4317:July 8,
4284:1844058
4237:9341101
4228:1470349
4219:3433870
4152:Bibcode
4070:May 20,
4046:4225048
4016:May 20,
4011:4279860
3890:May 20,
3861:May 20,
3779:May 20,
3769:Chugoku
3748:May 20,
3715:May 20,
3614:May 20,
3557:May 20,
3526:May 20,
3500:May 20,
3319:Bibcode
3237:YouTube
3202:May 20,
3171:May 20,
3054:Bibcode
2987:Bibcode
2951:. 2009.
2932:. 2002.
2886:Bibcode
2824:May 20,
2585:6681739
2562:Bibcode
2531:May 20,
2404:Tokamak
2172:Gallery
2138:Bermuda
1935:scholar
1806:tropics
1749:was at
1554:fallout
1478:nucleus
1455:tritium
1447:neutron
1435:Tritium
1385:during
1244:uranium
1221:tritium
1194:⁄
1159:SAUSAGE
1023:kelvins
899:tritium
891:lithium
782:SAUSAGE
759:lithium
707:RUNT II
679:JUGHEAD
656:liquid
520:Filling
278:Fallout
258:was 15
157: (
82:Country
5302:topics
5238:Alaska
5171:Nevada
5126:Wigwam
5084:Toggle
5070:Teapot
5056:Storax
5021:Ranger
4971:Nougat
4771:Castle
4600:
4497:
4489:
4441:
4395:
4368:
4360:
4291:
4281:
4273:
4235:
4225:
4217:
4118:
4093:
4044:
4009:
3976:
3685:
3675:
3649:
3582:
3449:
3404:
3139:
3131:
3123:
3115:
3105:
3005:
2874:Pruitt
2592:
2582:
2382:pusher
2352:X-rays
2319:liters
2306:X-rays
2002:tested
1937:
1930:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1808:, the
1741:tanker
1360:Utirik
1358:, and
1247:tamper
1179:shrimp
1149:SHRIMP
1116:ZOMBIE
1114:MK-15
1101:SHRIMP
1061:X-rays
975:copper
953:SHRIMP
934:RUNT I
930:SHRIMP
897:, and
870:SHRIMP
851:SHRIMP
836:SHRIMP
821:SHRIMP
786:RUNT I
755:Castle
747:SHRIMP
696:SHRIMP
642:SHRIMP
640:fuel.
638:fusion
628:SHRIMP
592:tamper
588:Domino
584:Climax
499:Length
399:SHRIMP
384:SHRIMP
286:Utirik
5275:Other
5266:Rifle
5138:areas
4929:Julin
4829:Emery
4743:Argus
4736:Arbor
4722:Anvil
4487:JSTOR
4439:JSTOR
4358:JSTOR
4271:JSTOR
4215:JSTOR
4140:(PDF)
3850:(PDF)
3683:JSTOR
3494:(PDF)
3483:(PDF)
3307:(PDF)
3003:S2CID
2278:Notes
2195:Bravo
2073:Utrik
1975:Joe-4
1942:JSTOR
1928:books
1538:Bravo
1468:into
1321:Bravo
1306:walls
1045:COBRA
967:Bravo
956:'
854:'
767:Bravo
652:used
644:used
609:COBRA
605:COBRA
568:COBRA
256:yield
177:Yield
37:Bravo
5136:Test
4598:PMID
4541:2018
4495:PMID
4450:2024
4393:ISBN
4366:PMID
4319:2024
4289:PMID
4233:PMID
4171:2016
4116:ISBN
4091:ISBN
4072:2016
4042:OSTI
4018:2016
4007:OSTI
3974:ISBN
3923:2013
3892:2016
3863:2016
3807:2023
3781:2016
3750:2016
3717:2016
3673:ISBN
3647:PMID
3616:2016
3580:ISBN
3559:2016
3528:2016
3502:2016
3459:rads
3447:ISBN
3402:ISBN
3374:2024
3268:2016
3204:2016
3173:2016
3121:OCLC
3113:LCCN
3103:ISBN
2826:2016
2791:2016
2764:2017
2716:2016
2660:2023
2590:PMID
2533:2016
2500:2017
2477:2017
2430:Mike
2371:etc.
2327:here
2143:The
2090:and
2071:and
2000:and
1914:news
1777:R/hr
1716:hold
1594:and
1536:The
1453:and
1413:and
1164:RUNT
1040:Mike
1027:core
988:gold
946:Mike
936:and
819:The
788:and
740:RUNT
730:and
716:and
704:and
701:RUNT
694:The
559:The
491:Mass
407:Type
397:The
284:and
149:Date
4922:Ivy
4590:doi
4477:doi
4431:doi
4350:doi
4338:122
4279:PMC
4263:doi
4223:PMC
4207:doi
4203:105
4160:doi
3999:doi
3955:109
3639:doi
3635:266
3327:doi
3062:doi
2995:doi
2894:doi
2580:PMC
2570:doi
2558:116
1897:by
1544:in
1377:),
1338:).
1336:GMT
1259:as
1229:eff
1037:Ivy
999:eff
990:or
928:As
805:MeV
794:USD
468:No.
228:at
180:15
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1918:·
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1192:5
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