248:. The percentage of each component varies for each different type of fiber, however, generally, are around 60-80% cellulose, 5–20% lignin, and 20% of moisture, besides hemicellulose and a small percent of residual chemical components. The properties of the fiber change depending on the amount of each component, since the hemicellulose is responsible for the moisture absorption, bio- and thermal degradation whereas lignin ensures thermal stability but is responsible for the UV degradation. The chemical composition of common natural fibers are shown below; these vary depending on whether the fiber is a
146:. These polysaccharides are also made from multiple subunits of glucose. The difference between cellulose and other complex carbohydrate molecules is how the glucose molecules are linked together. In addition, cellulose is a straight chain polymer, and each cellulose molecule is long and rod-like. This differs from starch, which is a coiled molecule. A result of these differences in structure is that, compared to starch and other carbohydrates, cellulose cannot be broken down into its glucose subunits by any enzymes produced by animals.
183:, etc. The presence of linear chains of thousands of glucose units linked together allows a great deal of hydrogen bonding between OH groups on adjacent chains, causing them to pack closely into cellulose fibers. As a result, cellulose exhibits little interaction with water or any other solvent. Cotton and wood, for example, are completely insoluble in water and have considerable mechanical strength. Since cellulose does not have a helical structure like amylose, it does not bind to iodine to form a colored product.
113:, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon ("artificial silk") from cellulose began in the 1890s, and cellophane was invented in 1912. In 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston, invented yet another cellulosic product, acetate, and developed it as a film. The first commercial textile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the
98:
2098:
125:
777:. Due to the high swelling propensity of lignocellulosic fibers, a correlation between the zeta potential and the water uptake capability has been observed. Even for the use of waste fibers as a reinforcement in composite materials, sized fibers have been probed by an aqueous test solution. A review on the electrokinetic properties of natural fibers including cellulose and lignocellulosic fibers is found in the Handbook of Natural Fibers.
2108:
219:
Natural fibers are composed by microfibrils of cellulose in a matrix of hemicellulose and lignin. This type of structure and the chemical composition of them is responsible for the mechanical properties that can be observed. Because the natural fibers make hydrogen bonds between the long chains, they
1045:
The cellulose fibers infiltration/filter aid applications can provide a protective layer to filter elements as powdered cellulose, besides promoting improved throughput and clarity. As ashless and non-abrasive filtration, make cleanup effortless after the filtering process without damage in pumps or
952:
Void volume and water absorption: Fibers are fairly porous with a large volume of internal voids. As a result, when the fibers are immersed in the binding material, they absorb a large amount of matrix. High absorption can cause fiber shrinkage and matrix swelling. However, a high void volume
1046:
valves. They effectively filter metallic impurities and absorb up to 100% of emulsified oil and boiler condensates. In general, cellulose fibers in filtration applications can greatly improve filtration performance when used as a primary or remedial precoat in the following ways:
768:
Hydrophilicity, roughness and surface charge determine the interaction of cellulose fibers with an aqueous environment. Already in 1950, the charge at the interface between cotton as the predominant cellulose fiber and an aqueous surrounding was investigated by the
1074:
In comparison with engineered fibers, cellulose fibers have important advantages as low density, low cost, they can be recyclable, and are biodegradable. Due to its advantages cellulose fibers can be used as a substituent for glass fibers in composites materials.
948:
Dimensions: The relationship between the length and diameter of the fibers is a determining factor in the transfer of efforts to the matrix. Additionally, the irregular cross-section and fibrillated appearance of plant fibers helps anchor them within a fragile
93:
The main applications of cellulose fibers are in the textile industry, as chemical filters, and as fiber-reinforcement composites, due to their similar properties to engineered fibers, being another option for biocomposites and polymer composites.
1095:
as "bamboo fiber" appears, planting & harvesting bamboo for fiber can, in certain cases, be more sustainable and environmentally friendly than harvesting slower growing trees and clearing existing forest habitats for timber plantations.
137:
Cellulose is a polymer made of repeating glucose molecules attached end to end. A cellulose molecule may be from several hundred to over 10,000 glucose units long. Cellulose is similar in form to complex carbohydrates like
523:
change depending on fiber type and chemical structure present. Information about main mechanical properties are shown in the chart below and can be compared to properties of commonly used fibers such
965:: Cellulosic fibers have a low modulus of elasticity. This determines its use in building components working in post-cracked stage, with high energy absorption and resistance to dynamic forces.
121:
determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes) in 1992, by
Kobayashi and Shoda.
159:
Natural cellulose fibers are still recognizable as being from a part of the original plant because they are only processed as much as needed to clean the fibers for use. For example,
1331:
Bismarck, Alexander; Aranberri-Askargorta, Ibon; Springer, Jürgen; Lampke, Thomas; Wielage, Bernhard; Stamboulis, Artemis; Shenderovich, Ilja; Limbach, Hans-Heinrich (2002).
944:
Since macroscopic characteristics of fibers influence the behavior of the resulting composite, the following physical and mechanical properties are of particular interest:
82:
of cellulose, which can be obtained from the bark, wood or leaves of plants, or from other plant-based material. In addition to cellulose, the fibers may also contain
929:(matrix). This combination mixes the properties of the fiber with the matrix to create a new material that may be stronger than the fiber alone. When combined with
1557:
831:
171:
plant. All "natural" fibers go through a process where they are separated from the parts of the plant that are not used for the end product, usually through
998:. Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the
1255:
Xue, L. G.; Tabil, L.; Panigrahi, S. (2007). "Chemical
Treatments of Natural Fiber for Use in Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Review".
1537:
1229:
1477:
1460:
2052:
1037:. Although these artificial fibers were discovered in the mid-nineteenth century, successful modern manufacture began much later.
1444:
953:
contributes to reduced weight, increased acoustic absorption, and low thermal conductivity of the final composite material.
1184:
Cellulose: molecular and structural biology: selected articles on the synthesis, structure, and applications of cellulose
1528:
Mohanty, A. K.; Misra, M.; Hinrichsen, G. (2000). "Biofibres, biodegradable polymers and biocomposites: An overview".
1504:
1191:
1588:
1554:
1293:"Electrokinetic Properties of Cellulose Fibers: Ii. Zeta-Potential Measurements by the Stream-Compression Method"
1334:"Surface characterization of flax, hemp and cellulose fibers; Surface properties and the water uptake behavior"
1091:
plants, but instead a highly processed bamboo pulp that is extruded as fibers. Although the process is not as
252:(obtained from the bark), a core fiber (obtained from the wood), or a leaf fiber (obtained from the leaves).
1053:
Improving the stability of the filter-aid cake to make it more resistant to pressure bumps and interruptions
1152:
1423:
1215:
245:
941:. The table displays different polymer matrices and the cellulose fibers they are often mixed with.
1186:. Brown, R. Malcolm (Richard Malcolm), 1939-, Saxena, I. M. (Inder M.). Dordrecht: Springer. 2007.
1092:
938:
90:, with different percentages of these components altering the mechanical properties of the fibers.
2111:
1421:
Luxbacher, Thomas (January 1, 2020), Kozłowski, Ryszard M.; Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, Maria (eds.),
1125:
1084:
211:
is one of the most common "manufactured" cellulose fibers, and it can be made from wood pulp.
1129:
1033:. They are also not an artificial construction of silk, which is a fibrous polymer of animal
975:
1233:
1939:
1901:
1581:
1050:
Bridging gaps in the filter septum and small mechanical leaks in the gaskets and leaf seats
8:
1914:
1797:
1292:
1056:
Creating a more uniform precoat with no cracks for more effective filtration surface area
770:
2142:
2132:
1436:
1403:
1375:"Influence of chemical treatments on the electrokinetic properties of cellulose fibres"
1333:
1272:
1209:
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922:
881:
520:
118:
1169:
2147:
1909:
1878:
1699:
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1395:
1372:
Pothan, Laly A.; Bellman, Cornelia; Kailas, Lekshmi; Thomas, Sabu (January 1, 2002).
1354:
1313:
1197:
1187:
1018:
999:
926:
901:
1407:
1276:
1021:
was discovered in 1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not fully
1533:
1472:
1432:
1387:
1346:
1305:
1264:
1165:
956:
30:
1153:"Cellulosic fiber reinforced cement-based composites: A review of recent research"
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2101:
1924:
1886:
1679:
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987:
962:
1832:
1972:
1777:
1632:
1391:
821:
811:
774:
229:
97:
1268:
933:, cellulose fibers are used to create some fiber-reinforced materials such as
2126:
1990:
1962:
1949:
1847:
1762:
1605:
1514:
1399:
1374:
1358:
1317:
1201:
925:
are a class of material most often made by the combination of a fiber with a
851:
233:
110:
83:
1982:
1431:, The Textile Institute Book Series, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 323–353,
2047:
2037:
1967:
1742:
1734:
934:
871:
841:
532:
192:
1538:
10.1002/(SICI)1439-2054(20000301)276:1<1::AID-MAME1>3.0.CO;2-W
1330:
1957:
1822:
1807:
1747:
1704:
1637:
861:
524:
191:
Manufactured cellulose fibers come from plants that are processed into a
1478:
10.1002/(SICI)1098-2329(199924)18:4<351::AID-ADV6>3.0.CO;2-X
2027:
2022:
1891:
1757:
1724:
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1309:
249:
172:
1929:
1869:
1150:
Ardanuy, Mònica; Claramunt, Josep; Toledo Filho, Romildo Dias (2015).
2042:
1837:
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1350:
1026:
891:
196:
22:
1087:
is actually not the fibers that grow in their natural form from the
180:
2010:
1855:
1787:
930:
163:
fibers look like the soft fluffy cotton balls that they come from.
143:
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114:
1622:
2069:
2064:
2059:
1919:
1627:
1034:
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991:
208:
1694:
1065:
Precoating easily and rapidly and reducing soluble contamination
2074:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1817:
1802:
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1714:
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160:
139:
87:
195:
and then extruded in the same ways that synthetic fibers like
2079:
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2015:
1934:
1719:
1709:
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1642:
1030:
168:
63:
51:
42:
39:
45:
1566:
1371:
1059:
Improving cake release and reducing cleaning requirements
109:
Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist
1527:
1005:
The first artificial fiber, commercially promoted as
959:: Similar, on average, to the polypropylene's fibers.
763:
66:
54:
36:
856:
Flax, jute, kenaf, sunhemp, wheat straw, wood fiber
60:
48:
167:fibers look like the strong fibrous strands of the
33:
1422:
1373:
1332:
1291:
1151:
1424:"9 - Electrokinetic properties of natural fibres"
1254:
2124:
1497:Sustainable fashion and textiles design journeys
186:
1290:Mason, S. G.; Goring, D. A. I. (June 1, 1950).
1069:
16:Fibers made with ethers or esters of cellulose
1582:
1461:"Natural fiber polymer composites: A review"
1429:Handbook of Natural Fibres (Second Edition)
1289:
1025:, being a product of a chemically digested
220:have the necessary stiffness and strength.
214:
154:
1589:
1575:
1380:Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology
994:). Cellulose fibers are manufactured from
228:The major constituents of natural fibers (
1476:
1420:
1062:Preventing fine particulate bleed-through
128:Cellulose chains linked by hydrogen bonds
1530:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
1494:
1458:
514:
123:
96:
1257:Journal of Polymers and the Environment
1078:
223:
2125:
785:
132:
1570:
1490:
1488:
2107:
1017:in 1924. A similar product known as
846:Kenaf, pineapple, sisal, wood fiber
1158:Construction and Building Materials
13:
1485:
1437:10.1016/b978-0-12-818782-1.00009-2
990:, and the more recently developed
764:Surface and interfacial properties
14:
2159:
1548:
1459:Saheb, D. N.; Jog, J. P. (1999).
1170:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.01.035
896:Banana, jute, pineapple, sunhemp
2106:
2097:
2096:
29:
1521:
1452:
780:
1465:Advances in Polymer Technology
1414:
1365:
1324:
1283:
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1222:
1176:
1143:
1118:
1:
1111:
1040:
773:method to assess the surface
187:Manufactured cellulose fibers
1298:Canadian Journal of Research
1070:Comparison with other fibers
519:Cellulose fiber response to
7:
1230:"Carbohydrates - Cellulose"
1099:
10:
2164:
1596:
1392:10.1163/156856102317293687
1130:The Free Online Dictionary
1083:What is often marketed as
969:
104:
2092:
1981:
1948:
1900:
1877:
1868:
1846:
1733:
1613:
1604:
1555:Dissolving of Cellulosics
1269:10.1007/s10924-006-0042-3
1013:around 1894, and finally
939:fiber-reinforced plastics
447:
402:
277:
257:
1093:environmentally friendly
974:In the textile industry
215:Structure and properties
155:Natural cellulose fibers
149:
1495:Fletcher, Kate (2008).
550:Tensile strength (MPa)
74:) are fibers made with
1560:April 3, 2013, at the
1214:: CS1 maint: others (
553:Young's modulus (GPa)
129:
101:
1532:. 276–277 (1): 1–24.
1499:. London: Earthscan.
976:regenerated cellulose
515:Mechanical properties
127:
100:
1236:on December 11, 2018
1079:Environmental issues
806:Abaca, bamboo, jute
224:Chemical composition
1029:comprising natural
923:Composite materials
832:Phenol-formaldehyde
786:Composite materials
771:streaming potential
521:mechanical stresses
133:Cellulose structure
1339:Polymer Composites
1310:10.1139/cjr50b-040
1106:Fiber modification
1009:, became known as
1000:cellulose acetates
882:Polyvinyl chloride
267:Hemicellulose (%)
175:, separating from
130:
119:Hermann Staudinger
102:
2120:
2119:
2088:
2087:
1864:
1863:
1446:978-0-12-818782-1
1126:"Cellulose fiber"
1019:cellulose acetate
920:
919:
902:Styrene-butadiene
761:
760:
512:
511:
232:) are cellulose,
117:Company in 1924.
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1232:. Archived from
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1887:Artificial silk
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1007:artificial silk
996:dissolving pulp
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963:Elastic modulus
927:binder material
788:
783:
766:
677:Softwood kraft
547:Elongation (%)
544:Density (g/cm)
517:
230:lignocelluloses
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28:
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1471:(4): 351–363.
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234:hemicellulose
231:
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162:
147:
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126:
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112:
111:Anselme Payen
99:
95:
91:
89:
85:
84:hemicellulose
81:
77:
71:
26:
24:
19:
2048:Polyethylene
1529:
1523:
1496:
1468:
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1454:
1428:
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1297:
1285:
1263:(1): 25–33.
1260:
1256:
1250:
1240:December 10,
1238:. Retrieved
1234:the original
1224:
1183:
1178:
1161:
1157:
1145:
1133:. Retrieved
1120:
1082:
1073:
1044:
1004:
973:
943:
921:
872:Polyurethane
842:Polyethylene
816:Coir, sisal
781:Applications
767:
757:230.0–240.0
533:carbon fiber
529:aramid fiber
518:
448:
403:
292:18.6 – 20.6
278:
227:
218:
190:
158:
136:
108:
92:
21:
20:
18:
1879:Regenerated
1823:Spider silk
1164:: 115–128.
1135:October 22,
978:is used as
862:Polystyrene
525:glass fiber
283:Fiber flax
270:Pectin (%)
264:Lignin (%)
2127:Categories
2028:Modacrylic
2023:Microfiber
1940:Triacetate
1892:Milk fiber
1758:Camel hair
1690:Lotus silk
1112:References
1041:Filtration
740:63.0–67.0
737:3000–3150
703:2000–3500
666:15.0–30.0
449:Leaf fiber
404:Core fiber
303:Seed flax
279:Bast fiber
250:bast fiber
203:are made.
173:harvesting
2143:Materials
2133:Cellulose
2043:Polyester
1915:Diacetate
1870:Synthetic
1773:Chiengora
1515:186246363
1400:0169-4243
1359:0272-8397
1318:1923-4287
1210:cite book
1202:187314758
1027:feedstock
1023:synthetic
916:Oil palm
892:Polyester
655:9.0–38.0
646:1.33–1.5
601:345–1500
578:1.3–1.46
570:5.5–12.6
564:3.0–10.0
493:Henequen
197:polyester
23:Cellulose
2148:Textiles
2102:Category
2011:Technora
1973:Metallic
1856:Asbestos
1798:Pashmina
1763:Cashmere
1558:Archived
1408:94420824
1277:96323385
1100:See also
1035:proteins
982:such as
931:polymers
751:1.4–1.8
734:3.3–3.7
711:S–glass
700:2.5–3.0
694:E–glass
672:4.0–6.0
669:175–220
652:400–700
635:220–938
632:2.0–3.8
618:550–900
604:27.6–80
598:1.2–3.2
595:1.4–1.5
584:393–800
581:1.5–1.8
567:287–597
561:1.5–1.6
389:0.6–0.7
386:68.6–91
372:14–22.4
352:13.6–21
346:45–71.5
332:21.5–23
273:Ash (%)
181:scouring
144:glycogen
115:Celanese
2112:Commons
2070:Vinylon
2065:Vectran
2060:Spandex
1991:Acrylic
1983:Polymer
1950:Mineral
1930:Piñatex
1920:Lyocell
1910:Acetate
1848:Mineral
1778:Guanaco
1628:Bagasse
1606:Natural
1011:viscose
992:Lyocell
970:Textile
949:matrix.
793:Matrix
745:Carbon
728:Aramid
649:2.0–14
638:44–128
558:Cotton
392:5–16.7
369:3.7–13
209:viscose
105:History
2138:Fibers
2075:Vinyon
2053:UHMWPE
2038:Olefin
2006:Kevlar
2001:Twaron
1996:Aramid
1968:Basalt
1963:Carbon
1833:Vicuña
1818:Tendon
1808:Rabbit
1803:Qiviut
1793:Mohair
1768:Catgut
1753:Byssus
1748:Angora
1743:Alpaca
1735:Animal
1715:Rattan
1705:Raffia
1648:Cotton
1633:Bamboo
1598:Fibers
1513:
1503:
1443:
1406:
1398:
1357:
1316:
1275:
1200:
1190:
1089:bamboo
980:fibers
912:Rubber
796:Fiber
643:Sisal
626:Ramie
587:10–30
541:Fiber
531:, and
488:0.6–1
482:10–24
476:47–78
473:Sisal
462:15–17
456:56–63
453:Abaca
437:18–22
434:21–24
431:41–48
417:18–24
414:15–21
411:37–49
408:Kenaf
383:Ramie
366:57–77
358:0.5–2
349:12–26
329:15–19
326:31–57
323:Kenaf
312:24–26
309:21–23
306:43–47
242:pectin
238:lignin
161:cotton
140:starch
88:lignin
80:esters
76:ethers
25:fibers
2080:Zylon
2033:Nylon
2016:Nomex
1958:Glass
1935:Rayon
1925:Modal
1788:Llama
1720:Sisal
1710:Ramie
1685:Kenaf
1680:Kapok
1663:Linen
1653:Fique
1638:Bashō
1623:Abacá
1615:Plant
1404:S2CID
1273:S2CID
1015:rayon
988:modal
984:rayon
906:Jute
886:Wood
876:Wood
866:Wood
836:Jute
826:Jute
802:Epoxy
754:4000
723:86.0
720:4570
706:70.0
689:40.0
686:1000
660:Coir
612:1.48
609:Hemp
592:Flax
575:Jute
499:13.1
496:77.6
479:7–11
428:Jute
363:Hemp
343:Jute
205:Rayon
201:nylon
177:chaff
165:Linen
150:Types
1828:Wool
1813:Silk
1783:Hair
1725:Wood
1700:Pine
1695:Piña
1675:Jute
1670:Hemp
1658:Flax
1643:Coir
1511:OCLC
1501:ISBN
1441:ISBN
1396:ISSN
1355:ISSN
1314:ISSN
1242:2018
1216:link
1198:OCLC
1188:ISBN
1137:2021
1031:wood
937:and
748:1.4
731:1.4
717:2.8
714:2.5
697:2.5
680:1.5
663:1.2
629:1.5
615:1.6
502:4–8
459:7–9
443:0.8
423:2–4
395:1.9
378:0.8
375:0.9
355:0.2
338:2–5
295:2.3
289:2.2
244:and
193:pulp
169:flax
142:and
86:and
1838:Yak
1534:doi
1473:doi
1433:doi
1388:doi
1347:doi
1306:doi
1302:28b
1265:doi
1166:doi
621:70
485:10
286:71
246:ash
207:or
199:or
78:or
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