357:
190:
329:
238:
512:
321:
234:. He took exception to the Hyatts' claims and pursued the brothers in a number of court cases between 1877 and 1884. Initially the judge found in Spill's favor, but ultimately it was judged that neither party held an exclusive claim and the true inventor of celluloid/xylonite was Alexander Parkes, due to his mention of camphor in his earlier experiments and patents. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spill's British Xylonite Company and Hyatt's' Celluloid Manufacturing Company.
313:
494:
to wash away any free acids that did not react with the fibers, dried, and kneaded. During this time, a solution of 50% camphor in alcohol is added, which then changes the macromolecule structure of nitrocellulose into a homogeneous gel of nitrocellulose and camphor. The chemical structure is not well understood, but it is determined that it is one molecule of camphor for each unit of glucose. After the mixing, the mass is pressed into blocks at a high pressure and then is fabricated for its specific use.
341:
417:
85:
535:
Another factor that can cause this is excess moisture, which can accelerate deterioration of nitrocellulose with the presence of nitrate groups, either newly fragmented from heat or still trapped as a free acid from production. Both of these sources allow the accumulation of nitric acid. Another form
439:
Celluloid remains in use for musical instruments, especially accordions and guitars. Celluloid is very robust and easy to mold in difficult forms, and has great acoustic performance as cover for wooden frames since it does not block wood's natural pores. Instruments covered with celluloid can easily
181:
listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. They used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed
493:
was to be used as well in the reaction in order to first, catalyze the nitric acid groups so it can allow for the substitution onto the cellulose, and second, allow for the groups to easily and uniformly attach to the fibers, creating a better quality nitrocellulose. The product then must be rinsed
217:
The development of celluloid was partially spurred by the desire to reduce reliance on ivory, with its shortages caused by overhunting. An 1883 invention allowed celluloid manufacturers to imitate the distinctive graining of ivory, and by the end of 19th century celluloid was marketed as a lighter
204:
Over the years, celluloid became the common use term used for this type of plastic. In 1878 Hyatt was able to patent a process for injection moulding thermoplastics, although it took another fifty years before it could be realized commercially, and in later years celluloid was used as the base for
352:
in the 1950s were made of celluloid. Its high flammability was legendary since it self-ignites when exposed to temperatures over 150 °C in front of a hot movie-projector beam. While celluloid film was standard for 35mm theatrical productions until around 1950, motion-picture film for amateur
265:
in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates. The
Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work, which was done by thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the celluloid strips were coated
124:
Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year. Later Parkes showcased
Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics
543:
Among collectors of antiques, the deterioration of celluloid is generally known as "celluloid rot." The chemical processes involved are not perfectly understood, but it is widely believed that the gases released by a piece undergoing celluloid rot can trigger celluloid rot in nearby articles of
364:
Celluloid was useful for producing cheaper jewellery, jewellery boxes, hair accessories and many items that would earlier have been manufactured from ivory, horn or other expensive animal products. In these applications it was often referred to as "Ivorine" or "French Ivory", after a form of
519:
Many sources of deterioration in celluloid exist, such as thermal, chemical, photochemical, and physical. The most inherent flaw is as celluloid ages, the camphor molecules are âsqueezedâ out of the mass due to the unsustainable pressure used in the production. That pressure causes the
489:) on the cellulose chain. The reaction can produce mixed products, depending on the degree of substitution of nitrogen, or the percent nitrogen content on each cellulose molecule; cellulose nitrate has 2.8 molecule of nitrogen per molecule of cellulose. It was determined that
121:, who was never able to see his invention reach full fruition, after his firm went bankrupt due to scale-up costs. Parkes patented his discovery as Parkesine in 1862 after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion.
480:
Celluloid is made from a mixture of chemicals such as nitrocellulose, camphor, alcohol, as well as colorants and fillers depending on the desired product. The first step is transforming raw cellulose into nitrocellulose by conducting a
408:
clock company bought rights for its use as a durable coating from
Celluloid Manufacturing Company in September, 1880 and marketed it as, "Adamantine". Celluloid enabled clockmakers to make the typical late Victorian style of black
497:
Nitrating cellulose is an extremely flammable process in which even factory explosions are not uncommon. Many western celluloid factories closed after hazardous explosions, and only two factories in China remain in business.
266:
with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for
Carbutt to standardize his process, but it occurred no later than 1888. A 15-inch-wide (380 mm) sheet of Carbutt's film was used by
177:, to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill
520:
nitrocellulose molecules to bind back to each other or crystallize, and this results in the camphor molecules being shoved out of the material. Once exposed to the environment, camphor can undergo
950:
Springate, Megan E. (1997) "Cellulose
Nitrate Plastic (Celluloid) in Archaeological Assemblages: Identification and Care,"Northeast Historical Archaeology: Vol. 26 26: Iss. 1, Article 5.
524:
at room temperature, and the plastic reverts to brittle nitrocellulose. Also, with exposure to excess heat, the nitrate groups can break off and expose nitrogen gases, such as
169:, and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the
485:
reaction. This is achieved by exposing the cellulose fibers to an aqueous solution of nitric acid; the hydroxyl groups (-OH) will then be replaced with nitrate groups (-ONO
300:, which purchased Goodwin's patent after he died, was eventually successful in a patent-infringement suit against Kodak). This ability to produce photographic images on a
413:
in such a way that the wooden case appeared to be black marble, and the various pillars and other decorative elements of the case looked like semi-precious stone.
218:(and three times cheaper) ivory substitute under the names "Ivarine", "Ivaleur", "French Ivory", "Parisian Ivory", "Grained Ivory", and "Ivory Pyralin".
1018:
583:
833:
937:"JAIC 1991, Volume 30, Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 145 to 162)." JAIC 1991, Volume 30, Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 145 to 162). Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <
581:
Balser, Klaus; Hoppe, Lutz; Eicher, Theo; Wandel, Martin; Astheimer, HansâJoachim; Steinmeier, Hans; Allen, John M. (2004). "Cellulose Esters".
373:, fountain pens, cutlery handles and kitchen items. The main disadvantage the material had was that it was flammable. It was soon overtaken by
336:
black mantel clock, a typical late 19th century
American style. The "serpentine" and "stone" of the pillars are made of celluloid glued to wood.
764:
683:
448:
which turns them into a leather-like substance. Panels are then turned on a mold and allowed to harden for as long as three months.
369:. It was also used for dressing table sets, dolls, picture frames, charms, hat pins, buttons, buckles, stringed instrument parts,
1046:
960:
638:
105:, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing and an emulsion for photographic plates, is dried to a celluloid like film.
1010:
721:. Albany, NY, US: New York State Library, NYS Education Dept. "Manuscripts and Special Collections" section. Archived from
182:
the material "celluloid" in 1872. The Hyatts later moved their company, now called the
Celluloid Manufacturing Company, to
714:
245:
The main use was in movie and photography film industries, which used only celluloid film stock prior to the adoption of
230:
had worked with Parkes and formed the
Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes' patents, describing the new plastic products as
1056:
249:
safety film in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer widely used.
995:
919:
884:
650:
600:
1021:
618:
142:
820:
Daniel Spill, Celluloid
Manufacturing Company, United States. Circuit Court (New York : Southern District)
304:(as opposed to a glass or metal plate) was a crucial step toward making possible the advent of motion pictures.
860:
521:
267:
397:] out of hollow Celluloid--which, because of its 'frictionless' properties, spun even faster than steel."
157:, acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing
170:
1051:
1041:
1013:
356:
138:
404:. This celluloid was printed to look like expensive woods, or materials like marble or granite. The
978:
Beaujot, Ariel (2012), ""The Real Thing": The
Celluloid Vanity Set and the Search for Authenticity",
938:
897:
405:
333:
281:
produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion-picture photography.
262:
1066:
1061:
189:
400:
Shelf clocks and other furniture items were often covered with celluloid in a manner similar to
349:
691:
667:
328:
64:
before the advent of safer methods, celluloid's common present-day uses are for manufacturing
8:
536:
of deterioration, photochemical deterioration, is severe in celluloid because it absorbs
987:
961:"Ask the Expert: All About Celluloid Rotâand What to do About It | Acoustic Guitar"
237:
1036:
183:
137:. The Parkesine company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by the
991:
915:
880:
856:
646:
596:
511:
433:
285:
246:
206:
154:
61:
35:
877:
The Game Makers: The Story of Parker Brothers from Tiddledy Winks to Trivial Pursuit
983:
588:
472:, plus stabilizers and other agents to increase stability and reduce flammability.
386:
353:
use, such as 16mm and 8mm film, were on acetate "safety base", at least in the US.
320:
289:
174:
118:
39:
592:
622:
390:
89:
312:
16:
Class of highly reactive materials produced by mixing nitrocellulose and camphor
722:
558:
457:
274:
141:
of London. There is a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works in
113:
The first celluloid as a bulk material for forming objects was made in 1855 in
60:, often with added dyes and other agents. Once much more common for its use as
53:
1030:
744:
525:
490:
429:
382:
271:
158:
193:
Newark, New Jersey, industrial production complex of the Celluloid Company (
529:
410:
301:
258:
227:
69:
65:
428:. It was primarily used to coat wooden slide rule faces, such as in early
537:
425:
401:
130:
73:
615:
540:
light well. The absorbed light leads to chain-breakage and stiffening.
445:
370:
114:
20:
482:
278:
126:
102:
28:
24:
365:
celluloid developed in France with grain lines in made to resemble
461:
374:
277:
experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the celluloid
49:
939:
http://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic30-02-003_3.html
898:
https://clockhistory.com/sethThomas/products/adamantine/index.html
340:
715:"Albany Billiard Ball Company Records, 1894-1944; Bulk 1915-1944"
469:
465:
394:
378:
348:
Most movie and photography films prior to the widespread move to
166:
134:
57:
456:
A typical formulation of celluloid might contain 70 to 80 parts
416:
822:
Spill vs. Celluloid Manufacturing Company litigation documents
444:-like flaming pattern. Thick celluloid panels are cooked in a
441:
424:
Celluloid was also a popular material in the construction of
366:
297:
293:
162:
933:
931:
84:
101:
Nitrocellulose-based plastics slightly predate celluloid.
553:
389:
plants until 1996, and table tennis balls â until 2014. "
928:
632:
630:
580:
802:
790:
834:"John Carbutt at Historic Camera - History Librarium"
778:
627:
221:
1028:
665:
432:rules, as well as cursor end pieces, such as in
68:, musical instruments, combs, office equipment,
982:, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, pp. 139â178,
684:"Hackney Council - First Plastic in the World"
637:Painter, Paul C.; Coleman, Michael M. (2008).
636:
584:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
344:Assorted tortoiseshell celluloid guitar picks.
643:Essentials of Polymer Science and Engineering
909:
360:A late Soviet roly-poly doll from celluloid
420:Flaming celluloid pattern on an accordion.
745:"US patent #105,338 issued July 12, 1870"
844:
544:celluloid which were previously intact.
510:
501:
440:be recognized by the material's typical
415:
355:
339:
327:
319:
311:
236:
188:
83:
977:
808:
796:
784:
712:
161:, which until that time were made from
1029:
853:Bakelite Jewellery A Collector's guide
850:
296:obtained patents for a film product. (
284:By 1889, more flexible celluloids for
576:
574:
706:
148:
814:
616:Andrea Picks: The Saga of Cellulose
515:A fungus-damaged photographic slide
108:
13:
912:Seth Thomas Clocks & Movements
571:
468:, 0 to 14 parts dye, 1 to 5 parts
385:dolls were made from celluloid on
212:
125:industry. Parkesine was made from
14:
1078:
1004:
988:10.2752/9781472504517/Beaujot0006
165:. He used cloth, ivory dust, and
96:
34:For the French record label, see
1022:Society of the Plastics Industry
672:. UK Patent office. p. 255.
506:
953:
944:
903:
890:
869:
855:. The Apple Press. p. 16.
826:
639:"The Early History of Polymers"
393:... made some versions [of
222:Daniel Spill and legal disputes
1047:1862 establishments in England
757:
737:
676:
659:
609:
451:
252:
38:. For the Malayalam film, see
1:
980:Victorian Fashion Accessories
765:"Plastics Historical Society"
645:. DEStech>. pp. 7â9.
593:10.1002/14356007.a05_419.pub2
564:
475:
194:
171:Albany Billiard Ball Company
7:
1014:Plastics Historical Society
879:, p. 48. Harvard Business.
713:Bassett, Fred, ed. (2009).
547:
153:In the 1860s, an American,
139:Plastics Historical Society
10:
1083:
971:
79:
33:
18:
1057:Film and video technology
666:UK Patent office (1857).
621:January 24, 2010, at the
316:An antique celluloid doll
288:were developed, and both
875:Orbanes, Philip (2004).
263:Keystone Dry Plate Works
241:Old celluloid film rolls
19:Not to be confused with
587:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
307:
690:. 2012. Archived from
669:Patents for inventions
516:
421:
361:
345:
337:
325:
317:
242:
201:
93:
1019:"History of Plastics"
910:Ly, Tran Duy (1996).
851:Grasso, Tony (1996).
514:
502:Environmental hazards
419:
359:
343:
331:
323:
315:
294:Eastman Kodak Company
257:English photographer
240:
192:
87:
963:. 9 September 2021.
767:. Plastiquarian.com
52:produced by mixing
1052:English inventions
1042:1870 introductions
838:historiccamera.com
725:on January 5, 2013
517:
460:, nitrated to 11%
422:
362:
346:
338:
326:
324:Table tennis balls
318:
243:
202:
184:Newark, New Jersey
94:
66:table tennis balls
434:Keuffel and Esser
302:flexible material
286:photographic film
226:English inventor
207:photographic film
155:John Wesley Hyatt
149:John Wesley Hyatt
62:photographic film
36:Celluloid Records
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387:smokeless powder
290:Hannibal Goodwin
199:
196:
175:Albany, New York
119:Alexander Parkes
109:Alexander Parkes
40:Celluloid (film)
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694:on 4 March 2016
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623:Wayback Machine
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391:Parker Brothers
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268:William Dickson
255:
224:
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213:Imitating ivory
197:
173:(1868â1986) in
151:
111:
99:
90:sterling silver
82:
48:are a class of
43:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1067:Thermoplastics
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1062:Plastic brands
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1005:External links
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914:. U.S. Books.
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861:
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813:
811:, p. 148.
801:
799:, p. 149.
789:
787:, p. 147.
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719:NYSL.NYSED.gov
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688:hackney.gov.uk
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559:Green eyeshade
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458:nitrocellulose
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275:motion picture
270:for the early
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159:billiard balls
150:
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117:, England, by
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97:Nitrocellulose
95:
88:Celluloid and
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54:nitrocellulose
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526:nitrous oxide
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507:Deterioration
499:
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491:sulfuric acid
484:
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470:ethyl alcohol
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809:Beaujot 2012
804:
797:Beaujot 2012
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785:Beaujot 2012
780:
769:. Retrieved
759:
748:. Retrieved
739:
727:. Retrieved
723:the original
718:
708:
696:. Retrieved
692:the original
687:
678:
668:
661:
642:
611:
582:
542:
534:
530:nitric oxide
518:
496:
479:
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423:
411:mantel clock
399:
363:
347:
283:
261:founded the
259:John Carbutt
256:
244:
231:
228:Daniel Spill
225:
216:
203:
178:
152:
123:
112:
100:
74:guitar picks
72:bodies, and
70:fountain pen
45:
44:
1011:"Celluloid"
538:ultraviolet
522:sublimation
464:, 30 parts
452:Formulation
426:slide rules
406:Seth Thomas
334:Seth Thomas
253:Photography
198: 1890
179:(see below)
131:nitric acid
1031:Categories
862:1850766134
771:2014-05-07
750:2014-05-07
729:January 5,
565:References
476:Production
446:bain-marie
430:A.W. Faber
371:accordions
145:, London.
115:Birmingham
46:Celluloids
21:Celluloide
1037:Cellulose
698:9 January
483:nitration
383:roly-poly
381:. Soviet
279:film base
127:cellulose
103:Collodion
50:materials
29:Cellulite
25:Cellulose
619:Archived
548:See also
462:nitrogen
395:diabolos
375:Bakelite
292:and the
232:Xylonite
972:Sources
466:camphor
436:rules.
379:Catalin
247:acetate
167:shellac
143:Hackney
135:solvent
80:History
58:camphor
994:
918:
883:
859:
649:
599:
402:veneer
272:Edison
133:and a
941:>.
900:>.
442:nacre
367:ivory
298:Ansco
163:ivory
27:, or
992:ISBN
916:ISBN
896:<
881:ISBN
857:ISBN
731:2013
700:2012
647:ISBN
597:ISBN
528:and
377:and
308:Uses
92:pen.
56:and
984:doi
589:doi
554:Cel
186:.
1033::
990:,
930:^
836:.
717:.
686:.
641:.
629:^
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573:^
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