99:(e.g. Na+, K+, Ca++, etc.), lipids (e.g. steroid, prostaglandin), peptides (e.g. insulin, ACTH), carbohydrates, glycosylated proteins (proteoglycans), nucleic acids, etc. Peptide and lipid ligands are particularly important, as most hormones belong to these classes of chemicals. Peptides are usually polar, hydrophilic molecules. As such they are unable to diffuse freely across the bi-lipid layer of the plasma membrane, so their action is mediated by a cell membrane bound receptor. On the other hand, liposoluble chemicals such as steroid hormones, can diffuse passively across the plasma membrane and interact with intracellular receptors. Cell signaling can occur over short or long distances, and can be further classified as
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447:), but important exceptions to both are numerous, and the same molecule can act both via surface receptors or in an intracrine manner to different effects. In animal cells, specialized cells release these hormones and send them through the circulatory system to other parts of the body. They then reach target cells, which can recognize and respond to the hormones and produce a result. This is also known as endocrine signaling. Plant growth regulators, or plant hormones, move through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas to reach their targets.
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are known as relay molecules. The multistep process of the transduction stage is often composed of the activation of proteins by addition or removal of phosphate groups or even the release of other small molecules or ions that can act as messengers. The amplifying of a signal is one of the benefits to this multiple step sequence. Other benefits include more opportunities for regulation than simpler systems do and the fine-tuning of the response, in both unicellular and multicellular organism.
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targets for about 50% of drugs currently on the market, mainly due to their involvement in signaling pathways related to many diseases i.e. mental, metabolic including endocrinological disorders, immunological including viral infections, cardiovascular, inflammatory, senses disorders, and cancer. The long ago discovered association between GPCRs and many endogenous and exogenous substances, resulting in e.g. analgesia, is another dynamically developing field of pharmaceutical research.
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signaling all ensure that the right cells are behaving as told, at the right time, and in synchronization with other cells and their own functions within the organism. At the end, the end of a signal pathway leads to the regulation of a cellular activity. This response can take place in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm of the cell. A majority of signaling pathways control protein synthesis by turning certain genes on and off in the nucleus.
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142:. Receptors have the ability to detect a signal either by binding to a specific chemical or by undergoing a conformational change when interacting with physical agents. It is the specificity of the chemical interaction between a given ligand and its receptor that confers the ability to trigger a specific cellular response. Receptors can be broadly classified into cell membrane receptors and intracellular receptors.
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Intracellular receptors often have a level of specificity, this allows the receptors to initiate certain responses when bound to a corresponding ligand. Intracellular receptors typically act on lipid soluble molecules. The receptors bind to a group of DNA binding proteins. Upon binding, the receptor-ligand complex translocates to the nucleus where they can alter patterns of gene expression.
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2203:. Cell signaling research involves studying the spatial and temporal dynamics of both receptors and the components of signaling pathways that are activated by receptors in various cell types. Emerging methods for single-cell mass-spectrometry analysis promise to enable studying signal transduction with single-cell resolution.
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is common way of turning receptors "off". Endocytic down regulation is regarded as a means for reducing receptor signaling. The process involves the binding of a ligand to the receptor, which then triggers the formation of coated pits, the coated pits transform to coated vesicles and are transported
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each have an equal chance of terminally differentiating or becoming a uterine precursor cell that continues to divide. The choice of which cell continues to divide is controlled by competition of cell surface signals. One cell will happen to produce more of a cell surface protein that activates the
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A specific cellular response is the result of the transduced signal in the final stage of cell signaling. This response can essentially be any cellular activity that is present in a body. It can spur the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, or even as catalysis by an enzyme. These three steps of cell
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In intracrine signaling, the signaling chemicals are produced inside the cell and bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors without being secreted from the cell.. In intracrine signaling, signals are relayed without being secreted from the cell. The intracrine signals not being secreted outside of the
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When binding to the signaling molecule, the receptor protein changes in some way and starts the process of transduction, which can occur in a single step or as a series of changes in a sequence of different molecules (called a signal transduction pathway). The molecules that compose these pathways
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have a different mechanism of action. They usually bind to lipid soluble ligands that diffuse passively through the plasma membrane such as steroid hormones. These ligands bind to specific cytoplasmic transporters that shuttle the hormone-transporter complex inside the nucleus where specific genes
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Ion channels receptors are large transmembrane proteins with a ligand activated gate function. When these receptors are activated, they may allow or block passage of specific ions across the cell membrane. Most receptors activated by physical stimuli such as pressure or temperature belongs to this
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occurs when the chemical signal acts on the same cell that produced the signaling chemical. Intracrine signaling occurs when the chemical signal produced by a cell acts on receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the same cell. Juxtacrine signaling occurs between physically adjacent cells.
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are multimeric proteins embedded within the plasma membrane. These receptors have extracellular, trans-membrane and intracellular domains. The extracellular domain is responsible for the interaction with a specific ligand. The intracellular domain is responsible for the initiation of a cascade of
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G protein-coupled receptors are an important drug target and approximately 34% of all Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) approved drugs target 108 members of this family. The global sales volume for these drugs is estimated to be 180 billion US dollars as of 2018. It is estimated that GPCRs are
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seven times. The G-protein acts as a "middle man" transferring the signal from its activated receptor to its target and therefore indirectly regulates that target protein. Ligands can bind either to extracellular N-terminus and loops (e.g. glutamate receptors) or to the binding site within
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Cserép, Csaba; Pósfai, Balázs; Lénárt, Nikolett; Fekete, Rebeka; László, Zsófia I.; Lele, Zsolt; Orsolits, Barbara; Molnár, Gábor; Heindl, Steffanie; Schwarcz, Anett D.; Ujvári, Katinka; Környei, Zsuzsanna; Tóth, Krisztina; Szabadits, Eszter; Sperlágh, Beáta; Baranyi, Mária; Csiba, László;
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Intracellular receptors exist freely in the cytoplasm, nucleus, or can be bound to organelles or membranes. For example, the presence of nuclear and mitochondrial receptors is well documented. The binding of a ligand to the intracellular receptor typically induces a response in the cell.
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Reducing the sensitivity of the receptor is a result of receptors being occupied for a long time. This results in a receptor adaptation in which the receptor no longer responds to the signaling molecule. Many receptors have the ability to change in response to ligand concentration.
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when the population is dense enough. The mechanism involves the production and detection of a signaling molecule, and the regulation of gene transcription in response. Quorum sensing operates in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and both within and between species.
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cascade that propagates the signal through the cell. Second messenger systems can amplify or modulate a signal, in which activation of a few receptors results in multiple secondary messengers being activated, thereby amplifying the initial signal (the first messenger). The
710:
In paracrine signaling, a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells. Signaling molecules known as paracrine factors diffuse over a relatively short distance (local action), as opposed to cell signaling by
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in the body - even between different species - are known to utilize a similar sets of paracrine factors in differential development. The highly conserved receptors and pathways can be organized into four major families based on similar structures:
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with an extracellular domain responsible for binding a specific ligand and an intracellular domain with enzymatic or catalytic activity. Upon activation the enzymatic portion is responsible for promoting specific intracellular chemical reactions.
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that code for signaling proteins that interact specifically with Notch receptors and stimulate a response in cells that express Notch on their surface. Molecules that activate (or, in some cases, inhibit) receptors can be classified as hormones,
184:. In this process, the signal, by interacting with the receptor, starts a series of molecular events within the cell leading to the final effect of the signaling process. Typically the final effect consists in the activation of an ion channel (
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effect of the ligand on the cell's behavior is produced. Often, the behavior of a chain of several interacting cell proteins is altered following receptor activation. The entire set of cell changes induced by receptor activation is called a
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Hortobágyi, Tibor; Maglóczky, Zsófia; Martinecz, Bernadett; Szabó, Gábor; Erdélyi, Ferenc; Szipőcs, Róbert; Tamkun, Michael M.; Gesierich, Benno; Duering, Marco; Katona, István; Liesz, Arthur; Tamás, Gábor; Dénes, Ádám (31 January 2020).
1267:. The G protein's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (
575:
Autocrine signaling involves a cell secreting a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell itself. This can be contrasted with
1637:, which is also found in social insects, the multiplicity of individual signals has the potentiality to create a positive feedback loop, generating coordinated response. In this context, the signaling molecules are called
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Clarke MB, Sperandio V (June 2005). "Events at the host-microbial interface of the gastrointestinal tract III. Cell-to-cell signaling among microbial flora, host, and pathogens: there is a whole lot of talking going on".
1350:. The signaling molecule binds to the receptor on the outside of the cell and causes a conformational change on the catalytic function located on the receptor inside the cell. Examples of the enzymatic activity include:
1520:. However, for many cell surface receptors, ligand-receptor interactions are not directly linked to the cell's response. The activated receptor must first interact with other proteins inside the cell before the ultimate
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and, thus, alter gene transcription and, ultimately, cell cycle progression. Many cellular proteins are activated downstream of the growth factor receptors (such as EGFR) that initiate this signal transduction pathway.
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Cell surface receptors play an essential role in the biological systems of single- and multi-cellular organisms and malfunction or damage to these proteins is associated with cancer, heart disease, and asthma. These
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cell is what sets apart intracrine signaling from the other cell signaling mechanisms such as autocrine signaling. In both autocrine and intracrine signaling, the signal has an effect on the cell that produced it.
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These receptor proteins are typically composed of at least two different domains: a transmembrane domain which includes the ion pore, and an extracellular domain which includes the ligand binding location (an
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Dahlman-Wright K, Cavailles V, Fuqua SA, Jordan VC, Katzenellenbogen JA, Korach KS, Maggi A, Muramatsu M, Parker MG, Gustafsson JA (Dec 2006). "International Union of
Pharmacology. LXIV. Estrogen receptors".
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is produced in small amounts by some cells of the human body and has a number of biological signaling functions. Only two other such gases are currently known to act as signaling molecules in the human body:
1093:. If these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, a resulting conformational change opens the ion channels, which leads to a flow of ions across the cell membrane. This, in turn, results in either a
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binding site). This modularity has enabled a 'divide and conquer' approach to finding the structure of the proteins (crystallising each domain separately). The function of such receptors located at
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In the case of Notch-mediated signaling, the signal transduction mechanism can be relatively simple. As shown in Figure 2, the activation of Notch can cause the Notch protein to be altered by a
899:. Receptors may bind with some molecules (ligands) or may interact with physical agents like light, mechanical temperature, pressure, etc. Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a
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Complex multi-component signal transduction pathways provide opportunities for feedback, signal amplification, and interactions inside one cell between multiple signals and signaling pathways.
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environment. Factors then travel to nearby cells in which the gradient of factor received determines the outcome. However, the exact distance that paracrine factors can travel is not certain.
907:) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to a receptor protein on the cell surface, or once inside the cell, the signaling molecule can bind to
515:. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structures at the cell plasma membrane, where secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse to release intra-vesicular contents from the cell.
511:. Exocytosis is the process by which a large amount of molecules are released; thus it is a form of bulk transport. Exocytosis occurs via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called
3957:"International Union of Pharmacology. LXV. The pharmacology and classification of the nuclear receptor superfamily: glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid, progesterone, and androgen receptors"
2920:
Cserép, Csaba; Schwarcz, Anett D.; Pósfai, Balázs; László, Zsófia I.; Kellermayer, Anna; Környei, Zsuzsanna; Kisfali, Máté; Nyerges, Miklós; Lele, Zsolt; Katona, István (September 2022).
2160:. Ligand receptor interactions such as that of the Notch receptor interaction, are known to be the main interactions responsible for cell signaling mechanisms and communication.
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Many cell signals are carried by molecules that are released by one cell and move to make contact with another cell. Signaling molecules can belong to several chemical classes:
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to reach all parts of the body. Specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone. Endocrine signaling involves the release of
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In some cases, receptor activation caused by ligand binding to a receptor is directly coupled to the cell's response to the ligand. For example, the neurotransmitter
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Lu NZ, Wardell SE, Burnstein KL, Defranco D, Fuller PJ, Giguere V, Hochberg RB, McKay L, Renoir JM, Weigel NL, Wilson EM, McDonnell DP, Cidlowski JA (Dec 2006).
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acts as a receptor for ligands that are expressed on adjacent cells. While some receptors are cell-surface proteins, others are found inside cells. For example,
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enables individuals to begin an activity only when the population is sufficiently large. This signaling between cells was first observed in the marine bacterium
1580:), which couples the signal to further downstream signaling processes. For example, one of the signal transduction pathways that are activated is called the
124:
Paracrine signaling occurs between nearby cells. Endocrine interaction occurs between distant cells, with the chemical signal usually carried by the blood.
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Although paracrine signaling elicits a diverse array of responses in the induced cells, most paracrine factors utilize a relatively streamlined set of
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inside the cell, induced by an external signal. Many growth factors bind to receptors at the cell surface and stimulate cells to progress through the
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or system that reduces Notch expression in the cell that will differentiate and that increases Notch on the surface of the cell that continues as a
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They have two important domains, an extra-cellular ligand binding domain and an intracellular domain, which has a catalytic function; and a single
526:, where they dock and fuse at porosomes and their contents (i.e., water-soluble molecules) are secreted into the extracellular environment. This
3282:"A microdomain formed by the extracellular ends of the transmembrane domains promotes activation of the G protein-coupled alpha-factor receptor"
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1584:(MAPK) pathway. The signal transduction component labeled as "MAPK" in the pathway was originally called "ERK," so the pathway is called the
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are complex proteins or tightly bound multimer of proteins, located in the plasma membrane or within the interior of the cell such as in the
3423:
Purves, Dale; George J. Augustine; David
Fitzpatrick; William C. Hall; Anthony-Samuel LaMantia; James O. McNamara; Leonard E. White (2008).
293:, individual cells aggregate together to form fruiting bodies and eventually spores, under the influence of a chemical signal, known as an
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receptor activation allows negatively charged chloride ions to move into the neuron, which inhibits the ability of the neuron to produce
3519:
King N, Hittinger CT, Carroll SB (July 2003). "Evolution of key cell signaling and adhesion protein families predates animal origins".
1607:
Some signaling transduction pathways respond differently, depending on the amount of signaling received by the cell. For instance, the
3076:"Cerebellar norepinephrine modulates learning of delay classical eyeblink conditioning: evidence for post-synaptic signaling via PKA"
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Receptor
Phosphorylation is another type of receptor down-regulation. Biochemical changes can reduce receptor affinity for a ligand.
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Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).
2013:
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can generate a binding site for a different protein and thus induce protein–protein interaction. In this case, the ligand (called
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is a special case of paracrine signaling where the secreting cell has the ability to respond to the secreted signaling molecule.
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The AMPA receptor bound to a glutamate antagonist showing the amino terminal, ligand binding, and transmembrane domain, PDB 3KG2
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4882:: cell signaling hypothesis generation knowledgebase constructed using biocurated archived transcriptomic and ChIP-Seq datasets
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from unicellular to multicellular organisms. Bacteria also use contact-dependent signaling, notably to limit their growth.
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signal pathway. When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a
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698:. Juxtacrine signalling via direct membrane contacts is also present between neuronal cell bodies and motile processes of
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Brief overview of some signaling pathways (based on receptor families) that result in short-acting cellular responses
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can be further classified into ion channel linked receptors, G-Protein coupled receptors and enzyme linked receptors.
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1932:
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Ferrell JE, Machleder EM (May 1998). "The biochemical basis of an all-or-none cell fate switch in
Xenopus oocytes".
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1652:. They can have such purposes as alerting against danger, indicating food supply, or assisting in reproduction.
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Bassler, Bonnie L. (1999). "How bacteria talk to each other: regulation of gene expression by quorum sensing".
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which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone
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682:, juxtacrine signaling means interactions by membrane contact. Juxtacrine signaling has been observed for some
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Wettschureck N, Offermanns S (October 2005). "Mammalian G proteins and their cell type specific functions".
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links the intracellular compartments of two adjacent cells, allowing transit of relatively small molecules.
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4071:"ERK-dependent threonine phosphorylation of EGF receptor modulates receptor downregulation and signaling"
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interacts with itself, other cells, and the environment. Cell signaling is a fundamental property of all
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mechanism, exocytosis requires the use of energy to transport material. Exocytosis and its counterpart,
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chemical reactions which ultimately triggers the specific cellular function controlled by the receptor.
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Typically, the signaling process involves three components: the signal, the receptor, and the effector.
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Jesmin S, Mowa CN, Sakuma I, Matsuda N, Togashi H, Yoshioka M, Hattori Y, Kitabatake A (October 2004).
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and are transported to the heart by way of the blood stream. Norepinephrine can also be produced by
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Each cell is programmed to respond to specific extracellular signal molecules, and is the basis of
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2972:"Microglia monitor and protect neuronal function through specialized somatic purinergic junctions"
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Brief overview of some signaling pathways (based on receptor families) that control gene activity
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Roepstorff, Kirstine; Grøvdal, Lene; Grandal, Michael; Lerdrup, Mads; van Deurs, Bo (May 2008).
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1572:). This activates the receptor to phosphorylate itself. The phosphorylated receptor binds to an
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There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-coupled receptors:
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Signaling molecules can be synthesized from various biosynthetic pathways and released through
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A more complex signal transduction pathway is the MAPK/ERK pathway, which involves changes of
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4683:"Calmodulin transduces Ca2+ oscillations into differential regulation of its target proteins"
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Hauser AS, Chavali S, Masuho I, Jahn LJ, Martemyanov KA, Gloriam DE, Babu MM (January 2018).
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VEGF receptors are a type of enzyme-coupled receptors, specifically tyrosine kinase receptors
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Some signaling molecules can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. For example,
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Tirindelli R, Dibattista M, Pifferi S, Menini A (July 2009). "From pheromones to behavior".
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In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, signaling can be used to 'activate' peers from a
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receptors are able to transmit information from outside the cell to the inside because they
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91:, or light. Chemical signals are molecules with the ability to bind and activate a specific
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Clark, James H.; Peck, Ernest J. (1984), Goldberger, Robert F.; Yamamoto, Keith R. (eds.),
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2199:. Part of the Notch protein is released from the cell surface membrane and takes part in
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that start to phosphorylate themselves and other proteins when binding to a ligand. This
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1439:(group NR3A) and 3-ketosteroids (group NR3C). In addition to nuclear receptors, several
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In biology, signals are mostly chemical in nature, but can also be physical cues such as
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to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a
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6574:. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.
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Lee, Junghee; Sharma, Swati; Kim, Jinho; Ferrante, Robert J.; Ryu, Hoon (April 2008).
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In plants and animals, signaling between cells occurs either through release into the
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Mohamed OA, Jonnaert M, Labelle-Dumais C, Kuroda K, Clarke HJ, Dufort D (June 2005).
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3790:"Mitochondrial Nuclear Receptors and Transcription Factors: Who's Minding the Cell?"
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2504:"Cellular control of the synthesis and activity of the bacterial luminescent system"
2352:– leveraging biological signaling to construct ad hoc in vivo communication networks
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is a cell surface protein that functions as a receptor. Animals have a small set of
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Cells receive information from their neighbors through a class of proteins known as
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4041:
4025:
3971:
3921:
3854:
3817:
3801:
3743:
3735:
3664:
3656:
3614:
3579:
3556:
3536:
3474:
3466:
3350:
3342:
3329:
Han R, Bansal D, Miyake K, Muniz VP, Weiss RM, McNeil PL, Campbell KP (July 2007).
3301:
3293:
3254:
3216:
3206:
3136:
3095:
3087:
3046:
3038:
2991:
2941:
2933:
2892:
2876:
2804:
2796:
2629:
2611:
2564:
2525:
2517:
2419:
2307:
2247:
2181:
2145:
2090:
2022:
1976:
1914:
1750:
1585:
1537:
1517:
1432:
1282:
1275:
1268:
1229:
1209:
1129:
1082:
1071:
939:
817:
742:
712:
646:
539:
484:
476:
351:
221:
210:
4086:
2521:
1197:
although a spontaneous auto-activation of an empty receptor can also be observed.
6520:
5785:
5725:
5609:
5534:
5338:
5106:
4659:
3506:
2937:
2880:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2207:
2200:
2095:
1946:
1561:
1424:
1412:
973:
904:
858:
784:
695:
638:
440:
436:
339:
282:
202:
50:
4014:"Endocytic downregulation of ErbB receptors: mechanisms and relevance in cancer"
3858:
1611:
activates different genes, depending on the amount of hedgehog protein present.
197:
of these signaling pathways may include additional enzymatic activities such as
6704:
6596:
6388:
6318:
5982:
5866:
5853:
5489:
5448:
5239:
4573:
4263:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3660:
3618:
3499:
3470:
3453:
Trzaskowski B, Latek D, Yuan S, Ghoshdastider U, Debinski A, Filipek S (2012).
3191:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3164:
3042:
2690:
2297:
2153:
2046:
1967:
1853:
1634:
1589:
1501:
1181:
1169:
1160:
1094:
1086:
984:) into their environment. The mating factor peptide may bind to a cell surface
753:
606:
543:
531:
432:
272:
95:. These molecules, also referred as ligands, are chemically diverse, including
62:
58:
4620:
4518:
4029:
3846:
2755:
1188:, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the
887:
6714:
6178:
6124:
6101:
6060:
5952:
5943:
5824:
5579:
5041:
4153:
4094:
4037:
3813:
3455:"Action of molecular switches in GPCRs--theoretical and experimental studies"
3258:
2922:"Microglial control of neuronal development via somatic purinergic junctions"
2888:
2625:
2431:
2282:
2230:
2177:
2173:
2100:
1734:
1729:
1686:
1630:
1553:
1189:
1044:
963:
927:
870:
866:
862:
757:
738:
728:
683:
657:
614:
523:
504:
444:
424:
236:
4755:
4428:
4283:
3540:
3211:
2995:
2616:
6492:
6460:
6367:
6362:
6346:
6218:
6042:
5996:
5849:
5504:
5266:
5031:
5027:
4805:
4788:
4773:
4716:
4581:
4536:
4503:"Bacterial landlines: contact-dependent signaling in bacterial populations"
4487:
4446:
4389:
4340:
4210:
4112:
4055:
3983:
3933:
3831:
3739:
3678:
3626:
3570:
Gilman AG (1987). "G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals".
3548:
3488:
3364:
3315:
3266:
3230:
3150:
3109:
3060:
3003:
2955:
2906:
2818:
2576:
2439:
2252:
1991:
1986:
1830:
1805:
1404:
1118:
850:
667:
404:
388:
252:
139:
4814:
4667:
4478:
4462:"Phylogeny and evolution of chemical communication: an endocrine approach"
4461:
4302:
4161:
3591:
2643:
2539:
2188:
from a variety of cell types can be activated by estrogen produced in the
1216:
that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds,
1193:
transmembrane helices (Rhodopsin-like family). They are all activated by
620:
567:
6571:
6437:
6374:
6325:
6019:
6003:
5989:
5887:
5882:
5811:
5699:
5669:
5594:
5261:
5074:
4175:
Dinasarapu AR, Saunders B, Ozerlat I, Azam K, Subramaniam S (June 2011).
2971:
2292:
2169:
1938:
1878:
1638:
1497:
1444:
1114:
1047:
931:
749:
675:
500:
488:
428:
420:
412:
244:
225:
206:
88:
3141:
3124:
2865:"An intracrine view of sex steroids, immunity, and metabolic regulation"
2478:
411:. Signaling molecules binding surface receptors are generally large and
6543:
6474:
6425:
6404:
6395:
6339:
6294:
6258:
6171:
6110:
6035:
6010:
5959:
5840:
5519:
5405:
5308:
5214:
4257:
Mukamolova GV, Kaprelyants AS, Young DI, Young M, Kell DB (July 1998).
2423:
1549:
1521:
1122:
959:
935:
846:
825:. Hormones are produced by endocrine cells and they travel through the
727:. Cells that produce paracrine factors secrete them into the immediate
581:
468:
392:
302:
298:
290:
108:
104:
66:
4698:
4319:
Miller MB, Bassler BL (1 October 2001). "Quorum sensing in bacteria".
3975:
3925:
3805:
2800:
1532:
6444:
6429:
6420:
6298:
6288:
6276:
6263:
6249:
6238:
6234:
6203:
6198:
6191:
6150:
5712:
5244:
4978:
3346:
3247:
American
Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology
3091:
2234:
1825:
1745:
1711:
1649:
1648:
Signaling molecules used by multicellular organisms are often called
1642:
1626:
1593:
1336:
1327:
activity on the intracellular side. Hence a catalytic receptor is an
1324:
1256:
1221:
1201:
1185:
1055:
981:
804:. Binding of a paracrine factor to its respective receptor initiates
773:
699:
691:
585:
527:
396:
312:
301:, i.e. they are attracted by the chemical gradient. Some species use
135:
131:
116:
112:
100:
70:
4879:
4856:: authoritative information about signaling pathways in human cells.
2408:"The intracrine hypothesis and intracellular peptide hormone action"
546:
via exocytosis; however, neurotransmitters can also be released via
6699:
6467:
6271:
6145:
6138:
5915:
5036:
3184:
2385:(1st ed.). Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2196:
2165:
2149:
1867:
1716:
1622:
1509:
1436:
1177:
1063:
955:
942:, leading to various physiological effects. In many mammals, early
838:
765:
687:
679:
512:
472:
268:
256:
198:
80:
3910:
3027:"Retinoic acid synthesis and signaling during early organogenesis"
2210:, direct contact between cells allows for precise control of cell
869:. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as
375:
177:
are activated and the synthesis of specific proteins is promoted.
6644:
6527:
6355:
6313:
6284:
6131:
6085:
5277:
5018:
4549:
4069:
Li, Xin; Huang, Yao; Jiang, Jing; Frank, Stuart J. (2008-11-01).
3494:
3452:
3187:"Uterine Wnt/beta-catenin signaling is required for implantation"
2338:
2027:
2018:
1910:
1408:
1307:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1194:
1110:
1059:
1015:
when a specific ligand binds to it. There are three major types:
977:
830:
822:
634:
480:
400:
347:
294:
38:
6561:
4356:"Bacterial cell-to-cell signaling in the gastrointestinal tract"
2453:
Gilbert, Scott F.; Tyler, Mary S.; Kozlowski, Ronald N. (2000).
1035:
6117:
6078:
5859:
4256:
4011:
1557:
1332:
1051:
947:
943:
919:
912:
854:
761:
630:
359:
248:
2341:– a curated resource of signal transduction pathways in humans
1089:. The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors located on the
715:, hormones which travel considerably longer distances via the
617:
organisms that requires close contact. There are three types:
247:. Errors in signaling interactions may cause diseases such as
4593:
4591:
4174:
3888:"Intracellular Receptor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
3498:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
2221:
2189:
1857:
Signal transduction pathways that lead to a cellular response
1600:
1240:. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases.
1205:
834:
769:
642:
384:
4177:"Signaling gateway molecule pages--a data model perspective"
988:
on other yeast cells and induce them to prepare for mating.
180:
The effector component of the signaling pathway begins with
6227:
3073:
2590:
Shimomura, O.; Suthers, H. L.; Bonner, J. T. (1982-12-01).
2140:
2123:
1725:
1577:
1217:
1121:
electrical signal. Many LICs are additionally modulated by
1117:
released neurotransmitter directly and very quickly into a
853:
is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. In
4588:
3954:
2919:
1669:
Example of
Ligands/ activators (Bracket: receptor for it)
772:
and function as a hormone or act locally via paracrine or
6499:
1900:
Response
Regulator - flagellar movement, Gene expression
1776:
Response Regulator - flagellar movement, Gene expression
1512:-selective ion channel that is part of the receptor. GABA
1454:
1133:
624:
This image displays the different types of cell signaling
427:), while those entering the cell are generally small and
416:
96:
4915:
4605:
4603:
2968:
1496:
can activate a cell surface receptor that is part of an
741:
target only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell.
350:
signaling is a special case of paracrine signaling (for
3642:
3122:
1164:
A G Protein-coupled receptor within the plasma membrane
938:
signaling. This generally results in the activation of
4789:"LIN-12/Notch signaling: lessons from worms and flies"
4128:"Receptor Cell Biology: Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis"
3604:
2589:
334:(over long distances), or by direct contact, known as
6688:
4600:
3851:
Biological Regulation and Development: Hormone Action
3725:
2452:
2358:– physical communication via sound waves in membranes
1641:. This signaling mechanism may have been involved in
1315:
Enzyme-linked receptors (or catalytic receptors) are
918:
Signaling molecules interact with a target cell as a
571:
Differences between autocrine and paracrine signaling
5319:
4627:(2nd ed.). Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates.
3787:
3518:
3328:
3074:
Cartford MC, Samec A, Fister M, Bickford PC (2004).
2501:
1797:
Regulation of Kinases and channels- Diverse actions
915:
activity (e.g. gasses), as in intracrine signaling.
764:
to function as a neurotransmitter within the brain.
3726:Alexander SP, Mathie A, Peters JA (February 2007).
3698:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 19–.
2689:Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002).
2688:
694:cellular signals, playing an important role in the
4225:
3373:"Faulty Cell Membrane Repair Causes Heart Disease"
2722:
2132:-mediated juxtacrine signal between adjacent cells
4068:
3598:
2665:(6. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Assoc.
2502:Nealson, K.H.; Platt, T.; Hastings, J.W. (1970).
2495:
2457:(6th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Assoc.
1536:Key components of a signal transduction pathway (
1168:G protein-coupled receptors are a large group of
745:represent another example of a paracrine signal.
702:both during development, and in the adult brain.
6712:
4680:
4637:
2335:– an antibody development and production company
1655:
1419:(typically cytoplasmic or nuclear) and initiate
1361:. Most enzyme-linked receptors are of this type.
1255:(GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated
958:exchange signals with each other and with human
756:can function as hormones when released from the
538:, neurotransmitters are typically released from
3691:
3279:
3243:
2596:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1473:
1184:and activate cellular responses. Coupling with
1030:
926:, and/or by entering into the cell through its
4402:
4353:
3638:
3636:
1200:G protein-coupled receptors are found only in
1155:
5293:
4901:
4860:Intercellular+Signaling+Peptides+and+Proteins
4780:
4405:"Bacterial small-molecule signaling pathways"
4318:
2838:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p.
2762:(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.
2753:
2106:Work as/ interact with transcription factors
1435:subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for
4500:
4494:
4453:
4396:
4347:
3948:
3904:
3853:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 99–127,
3512:
3322:
3067:
1097:, for an excitatory receptor response, or a
1043:Ion channel linked receptors are a group of
534:with the plasma membrane. In the context of
530:is possible because the vesicle transiently
4250:
4232:(9th ed.). Benjamin Cummings. p.
3633:
3563:
3178:
2835:Introduction To The Pharmaceutical Sciences
2697:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
2546:
2383:Introduction to the pharmaceutical sciences
1848:
1820:Regulation of cGMP Gated channels, Kinases
1403:Steroid hormone receptors are found in the
1392:
1232:, and vary in size from small molecules to
5300:
5286:
4908:
4894:
4831:"The Inside Story of Cell Communication".
3719:
3280:Lin JC, Duell K, Konopka JB (March 2004).
3237:
3116:
2691:"General Principles of Cell Communication"
2214:during embryonic development. In the worm
2118:
2002:MHC-peptide complex - TCR, Antigens - BCR
1383:
1319:that, upon activation by an extracellular
1302:
1050:proteins which open to allow ions such as
557:
471:is the process by which a cell transports
379:Different types of extracellular signaling
4872:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
4862:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
4804:
4786:
4763:
4706:
4681:Slavov N, Carey J, Linse S (April 2013).
4563:
4526:
4477:
4436:
4379:
4314:
4312:
4292:
4282:
4200:
4143:
4102:
4045:
3844:
3821:
3747:
3685:
3668:
3478:
3354:
3305:
3220:
3210:
3140:
3099:
3050:
2945:
2896:
2808:
2785:"Porosome: the secretory portal in cells"
2756:"Signaling Molecules and Their Receptors"
2633:
2615:
2529:
991:
946:cells exchange signals with cells of the
808:cascades, eliciting different responses.
4732:"Unpicking the proteome in single cells"
4125:
3393:"Gene Family: Ligand gated ion channels"
2716:
2714:
2122:
1852:
1568:, or EGF) binds to the receptor (called
1531:
1365:Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase
1306:
1159:
1034:
891:Transmembrane receptor working principle
886:
619:
566:
518:In exocytosis, membrane-bound secretory
374:
370:
4854:NCI-Nature Pathway Interaction Database
4403:Camilli A, Bassler BL (February 2006).
3645:"Pharmacogenomics of GPCR Drug Targets"
3273:
3024:
3018:
2862:
2684:
2682:
2656:
2552:
2229:on the adjacent cell. This activates a
1881:, axin - APC, GSK3-beta - Beta catenin
845:, regulating distant target organs. In
499:molecules that cannot pass through the
365:
14:
6713:
6541:
6532:
6525:
6504:
6497:
6490:
6481:
6472:
6465:
6458:
6449:
6442:
6435:
6418:
6409:
6402:
6393:
6386:
6379:
6372:
6344:
6337:
6330:
6323:
6311:
6304:
6282:
6269:
6256:
6232:
6225:
6216:
6209:
6183:
6176:
6155:
6136:
6122:
6108:
6099:
6090:
6083:
6076:
6058:
6049:
6040:
6033:
6024:
6017:
6008:
6001:
5994:
5973:
5966:
5957:
5950:
5941:
5934:
5927:
5920:
5913:
5906:
5899:
5892:
5775:
5760:
5747:
5734:
5721:
5708:
5695:
5680:
5650:
5637:
5622:
5605:
5590:
5575:
5562:
5545:
5530:
5515:
5469:
5458:
5445:
5430:
5415:
5402:
5389:
5376:
5361:
5348:
5335:
4838:"When Cell Communication Goes Wrong".
4729:
4621:"Functions of Cell Surface Receptors."
4618:
4309:
3569:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3427:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 156–7.
3416:
2831:
2380:
1833:, other extracellular matrix proteins
1455:Mechanisms of Receptor Down-Regulation
6513:
6360:
6353:
6247:
6196:
6169:
6143:
6067:
5987:
5980:
5880:
5873:
5864:
5847:
5838:
5820:
5807:
5794:
5665:
5500:
5485:
5281:
4889:
4459:
4223:
3695:High-yield cell and molecular biology
3335:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2720:
2711:
1113:is to convert the chemical signal of
2782:
2679:
1415:of target cells. They are generally
5155:Transcription preinitiation complex
4501:Blango MG, Mulvey MA (April 2009).
4354:Kaper JB, Sperandio V (June 2005).
4126:Schwartz, Alan L. (December 1995).
3692:Ronald W. Dudek (1 November 2006).
3584:10.1146/annurev.bi.56.070187.003151
3500:Attribution 2.5 Generic (CC BY 2.5)
3441:
3395:. HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee.
2825:
2795:(19). ACS Publications: 4009–4018.
2172:molecule that can pass through the
1588:. The MAPK protein is an enzyme, a
24:
5307:
5123:Signal transducing adaptor protein
4824:
4466:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology
3129:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology
2405:
2057:Sphingomyelinase linked receptors
1999:Tyrosine kinase Linked- receptors
1870:(special type of 7Helix receptor)
1378:atrial natriuretic factor receptor
1253:guanine nucleotide exchange factor
605:Juxtacrine signaling is a type of
262:
25:
6752:
4847:
2268:Bacterial outer membrane vesicles
1697:Changes in membrane permeability
1556:. Several of these receptors are
1359:fibroblast growth factor receptor
783:and pathways. In fact, different
6698:
6670:
6654:
6638:
6626:
6614:
6602:
6590:
6578:
6560:
5327:
4145:10.1203/00006450-199512000-00003
3794:Journal of Neuroscience Research
3493:
2863:Rubinow, Katya B. (2018-03-08).
2014:Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinase
1692:Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
1582:mitogen-activated protein kinase
670:and a membrane protein interact.
267:In many small organisms such as
4723:
4674:
4631:
4612:
4543:
4507:Current Opinion in Microbiology
4372:10.1128/IAI.73.6.3197-3209.2005
4217:
4168:
4119:
4062:
4018:Histochemistry and Cell Biology
4005:
3880:
3838:
3781:
3756:
3399:
3385:
3298:10.1128/MCB.24.5.2041-2051.2004
3157:
2962:
2913:
2856:
2776:
2747:
2556:Current Opinion in Microbiology
2345:Synthetic Biology Open Language
1596:to target proteins such as the
1170:evolutionarily-related proteins
911:, other elements, or stimulate
354:) or juxtacrine signaling (for
4625:The Cell: A Molecular Approach
4333:10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.165
3379:(Press release). July 6, 2007.
3286:Molecular and Cellular Biology
2760:The cell: a molecular approach
2754:Cooper GM, Hausman RE (2000).
2650:
2583:
2471:
2446:
2399:
2374:
2226:
2220:, two cells of the developing
2087:Cytoplasmic Steroid receptors
1451:for certain steroid hormones.
1146:ionotropic glutamate receptors
1101:, for an inhibitory response.
305:as the signal; others such as
13:
1:
6741:Human female endocrine system
4321:Annual Review of Microbiology
4193:10.1093/bioinformatics/btr190
4087:10.1016/j.cellsig.2008.08.006
3572:Annual Review of Biochemistry
2729:. Benjamin Cummings. p.
2695:Molecular biology of the cell
2569:10.1016/s1369-5274(99)00025-9
2522:10.1128/jb.104.1.313-322.1970
2406:Re, Richard N. (April 2003).
2368:
2356:Soliton model in neuroscience
1802:Cytoplasmic Guanylyl cyclase
1700:Change in membrane potential
1656:Short-term cellular responses
1460:Receptor mediated endocytosis
1263:bound to the G protein for a
600:
591:
463:
4660:10.1126/science.280.5365.895
3734:. 150 Suppl 1 (S1): S122–7.
3411:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
3025:Duester G (September 2008).
2938:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369
2881:10.1016/j.molmet.2018.03.001
2273:Membrane vesicle trafficking
2258:Molecular cellular cognition
2005:Cytoplasmic Tyrosine Kinase
1836:Nonreceptor tyrosine kinase
1789:Sea urchin egg peptide etc.
1546:protein–protein interactions
1474:Signal transduction pathways
1031:Ion channel linked receptors
1017:Ion channel linked receptors
876:
811:
705:
562:
495:important to them are large
7:
4597:Cell biology/Pollard et al,
3859:10.1007/978-1-4757-4619-8_3
3459:Current Medicinal Chemistry
2758:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.).
2693:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.).
2661:. In NCBI bookshelf (ed.).
2240:
2079:Ceramide activated kinases
2052:Control of gene expression
1758:G-protein gated ion channel
1678:Further downstream effects
1484:List of signalling pathways
1441:G protein-coupled receptors
1156:G protein–coupled receptors
1021:G protein–coupled receptors
552:membrane transport proteins
330:(over short distances) and
10:
6757:
4880:Signaling Pathways Project
4574:10.1152/physrev.00037.2008
3661:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.033
3619:10.1152/physrev.00003.2005
3471:10.2174/092986712799320556
3043:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.002
2832:Pandit, Nikita K. (2007).
2288:JAK-STAT signaling pathway
2033:Bone-morphogenetic protein
1785:Atrial natriuretic peptide
1781:Membrane Guanylyl Cyclase
1683:Ligand Gated Ion Channels
1477:
1396:
1369:bone morphogenetic protein
1081:is excited, it releases a
995:
880:
297:. The individuals move by
29:
5316:
5207:
5177:
5140:
5115:
5092:
5083:
5055:
5009:
5002:
4927:
4787:Greenwald I (June 1998).
4730:Slavov N (January 2020).
4687:ACS Chemical Neuroscience
4519:10.1016/j.mib.2009.01.011
4224:Reece JB (Sep 27, 2010).
4030:10.1007/s00418-008-0401-3
3847:"Intracellular Receptors"
2721:Reece JB (Sep 27, 2010).
2333:Cell Signaling Technology
2278:Host–pathogen interaction
1992:STAT transcription factor
1329:integral membrane protein
308:Polysphondylium violaceum
188:) or the initiation of a
5235:Neuroendocrine signaling
4874:Medical Subject Headings
4864:Medical Subject Headings
3505:22 February 2011 at the
3259:10.1152/ajpgi.00572.2004
2381:Pandit, Nita K. (2007).
1931:-Alpha, FGF-Beta, etc. (
1906:Receptor Tyrosine Kinase
1849:Regulating gene activity
1755:cGMP phosphodiesterase,
1399:Steroid hormone receptor
1393:Steroid hormone receptor
1355:Receptor tyrosine kinase
1002:Receptor–ligand kinetics
969:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
790:fibroblast growth factor
584:signaling, or classical
186:ligand-gated ion channel
6585:carbohydrate metabolism
4842:. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
4840:learn.genetics.utah.edu
4835:. Retrieved 2018-10-20.
4833:learn.genetics.utah.edu
4793:Genes & Development
4756:10.1126/science.aaz6695
4429:10.1126/science.1121357
4284:10.1073/pnas.95.15.8916
3964:Pharmacological Reviews
3914:Pharmacological Reviews
3541:10.1126/science.1083853
3212:10.1073/pnas.0500612102
2996:10.1126/science.aax6752
2617:10.1073/pnas.79.23.7376
2509:Journal of Bacteriology
2119:Notch signaling pathway
1972:Growth Hormone Receptor
1955:Gene expression change
1566:epidermal growth factor
1417:intracellular receptors
1384:Intracellular receptors
1317:transmembrane receptors
1303:Enzyme-linked receptors
1085:from vesicles into the
1025:enzyme-linked receptors
909:intracellular receptors
883:Receptor (biochemistry)
768:can be released by the
721:juxtacrine interactions
558:Forms of Cell Signaling
483:out of the cell. As an
190:second messenger system
174:Intracellular receptors
163:Enzyme-linked receptors
146:Cell membrane receptors
27:System of communication
5097:cAMP-dependent pathway
4806:10.1101/gad.12.12.1751
4460:Stoka AM (June 1999).
4360:Infection and Immunity
4259:"A bacterial cytokine"
3740:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707205
3406:"ligand-gated channel"
2659:"Juxtacrine Signaling"
2217:Caenorhabditis elegans
2133:
2049:transcription factors
1858:
1739:prostaglandin receptor
1541:
1529:mechanism or pathway.
1449:cell surface receptors
1312:
1174:cell surface receptors
1165:
1040:
992:Cell surface receptors
980:signal (mating factor
952:gastrointestinal tract
924:cell surface receptors
892:
649:of two adjacent cells
625:
572:
380:
167:transmembrane proteins
18:Cell-to-cell signaling
6633:amino acid metabolism
5223:Synaptic transmission
5219:Neurocrine signaling
5142:Transcription factors
4989:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
4609:The Cell/ G.M. Cooper
4552:Physiological Reviews
4479:10.1677/jme.0.0220207
3892:www.sciencedirect.com
3728:"Catalytic Receptors"
3607:Physiological Reviews
3080:Learning & Memory
2663:Developmental biology
2455:Developmental biology
2126:
1856:
1810:Nitric oxide receptor
1535:
1478:Further information:
1310:
1163:
1038:
998:Ligand (biochemistry)
966:cells. For the yeast
890:
623:
570:
378:
371:Synthesis and release
30:For the journal, see
6609:cellular respiration
3425:Neuroscience. 4th ed
2869:Molecular Metabolism
2783:Jena, Bhanu (2009).
2350:Nanoscale networking
2156:, in general called
1706:Seven Helix Receptor
1598:transcription factor
1508:on a neuron opens a
1500:. GABA binding to a
1249:phosphatidylinositol
976:, some cells send a
665:extracellular matrix
611:extracellular matrix
366:Extracellular signal
336:juxtacrine signaling
199:proteolytic cleavage
5781:Transcription &
5252:Mechanotransduction
5240:Exocrine signalling
5047:Signaling molecules
4921:Signal transduction
4748:2020Sci...367..512S
4652:1998Sci...280..895F
4421:2006Sci...311.1113C
4275:1998PNAS...95.8916M
4075:Cellular Signalling
3533:2003Sci...301..361K
3203:2005PNAS..102.8579M
3165:"Paracrine Factors"
3142:10.1677/jme.1.01548
2988:2020Sci...367..528C
2657:Gilbert SF (2000).
2608:1982PNAS...79.7376S
2298:Localisation signal
2263:Crosstalk (biology)
1894:Diverse activators
1863:
1770:Diverse activators
1662:
1527:signal transduction
1480:Signal transduction
1431:are members of the
1421:signal transduction
1348:transmembrane helix
1247:signal pathway and
1212:, and animals. The
1091:postsynaptic neuron
1013:change conformation
821:signals are called
806:signal transduction
725:autocrine signaling
578:paracrine signaling
522:are carried to the
493:chemical substances
356:electrical synapses
344:Autocrine signaling
332:endocrine signaling
328:paracrine signaling
324:extracellular space
278:Aliivibrio fischeri
182:signal transduction
156:G-protein receptors
121:Autocrine signaling
32:Cellular Signalling
6731:Cell communication
6568:metabolic pathways
5262:Ion channel gating
4994:Integrin receptors
4928:Signaling pathways
4870:Cell+Communication
4619:Cooper GM (2000).
4132:Pediatric Research
3655:(1–2): 41–54.e19.
2424:10.1002/bies.10248
2186:estrogen receptors
2134:
1994:- Gene expression
1981:IFN-Gamma receptor
1961:Cytokine receptors
1861:
1859:
1660:
1542:
1411:, and also on the
1313:
1259:by exchanging the
1166:
1150:ATP-gated channels
1142:cys-loop receptors
1138:membrane potential
1079:presynaptic neuron
1041:
893:
843:circulatory system
841:directly into the
717:circulatory system
678:organisms such as
626:
573:
381:
362:and target cells.
195:downstream effects
6686:
6685:
6556:
6555:
6516:Neurotransmitters
5895:Nucleotide sugars
5628:Direct / C4 / CAM
5275:
5274:
5257:Phototransduction
5215:Intracrine action
5173:
5172:
5136:
5135:
5024:Neurotransmitters
4742:(6477): 512–513.
4699:10.1021/cn300218d
4243:978-0-321-55823-7
4081:(11): 2145–2155.
3976:10.1124/pr.58.4.9
3926:10.1124/pr.58.4.8
3868:978-1-4757-4619-8
3806:10.1002/jnr.21564
3705:978-0-7817-6887-0
3434:978-0-87893-697-7
2982:(6477): 528–537.
2849:978-0-7817-4478-2
2801:10.1021/bi9002698
2602:(23): 7376–7379.
2464:978-0-87893-243-6
2392:978-0-7817-4478-2
2362:Temporal feedback
2328:Signaling cascade
2180:. As part of the
2146:neurotransmitters
2113:
2112:
1897:Histidine Kinase
1843:
1842:
1839:Diverse response
1773:Histidine Kinase
1751:Adenylate Cyclase
1721:Dopamine receptor
1629:, defend against
1518:action potentials
1463:to the endosome.
1374:Guanylate cyclase
1230:neurotransmitters
1210:choanoflagellates
1099:hyperpolarization
940:second messengers
802:TGF-β superfamily
743:Neurotransmitters
713:endocrine factors
674:Additionally, in
548:reverse transport
540:synaptic vesicles
536:neurotransmission
509:passive transport
477:neurotransmitters
352:chemical synapses
222:active transports
16:(Redirected from
6748:
6703:
6702:
6694:
6680:
6677:lipid metabolism
6674:
6673:
6668:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6642:
6641:
6636:
6630:
6629:
6624:
6618:
6617:
6612:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6588:
6582:
6581:
6564:
6563:
6546:
6539:
6530:
6523:
6521:thyroid hormones
6511:
6502:
6495:
6488:
6479:
6470:
6463:
6456:
6447:
6440:
6433:
6416:
6407:
6400:
6391:
6384:
6377:
6370:
6358:
6351:
6342:
6335:
6328:
6321:
6309:
6302:
6280:
6267:
6254:
6245:
6230:
6223:
6214:
6207:
6194:
6181:
6174:
6167:
6153:
6141:
6134:
6120:
6106:
6097:
6088:
6081:
6074:
6065:
6056:
6047:
6038:
6031:
6022:
6015:
6006:
5999:
5992:
5985:
5978:
5971:
5964:
5955:
5948:
5939:
5932:
5925:
5918:
5911:
5904:
5897:
5890:
5878:
5871:
5862:
5845:
5833:
5829:
5818:
5814:
5805:
5801:
5792:
5788:
5782:
5773:
5769:
5758:
5754:
5745:
5741:
5732:
5728:
5719:
5715:
5706:
5702:
5693:
5689:
5678:
5674:
5663:
5659:
5648:
5644:
5635:
5631:
5620:
5616:
5603:
5599:
5588:
5584:
5573:
5569:
5560:
5556:
5543:
5539:
5528:
5524:
5513:
5509:
5498:
5494:
5480:
5477:
5467:
5464:
5456:
5453:
5443:
5440:
5428:
5425:
5413:
5410:
5400:
5397:
5387:
5384:
5374:
5371:
5359:
5356:
5346:
5343:
5331:
5320:
5302:
5295:
5288:
5279:
5278:
5228:Chemical synapse
5128:Scaffold protein
5090:
5089:
5085:Second messenger
5011:Receptor ligands
5007:
5006:
4910:
4903:
4896:
4887:
4886:
4819:
4818:
4808:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4767:
4727:
4721:
4720:
4710:
4678:
4672:
4671:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4616:
4610:
4607:
4598:
4595:
4586:
4585:
4567:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4530:
4498:
4492:
4491:
4481:
4457:
4451:
4450:
4440:
4415:(5764): 1113–6.
4400:
4394:
4393:
4383:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4316:
4307:
4306:
4296:
4286:
4254:
4248:
4247:
4231:
4228:Campbell Biology
4221:
4215:
4214:
4204:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4147:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4049:
4009:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3994:. Archived from
3961:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3825:
3785:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3766:. Archived from
3760:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3732:Br. J. Pharmacol
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3672:
3640:
3631:
3630:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3516:
3510:
3497:
3492:
3482:
3450:
3439:
3438:
3420:
3414:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3389:
3383:
3380:
3368:
3358:
3347:10.1172/JCI30848
3326:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3277:
3271:
3270:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3224:
3214:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3144:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3103:
3092:10.1101/lm.83104
3071:
3065:
3064:
3054:
3022:
3016:
3015:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2949:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2900:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2812:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2728:
2725:Campbell Biology
2718:
2709:
2708:
2686:
2677:
2676:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2637:
2619:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2533:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2378:
2308:Protein dynamics
2248:Scaffold protein
2184:, intracellular
2182:endocrine system
2158:receptor ligands
2109:Gene expression
2096:Thyroid hormones
2091:Steroid hormones
2082:Gene expression
2023:activin receptor
2008:Gene expression
1965:Erythropoietin,
1915:insulin receptor
1884:Gene expression
1864:
1860:
1666:Receptor Family
1663:
1659:
1609:hedgehog protein
1592:that can attach
1586:MAPK/ERK pathway
1538:MAPK/ERK pathway
1433:nuclear receptor
1425:steroid hormones
1331:possessing both
1130:channel blockers
1083:neurotransmitter
1072:neurotransmitter
903:specific to the
901:receptor protein
859:endocrine glands
737:signals such as
656:A communicating
647:membrane protein
485:active transport
449:Hydrogen sulfide
437:thyroid hormones
211:ubiquitinylation
21:
6756:
6755:
6751:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6746:
6745:
6736:Systems biology
6711:
6710:
6709:
6697:
6689:
6687:
6682:
6681:
6671:
6669:
6655:
6653:
6639:
6637:
6627:
6625:
6615:
6613:
6603:
6601:
6591:
6589:
6579:
6577:
6575:
6572:metro-style map
6565:
6557:
6552:
6551:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6547:
6542:
6540:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6526:
6524:
6518:
6514:
6512:
6508:
6507:Polyunsaturated
6505:
6503:
6498:
6496:
6491:
6489:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6466:
6464:
6459:
6457:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6443:
6441:
6436:
6434:
6423:
6419:
6417:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6403:
6401:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6387:
6385:
6380:
6378:
6373:
6371:
6365:
6361:
6359:
6354:
6352:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6338:
6336:
6331:
6329:
6324:
6322:
6316:
6312:
6310:
6305:
6303:
6292:
6283:
6281:
6274:
6270:
6268:
6261:
6257:
6255:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6242:
6233:
6231:
6226:
6224:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6210:
6208:
6201:
6197:
6195:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6177:
6175:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6161:
6156:
6154:
6148:
6144:
6142:
6137:
6135:
6129:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6115:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6084:
6082:
6077:
6075:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6034:
6032:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6018:
6016:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6002:
6000:
5995:
5993:
5988:
5986:
5981:
5979:
5974:
5972:
5967:
5965:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5951:
5949:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5935:
5933:
5928:
5926:
5921:
5919:
5914:
5912:
5907:
5905:
5900:
5898:
5893:
5891:
5885:
5881:
5879:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5855:
5848:
5846:
5842:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5819:
5812:
5808:
5806:
5799:
5795:
5793:
5786:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5774:
5767:
5765:
5761:
5759:
5752:
5748:
5746:
5739:
5735:
5733:
5727:Steroidogenesis
5726:
5722:
5720:
5713:
5709:
5707:
5700:
5696:
5694:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5679:
5672:
5670:
5666:
5664:
5658:phosphorylation
5657:
5655:
5651:
5649:
5642:
5638:
5636:
5629:
5627:
5623:
5621:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5606:
5604:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5589:
5582:
5580:
5576:
5574:
5567:
5563:
5561:
5554:
5552:
5550:
5546:
5544:
5537:
5535:
5531:
5529:
5522:
5520:
5516:
5514:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5499:
5492:
5490:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5423:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5332:
5312:
5306:
5276:
5271:
5203:
5169:
5132:
5111:
5107:Lipid signaling
5079:
5051:
4998:
4923:
4914:
4850:
4845:
4827:
4825:Further reading
4822:
4799:(12): 1751–62.
4785:
4781:
4728:
4724:
4679:
4675:
4646:(5365): 895–8.
4636:
4632:
4617:
4613:
4608:
4601:
4596:
4589:
4565:10.1.1.460.5566
4548:
4544:
4499:
4495:
4458:
4454:
4401:
4397:
4366:(6): 3197–209.
4352:
4348:
4317:
4310:
4269:(15): 8916–21.
4255:
4251:
4244:
4222:
4218:
4173:
4169:
4124:
4120:
4067:
4063:
4010:
4006:
3998:
3959:
3953:
3949:
3909:
3905:
3896:
3894:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3843:
3839:
3786:
3782:
3773:
3771:
3762:
3761:
3757:
3724:
3720:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3690:
3686:
3641:
3634:
3613:(4): 1159–204.
3603:
3599:
3568:
3564:
3527:(5631): 361–3.
3517:
3513:
3507:Wayback Machine
3465:(8): 1090–109.
3451:
3442:
3435:
3421:
3417:
3404:
3400:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3371:
3327:
3323:
3278:
3274:
3242:
3238:
3197:(24): 8579–84.
3183:
3179:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3121:
3117:
3072:
3068:
3023:
3019:
2967:
2963:
2918:
2914:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2830:
2826:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2719:
2712:
2705:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2655:
2651:
2588:
2584:
2551:
2547:
2500:
2496:
2487:
2485:
2483:medlineplus.gov
2477:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2451:
2447:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2323:Redox signaling
2318:Lipid signaling
2313:Systems biology
2243:
2212:differentiation
2208:notch signaling
2201:gene regulation
2121:
2099:
2094:
2068:
2040:
2031:
2026:
1975:
1966:
1927:
1918:
1851:
1788:
1756:
1754:
1733:
1724:
1715:
1689:
1658:
1574:adaptor protein
1562:phosphorylation
1515:
1505:
1486:
1476:
1457:
1413:plasma membrane
1401:
1395:
1386:
1305:
1293:
1286:
1279:
1272:
1158:
1115:presynaptically
1033:
1004:
994:
950:. In the human
905:signal molecule
885:
879:
814:
708:
696:immune response
639:oligosaccharide
603:
594:
565:
560:
503:portion of the
466:
458:carbon monoxide
441:cholecalciferol
433:glucocorticoids
373:
368:
340:notch signaling
265:
263:Taxonomic range
224:, or even from
203:phosphorylation
51:British English
47:cell signalling
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6754:
6744:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6721:Cell signaling
6708:
6707:
6684:
6683:
6621:cell signaling
6597:photosynthesis
6595:Violet nodes:
6583:Orange nodes:
6559:
6558:
6554:
6553:
6240:
6186:Aromatic amino
6093:Branched-chain
5643:Light reaction
5334:
5333:
5326:
5325:
5324:
5323:
5318:
5317:
5314:
5313:
5305:
5304:
5297:
5290:
5282:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5248:
5247:
5237:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5225:
5217:
5211:
5209:
5208:Other concepts
5205:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5187:
5181:
5179:
5175:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5146:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5134:
5133:
5131:
5130:
5125:
5119:
5117:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5093:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5078:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5061:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5049:
5044:
5042:Growth factors
5039:
5034:
5021:
5015:
5013:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4944:
4939:
4937:
4931:
4929:
4925:
4924:
4917:Cell signaling
4913:
4912:
4905:
4898:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4877:
4867:
4857:
4849:
4848:External links
4846:
4844:
4843:
4836:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4779:
4722:
4673:
4630:
4611:
4599:
4587:
4542:
4493:
4452:
4395:
4346:
4308:
4249:
4242:
4216:
4187:(12): 1736–8.
4181:Bioinformatics
4167:
4138:(6): 835–843.
4118:
4061:
4024:(5): 563–578.
4004:
4001:on 2019-02-28.
3947:
3903:
3879:
3867:
3837:
3800:(5): 961–971.
3780:
3755:
3718:
3704:
3684:
3632:
3597:
3562:
3511:
3440:
3433:
3415:
3398:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3341:(7): 1805–13.
3321:
3292:(5): 2041–51.
3272:
3253:(6): G1105–9.
3236:
3177:
3156:
3115:
3066:
3017:
2961:
2932:(12): 111369.
2912:
2855:
2848:
2824:
2775:
2769:978-0878933006
2768:
2746:
2740:978-0321558237
2739:
2710:
2704:978-0815332183
2703:
2678:
2672:978-0878932436
2671:
2649:
2582:
2563:(6): 582–587.
2545:
2494:
2470:
2463:
2445:
2418:(4): 401–409.
2398:
2391:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2154:growth factors
2120:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1989:
1984:
1968:Growth Hormone
1963:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1936:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1876:
1871:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1748:
1742:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1657:
1654:
1635:quorum sensing
1631:bacteriophages
1590:protein kinase
1513:
1503:
1475:
1472:
1456:
1453:
1397:Main article:
1394:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1304:
1301:
1291:
1284:
1277:
1270:
1157:
1154:
1095:depolarization
1087:synaptic cleft
1032:
1029:
1009:trans-membrane
993:
990:
881:Main article:
878:
875:
867:adrenal glands
813:
810:
792:(FGF) family,
754:norepinephrine
707:
704:
684:growth factors
672:
671:
661:
654:
609:–cell or cell–
602:
599:
593:
590:
564:
561:
559:
556:
544:synaptic cleft
465:
462:
372:
369:
367:
364:
283:produces light
273:quorum sensing
264:
261:
43:cell signaling
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6753:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6718:
6716:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6695:
6692:
6678:
6675:Green nodes:
6666:
6662:
6659:Brown nodes:
6650:
6646:
6634:
6622:
6610:
6598:
6586:
6573:
6569:
6545:
6538:
6529:
6522:
6517:
6510:
6501:
6494:
6493:Sphingolipids
6487:
6486:sphingolipids
6478:
6469:
6462:
6461:Glycerolipids
6455:
6454:phospholipids
6446:
6439:
6431:
6427:
6422:
6415:
6406:
6399:
6390:
6383:
6376:
6369:
6368:proteoglycans
6364:
6363:Glycoproteins
6357:
6350:
6341:
6334:
6327:
6320:
6315:
6308:
6300:
6296:
6290:
6286:
6278:
6273:
6265:
6260:
6253:
6243:
6236:
6229:
6222:
6213:
6205:
6200:
6193:
6189:
6180:
6173:
6166:
6159:
6152:
6147:
6140:
6133:
6128:
6119:
6114:
6105:
6096:
6087:
6080:
6073:
6064:
6055:
6046:
6037:
6030:
6021:
6014:
6005:
5998:
5991:
5984:
5977:
5970:
5963:
5954:
5947:
5938:
5931:
5924:
5917:
5910:
5903:
5896:
5889:
5884:
5877:
5870:
5861:
5857:
5851:
5844:
5837:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5817:
5816:
5815:
5804:
5803:
5802:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5783:
5772:
5771:
5770:
5757:
5756:
5755:
5744:
5743:
5742:
5731:
5730:
5729:
5718:
5717:
5716:
5705:
5704:
5703:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5677:
5676:
5675:
5662:
5661:
5660:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5634:
5633:
5632:
5630:carbon intake
5619:
5618:
5617:
5602:
5601:
5600:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5572:
5571:
5570:
5559:
5558:
5557:
5542:
5541:
5540:
5527:
5526:
5525:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5497:
5496:
5495:
5484:
5479:
5478:
5466:
5465:
5455:
5454:
5442:
5441:
5427:
5426:
5412:
5411:
5399:
5398:
5386:
5385:
5373:
5372:
5358:
5357:
5345:
5344:
5330:
5322:
5321:
5315:
5310:
5303:
5298:
5296:
5291:
5289:
5284:
5283:
5280:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5246:
5243:
5242:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5220:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5143:
5139:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5114:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5082:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5070:Intracellular
5068:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5054:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5032:Neurohormones
5029:
5028:Neuropeptides
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5012:
5008:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4979:Fas apoptosis
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4949:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4911:
4906:
4904:
4899:
4897:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4881:
4878:
4875:
4871:
4868:
4865:
4861:
4858:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4830:
4829:
4816:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4783:
4775:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4726:
4718:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4693:(4): 601–12.
4692:
4688:
4684:
4677:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4634:
4626:
4622:
4615:
4606:
4604:
4594:
4592:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4558:(3): 921–56.
4557:
4553:
4546:
4538:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4513:(2): 177–81.
4512:
4508:
4504:
4497:
4489:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4472:(3): 207–25.
4471:
4467:
4463:
4456:
4448:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4399:
4391:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4350:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4327:(1): 165–99.
4326:
4322:
4315:
4313:
4304:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4230:
4229:
4220:
4212:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4122:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4065:
4057:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3970:(4): 782–97.
3969:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3920:(4): 773–81.
3919:
3915:
3907:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3870:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3841:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3770:on 2007-05-25
3769:
3765:
3759:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3688:
3680:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3639:
3637:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3578:(1): 615–49.
3577:
3573:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3515:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3496:
3490:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3436:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3394:
3388:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3240:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3166:
3160:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3135:(2): 343–59.
3134:
3130:
3126:
3119:
3111:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3037:(6): 921–31.
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2828:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2771:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2742:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2726:
2717:
2715:
2706:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2683:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2549:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2516:(1): 313–22.
2515:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2498:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2466:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2394:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2283:Retinoic acid
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2231:feedback loop
2228:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2174:lipid bilayer
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2116:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2101:Retinoic acid
2097:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2074:TNF-receptors
2071:
2066:
2065:IL-1 receptor
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1933:FGF-receptors
1930:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1890:Two-component
1888:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1855:
1846:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1766:Two-component
1764:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1735:Prostaglandin
1731:
1730:GABA receptor
1727:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1687:Acetylcholine
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1623:dormant state
1619:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1528:
1523:
1522:physiological
1519:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
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1400:
1390:
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1351:
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1309:
1300:
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1280:
1273:
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1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1191:
1190:cell membrane
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1070:), such as a
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1045:transmembrane
1037:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1003:
999:
989:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
970:
965:
964:immune system
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
889:
884:
874:
872:
871:endocrinology
868:
864:
863:thyroid gland
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
819:
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
786:
782:
777:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
758:adrenal gland
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
739:retinoic acid
736:
732:
730:
729:extracellular
726:
722:
718:
714:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
669:
666:
662:
659:
655:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
627:
622:
618:
616:
615:multicellular
613:signaling in
612:
608:
598:
589:
587:
583:
579:
569:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
524:cell membrane
521:
516:
514:
510:
506:
505:cell membrane
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
461:
459:
455:
450:
446:
445:retinoic acid
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
425:Acetylcholine
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
405:glycoproteins
402:
398:
394:
390:
389:phospholipids
386:
377:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
326:, divided in
325:
320:
318:
314:
310:
309:
304:
300:
296:
292:
287:
284:
280:
279:
274:
270:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
237:tissue repair
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
191:
187:
183:
178:
175:
171:
168:
164:
160:
157:
153:
149:
147:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
74:
72:
68:
64:
63:cellular life
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
6726:Cell biology
6643:Grey nodes:
6631:Blue nodes:
6620:
6619:Pink nodes:
6537:cannabinoids
6375:Chlorophylls
6326:Antioxidants
6079:Serine group
5990:Photosystems
5976:P-glycerates
5923:P-glycerates
5888:sialic acids
5883:Amino sugars
5835:
5823:
5822:
5810:
5809:
5797:
5796:
5778:
5777:
5763:
5762:
5750:
5749:
5737:
5736:
5724:
5723:
5711:
5710:
5698:
5697:
5683:
5682:
5668:
5667:
5653:
5652:
5640:
5639:
5625:
5624:
5608:
5607:
5593:
5592:
5578:
5577:
5568:Fermentation
5565:
5564:
5548:
5547:
5533:
5532:
5518:
5517:
5503:
5502:
5488:
5487:
5482:
5471:
5460:
5447:
5432:
5417:
5404:
5391:
5378:
5363:
5350:
5337:
5267:Gap junction
5102:Ca signaling
5065:Cell surface
5046:
4916:
4839:
4832:
4796:
4792:
4782:
4739:
4735:
4725:
4690:
4686:
4676:
4643:
4639:
4633:
4624:
4614:
4555:
4551:
4545:
4510:
4506:
4496:
4469:
4465:
4455:
4412:
4408:
4398:
4363:
4359:
4349:
4324:
4320:
4266:
4262:
4252:
4227:
4219:
4184:
4180:
4170:
4135:
4131:
4121:
4078:
4074:
4064:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3996:the original
3967:
3963:
3950:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3895:. Retrieved
3891:
3882:
3872:, retrieved
3850:
3840:
3797:
3793:
3783:
3772:. Retrieved
3768:the original
3758:
3731:
3721:
3709:. Retrieved
3694:
3687:
3652:
3648:
3610:
3606:
3600:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3462:
3458:
3424:
3418:
3409:
3401:
3387:
3377:ScienceDaily
3376:
3338:
3334:
3324:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3250:
3246:
3239:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3168:. Retrieved
3159:
3132:
3128:
3118:
3086:(6): 732–7.
3083:
3079:
3069:
3034:
3030:
3020:
2979:
2975:
2964:
2929:
2926:Cell Reports
2925:
2915:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2834:
2827:
2792:
2789:Biochemistry
2788:
2778:
2759:
2749:
2724:
2694:
2662:
2652:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2513:
2507:
2497:
2486:. Retrieved
2482:
2473:
2454:
2448:
2415:
2411:
2401:
2382:
2376:
2253:Biosemiotics
2215:
2205:
2194:
2135:
2127:
2114:
2037:BMP Receptor
1924:EGF receptor
1844:
1831:Fibronectins
1806:Nitric Oxide
1647:
1639:autoinducers
1620:
1616:
1613:
1606:
1543:
1491:
1487:
1468:
1465:
1458:
1445:ion channels
1402:
1387:
1345:
1314:
1297:
1242:
1204:, including
1199:
1180:outside the
1176:that detect
1167:
1119:postsynaptic
1103:
1076:
1042:
1005:
967:
917:
894:
857:, the major
851:hypothalamus
833:by internal
816:
815:
800:family, and
778:
747:
733:
709:
673:
668:glycoprotein
604:
595:
574:
517:
467:
454:nitric oxide
382:
321:
306:
288:
276:
266:
253:autoimmunity
230:
215:
179:
172:
161:
154:
150:
144:
126:
78:
75:
46:
42:
36:
6667:metabolism.
6651:metabolism.
6607:Red nodes:
6544:Eicosanoids
6509:fatty acids
6438:Cholesterol
6426:carotenoids
6405:Polyketides
6340:Nucleotides
6295:tocopherols
6259:Calciferols
6172:Amino acids
6165:amino acids
6095:amino acids
6070:Respiratory
5813:Proteolysis
5800:Translation
5787:replication
5753:MEP pathway
5740:MVA pathway
5701:Lipogenesis
5673:deamination
5463:Peroxisomal
5355:respiration
5178:By distance
5116:Assistants:
5075:Co-receptor
3764:"lecture10"
3711:16 December
2303:Oscillation
2293:Imd pathway
2170:hydrophobic
1943:MAP-kinases
1879:Dishevelled
1672:Example of
1498:ion channel
1343:functions.
1048:ion-channel
932:endocytosis
847:vertebrates
776:signaling.
750:epinephrine
676:unicellular
629:A membrane
588:signaling.
501:hydrophobic
489:endocytosis
429:hydrophobic
421:Vasopressin
413:hydrophilic
393:amino acids
291:slime molds
245:homeostasis
233:development
226:cell damage
207:methylation
89:temperature
67:prokaryotes
57:by which a
6715:Categories
6661:nucleotide
6445:Bile acids
6421:Terpenoids
6252:vitamin Bs
6235:Cobalamins
6163:glucogenic
6151:polyamines
6111:Homoserine
5983:Glyoxylate
5876:Inositol-P
5671:Amino acid
5611:feeders to
5439:elongation
5394:Glyoxylate
5383:acid cycle
5309:Metabolism
5245:Pheromones
5185:Juxtacrine
3897:2023-11-29
3874:2023-11-29
3774:2007-03-03
2875:: 92–103.
2488:2023-11-28
2479:"Hormones"
2369:References
1987:JAK kinase
1951:PI3-Kinase
1650:pheromones
1633:, etc. In
1625:, enhance
1550:cell cycle
1222:pheromones
1202:eukaryotes
1186:G proteins
1123:allosteric
1107:allosteric
996:See also:
982:pheromones
960:epithelial
936:intracrine
601:Juxtacrine
592:Intracrine
582:intracrine
469:Exocytosis
464:Exocytosis
397:monoamines
358:) between
303:cyclic AMP
299:chemotaxis
152:category.
136:organelles
109:juxtacrine
105:intracrine
71:eukaryotes
6430:vitamin A
6414:backbones
6412:Terpenoid
6307:Cofactors
6299:vitamin E
6289:vitamin K
6277:vitamin A
6272:Retinoids
6264:vitamin D
6239:vitamin B
6204:vitamin C
6199:Ascorbate
6192:histidine
6179:Shikimate
6158:Ketogenic
6125:Glutamate
6102:Aspartate
6054:glutarate
5969:Pentose-P
5953:Succinate
5944:Propionyl
5937:Tetrose-P
5930:Pentose-P
5826:Glycosyl-
5766:Shikimate
5714:Lipolysis
5656:Oxidative
5613:gluconeo-
5555:oxylation
5536:Gluconeo-
5493:genolysis
5476:oxidation
5452:oxidation
5424:synthesis
5368:phosphate
5199:Endocrine
5194:Paracrine
5190:Autocrine
5057:Receptors
5037:Cytokines
4560:CiteSeerX
4154:1530-0447
4095:0898-6568
4038:0948-6143
3814:0360-4012
3012:209343260
2889:2212-8778
2626:0027-8424
2432:0265-9247
2412:BioEssays
2235:stem cell
2178:membranes
2150:cytokines
1977:IFN-Gamma
1826:Integrins
1746:G protein
1744:Trimeric
1712:Rhodopsin
1690:(such as
1674:effectors
1643:evolution
1627:virulence
1594:phosphate
1429:receptors
1337:catalytic
1333:enzymatic
1325:enzymatic
1323:, causes
1257:G protein
1236:to large
1178:molecules
1172:that are
1136:, or the
1062:, and/or
897:receptors
877:Receptors
818:Endocrine
812:Endocrine
781:receptors
774:autocrine
735:Paracrine
706:Paracrine
700:microglia
692:chemokine
586:endocrine
563:Autocrine
542:into the
528:secretion
513:porosomes
473:molecules
315:known as
313:dipeptide
132:cytoplasm
128:Receptors
117:endocrine
113:paracrine
101:autocrine
53:) is the
6649:cofactor
6528:Steroids
6468:Acyl-CoA
6452:Glycero-
6356:Proteins
6319:minerals
6314:Vitamins
6285:Quinones
6221:pigments
6146:Creatine
6139:Arginine
6043:Succinyl
5997:Pyruvate
5916:Glycerol
5909:Triose-P
5902:Hexose-P
5854:multiple
5551:Pyruvate
5342:fixation
5019:Hormones
4969:JAK-STAT
4957:MAPK/ERK
4952:TGF beta
4774:32001644
4717:23384199
4582:19584317
4537:19246237
4488:10343281
4447:16497924
4390:15908344
4341:11544353
4211:21505029
4113:18762250
4056:18288481
3992:28626145
3984:17132855
3942:45996586
3934:17132854
3832:18041090
3679:29249361
3627:16183910
3549:12869759
3509:license.
3503:Archived
3489:22300046
3365:17607357
3316:14966283
3267:15890712
3231:15930138
3151:15525594
3110:15537737
3061:18805086
3004:31831638
2956:36130488
2907:29551633
2819:19364126
2577:10607620
2440:12655647
2241:See also
2227:receptor
2197:protease
2166:estrogen
2042:TGF-beta
1868:Frizzled
1717:Dopamine
1510:chloride
1506:receptor
1437:estrogen
1376:, as in
1367:, as in
1357:, as in
1341:receptor
1238:proteins
1234:peptides
1226:hormones
1195:agonists
1111:synapses
986:receptor
956:bacteria
928:membrane
865:and the
861:are the
839:organism
831:hormones
823:hormones
796:family,
794:Hedgehog
766:Estrogen
688:cytokine
680:bacteria
658:junction
651:interact
645:) and a
550:through
520:vesicles
481:proteins
475:such as
401:proteins
348:Synaptic
338:such as
281:, which
269:bacteria
257:diabetes
241:immunity
93:receptor
81:pressure
6705:Biology
6665:protein
6645:vitamin
6347:Nucleic
6250:Various
6132:proline
6086:Alanine
6052:α-Keto-
6029:acetate
6020:Citrate
6004:Lactate
5860:glycans
5768:pathway
5688:shuttle
5686:Citrate
5615:genesis
5598:genesis
5553:decarb-
5538:genesis
5508:genesis
5370:pathway
5366:Pentose
5150:General
4974:Akt/PKB
4815:9637676
4765:7029782
4744:Bibcode
4736:Science
4708:3629746
4668:9572732
4648:Bibcode
4640:Science
4528:2668724
4438:2776824
4417:Bibcode
4409:Science
4381:1111840
4303:9671779
4271:Bibcode
4202:3106186
4162:8618782
4104:2613789
4047:2323030
3823:2670446
3749:2013840
3670:5766829
3592:3113327
3557:9708224
3529:Bibcode
3521:Science
3480:3343417
3356:1904311
3222:1150820
3199:Bibcode
3170:27 July
3052:2632951
2984:Bibcode
2976:Science
2947:9513806
2898:6066741
2810:4580239
2644:6961416
2604:Bibcode
2540:5473898
2339:Netpath
2190:ovaries
2176:of the
2028:Inhibin
2019:Activin
1983:) etc.
1911:Insulin
1760:, etc.
1741:) etc.
1710:Light (
1558:kinases
1447:act as
1409:cytosol
1405:nucleus
1214:ligands
1126:ligands
1077:When a
978:peptide
972:during
762:neurons
635:protein
360:neurons
295:acrasin
218:passive
140:nucleus
85:voltage
55:process
39:biology
6691:Portal
6566:Major
6519:&
6484:Glyco-
6424:&
6396:Acetyl
6366:&
6317:&
6293:&
6190:&
6149:&
6130:&
6118:lysine
6116:&
6063:bodies
6061:Ketone
6036:Malate
6027:Oxalo-
6011:Acetyl
5960:Acetyl
5886:&
5869:sugars
5867:Simple
5858:&
5856:sugars
5850:Double
5521:Glyco-
5506:Glyco-
5491:Glyco-
5381:Citric
5353:Photo-
5340:Carbon
5003:Agents
4876:(MeSH)
4866:(MeSH)
4813:
4772:
4762:
4715:
4705:
4666:
4580:
4562:
4535:
4525:
4486:
4445:
4435:
4388:
4378:
4339:
4301:
4291:
4240:
4209:
4199:
4160:
4152:
4111:
4101:
4093:
4054:
4044:
4036:
3990:
3982:
3940:
3932:
3865:
3830:
3820:
3812:
3746:
3702:
3677:
3667:
3625:
3590:
3555:
3547:
3487:
3477:
3431:
3363:
3353:
3314:
3307:350546
3304:
3265:
3229:
3219:
3149:
3108:
3101:534701
3098:
3059:
3049:
3010:
3002:
2954:
2944:
2905:
2895:
2887:
2846:
2817:
2807:
2766:
2737:
2701:
2669:
2642:
2635:347342
2632:
2624:
2575:
2538:
2531:248216
2528:
2461:
2438:
2430:
2389:
2225:Notch
2152:, and
1554:divide
1540:shown)
1339:, and
1321:ligand
1292:α12/13
1228:, and
1068:ligand
1023:, and
974:mating
948:uterus
944:embryo
920:ligand
913:enzyme
855:humans
849:, the
837:of an
835:glands
785:organs
723:; and
631:ligand
431:(e.g.
415:(e.g.
385:lipids
317:glorin
311:use a
255:, and
249:cancer
243:, and
209:, and
138:, and
6535:Endo-
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