Celts - Knowledge

4747: 3376: 6151: 3535: 4972: 5096:, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded. 2177: 5458: 15081: 6329:. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe. Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany. 15846: 4963: 5681: 4807: 5105: 3846:. Its high degree of continuity, from the Late Bronze Age, makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticisation of the western Iberia, from the nucleus area of Celtiberia. Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances, and the "Gallaecian Warriors", stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD. A large group of Latin inscriptions contain linguistic features that are clearly Celtic, while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic 3935: 5568: 4651: 3431:. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language and material culture do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions". Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the 5248: 4815: 4395: 3444: 128: 3819: 3129: 5716: 3951: 15746: 13326: 3923: 9499: 3657: 4181: 2819:. Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" ("race" is contemporarily an invalid epistemolical and genetic concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common. 2083: 3358: 2964: 1927: 5182:. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Such was the retort of the British woman. 5746:. Celtic religion varied by region and over time, but had "broad structural similarities", and there was "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples. Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and literature from the early Christian period. 3411:

enough evidence for a culture like that of Central Europe. It is equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Iberian Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture. This has resulted in a newer theory that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation, having its initial roots in the Bronze Age

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class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the

6305:, p. 295. "Celts, a name applied by ancient writers to a population group occupying lands mainly north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east. (Its application to the Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish is modern.) Their unity is recognizable by common speech and common artistic traditions. 4520:"plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain". There was much less immigration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then. Cunliffe suggests that a branch of Celtic was already spoken in Britain, and the Bronze Age migration introduced the Brittonic branch. 8498: 3418:

The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural

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the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia and did not provide

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has been detected among Celtiberians. There appears to have been significant gene flow among Celtic peoples of Western Europe during the Iron Age. While the Gauls of southern France display genetic links with the Celtiberians, the Gauls of northern France display links with Great Britain and Sweden.

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The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid

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tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 metres (4 feet 10 inches) wide and 0.9 metres (2 feet 11 inches) high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century. It is written in

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in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms,

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Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians". Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts

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is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and

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Linguists have debated whether a Celtic language came to the British Isles and then split, or whether the two branches arrived separately. The older view was that Celtic influence in the Isles was the result of successive migrations or invasions from the European mainland by diverse Celtic-speaking

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in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Modern scholarship, however, has clearly proven that

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The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as "Culture Groups", entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, had started to grow by the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these

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Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt' is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that

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was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales,

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In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic.

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that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade. The territory held by

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In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single culture or ethnic group. A new theory suggested that

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This Encyclopedia is designed for the use of everyone interested in Celtic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiary fields, including the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages, literatures, archaeology, folklore, and mythology. In its chronological scope, the

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are among traditional tribal names reported into the Roman era. They were gradually Thracianized over the centuries but retained their Celtic character in material culture up to a late date. According to other sources they may have been simply of Thracian origin, according to others they may have

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Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation resembled that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage. Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC.

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was discovered in Switzerland. The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As a result, these items

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that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later

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study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul. From 1000 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain, but not northern Britain. The authors see this as a

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The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent

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appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for

3512:. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (linguistically the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, see 4934:

The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in

5516:, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all". 3116:, which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia). The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in the Eastern Hallstatt region ( 5294:, even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in 3197:

cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward. More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with the Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on

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and, more generally, means "of the Celts" or "in the style of the Celts". Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions. The modern idea of a Celtic

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quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'". This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in

3338:) to western Europe. Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as both modern and Iron Age British and Irish samples cluster genetically very closely with other North Europeans, and less so with Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France. 4778:

based formally on class and kingship, although this may only have been a particular late phase of organisation in Celtic societies. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC.

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since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the

5551:(1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes. In addition to these long bladed slashing swords, spears and specialized 5530:

which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that

5088:, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. 4366:

As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion. However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the

9574:, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin" 4699:

The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanised and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay.

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Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked, "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life." According to Livy, this was also true of the Celts of Asia

4904:, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by 2286:. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures. 6054:, a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had probably only created wooden 8270: 5227:, suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times, and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks". 3227:". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that 5594:

was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world." Writing in the first century BC, Greek historians

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after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.

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eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as

3403:. As the 20th century progressed, the ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became more strongly rooted, and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were linked to the Celts and the Celtic language. 4281:, which reflects their ethnonym. They would have established themselves in this area during the Celtic migrations at the end of the 4th century BC, though there is no evidence for their existence before the 1st century BC. 6738:

Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt/La Tene central Europe – see second map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same

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2001 p 95. La lengua de los Celtas y otros pueblos indoeuropeos de la península ibérica. In Almagro-Gorbea, M., Mariné, M. and Álvarez-Sanchís, J.R. (eds) Celtas y Vettones, pp. 115–21. Ávila: Diputación Provincial de

3169:, suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples. Using a multidisciplinary approach, 3093:

from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time. The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient

9269:" The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis) 6092:, the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity, as well as some contacts with 4695:

onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government.

11792: 5757:), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity. Some deities were venerated only in one region, but others were more widely known. According to 6700:

Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440/430 BC – see third map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same

5623:, covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup. Archaeologists have found evidence that heads were embalmed and displayed by the southern Gauls. In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of 8987: 6274:. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apogee of their influence and territorial expansion during the 4th century BC, extending across the length of Europe from Britain to Asia Minor."; 2912:

are the Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly.

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in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity.

2366: 2874:, a Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. 4502:

dialect group. In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars often dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC, corresponding to archaeological evidence of

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coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the

5859:. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered). There is also some evidence that ancient Celts 3629:. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne. The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighbouring provinces 11103: 2779:, a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul. This means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin 4172:

sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.

6096:. Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed, or retained, features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity, most famously their conservative method of calculating the 3776:

group in the Upper-Douro Upper-Tagus Upper-Jalón area. Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC. In this early period, the Celtiberians inhabited in hill-forts (

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The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age (

5847:, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers. Other classes of druids performed sacrifices for the perceived benefit of the community. There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples 3788:

the only Hispano-Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement. In the late period, before the Roman Conquest, both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the

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arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic-speaking Gaul. Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the

2712:, whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain. The English words 6004:

is a parallel realm where the gods dwell. Some mythical heroes visit it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, by going under water or across the western sea, or after being offered a

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Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common

9592: 3069:, Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic". Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of 4626:), leading some scholars to question the use of the term 'Celt' for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. The first historical account of the islands was by the Greek geographer 6290:. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe."; 8007:

International Journal of Modern Anthropology Int. J. Mod. Anthrop. (2017) 10: 50–72 HLA Genes in Atlantic Celtic populations: Are Celts Iberians? Available online at: www.ata.org.tn

2939:. By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe, the 11940: 2691:, some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian 14532: 12562: 3608:

planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul. In 52 BC

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inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century.

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reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing a rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic".

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people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group.

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Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in

16502: 12633: 8159: 10780: 8232: 11958:"The multiple maternal legacy of the Late Iron Age group of Urville-Nacqueville (France, Normandy) documents a long-standing genetic contact zone in northwestern France" 13286: 8327: 4893:

There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The

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The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in the latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of

7168:: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called 6783: 5039:, which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear. 7329: 16402: 8983: 3810:

group in the central Douro valley. They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC. Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their

3780:). Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life. From the 2nd century BC, they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the 11435: 8709: 4795:, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of 16892: 9564:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC

4003:, which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early 3174: 9401: 8610: 17271: 8581: 5631:

nearby has similar carved heads and skull niches. Many lone carved heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces. Examples include the

4630:, who sailed around what he called the "Pretannikai nesoi" (the "Pretannic isles") around 310–306 BC. In general, classical writers referred to the Britons as 3120:). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite". 8292: 6072:

While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from

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Other genetic research does not support the notion of a significant genetic link between these populations, beyond the fact that they are all West Europeans.

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around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years. The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late

8633: 6429:"If, as is the first criterion of this Encyclopedia, one bases the concept of 'Celticity' on language, one can apply the term 'Celtic' to ancient Galicia", 4726:

There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the

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and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from

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Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts or speak prophecies. The

16975: 4912:. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites. 8908: 8767: 5603:

said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes.

4025:, the oldest city north of the Alps, grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the 17000: 8668: 12820: 8352: 6988: 6162:

Genetic studies on the limited amount of material available suggest continuity between Iron Age people from areas considered Celtic and the earlier

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in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea".

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of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age

16437: 12142: 7259:: D(IS) M(ANIBUS) S(ACRUM) / C(AIUS) PORCIUS SEVE/RUS MIROBRIGEN(SIS) / CELT(ICUS) ANN(ORUM) LX / H(IC) S(ITUS) E(ST) S(IT) T(IBI) T(ERRA) L(EVIS). 4076:, when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the 10553:

Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226

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Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226

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In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the

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identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts, and sometimes also among material artefacts,

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period, but the evidence is far from conclusive. Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the

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Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula as a

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Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "

8893: 6278:, p. 67. "he Celts, were Indo-Europeans, a fact that explains a certain compatibility between Celtic, Roman, and Germanic mythology."; 2498:. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to 1877: 17033: 16985: 16957: 16932: 16912: 16669: 16531: 16352: 12276: 10093: 5142:

Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians

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patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as

5126:, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less 2075:. The relation between ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world is unclear and debated; for example over the ways in which the 16995: 16942: 16877: 16102: 6381:

Encyclopedia covers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TENE periods of the later pre-Roman Iron Age to the beginning of the 21st century.

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have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the

1075: 9519: 6016:), a legendary ancestor; this echoes Caesar's comment that the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld. 16867: 16784: 16492: 15860: 12805: 11900: 9542: 7818: 3683: 3038:(c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the 12597: 12532: 10350: 9514: 3206:

was Celtic. However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified.

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that Celtic languages reached the Isles earlier, with the Bell Beaker culture c.2500 BC, or even before this. More recently, a major

9906: 16872: 16357: 16122: 15782: 10044: 5901:: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells, often in the same place over generations. Modern 5389:

of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element. Rising nationalism brought

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known in Britain) contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant

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valley. But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula. The

16274: 16019: 15037: 15027: 12861: 10440: 8957: 5357:. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the 4924: 4919:

in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic

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of eastern and southern Britain, and some Gaelic settlement of its western coast. During this time, some Britons migrated to the

3435:, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers. 2662:. He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young 2255: 12605: 8450: 4543:

emerged in the southeast. The Britons and Picts in the north, and the Gaels of Ireland, remained outside the empire. During the

4080:. La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy, the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from 15192: 15057: 15042: 15032: 12017:"Multi-scale archaeogenetic study of two French Iron Age communities: From internal social- to broad-scale population dynamics" 7995: 5369:, of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including 3733:(with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions. 12504: 7977: 4878:

was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies. In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the

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used it. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy and Galatia.

17010: 15811: 15047: 13431: 12728: 12627: 12556: 12383: 12288: 11934: 11750: 11145: 10924: 10734: 10703: 10632: 10607: 10243: 10153: 10054: 10027: 10002: 9977: 9644: 9481: 9354: 9317: 9258: 9217: 9190: 9163: 8558: 8533: 8508: 8481: 8408: 8383: 8264: 8226: 8192: 8153: 7938: 7741: 7600: 7528: 7496: 7462: 7417: 7388: 7311: 7286: 7075: 7039: 6917: 6843: 6812: 6750: 6712: 6619:

Breaking and making the ancestors. Piecing together the urnfield mortuary process in the Lower-Rhine-Basin, ca. 1300 – 400 BC

6538: 6508: 6366: 5201: 2643: 2162: 1884: 1856: 12766: 6923: 6849: 17248: 15696: 9768: 6282:, p. 150. "The Celts and Germans were two Indo-European groups whose civilizations had some common characteristics."; 6202:

are frequent. These lineages are associated with steppe ancestry. The spread of Celts into Iberia and the emergence of the

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The Romans knew the Celts then living in present-day France as Gauls. The territory of these peoples probably included the

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Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain.

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says the underlying structure in Irish myth was a dualism between the male tribal god and the female goddess of the land.

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represented the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the

3744:, the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula: the eastern part of the 15052: 10647: 7326: 5508:"manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in 4072:). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle 1841: 12869: 10814: 10071: 8090:

Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M, et al. (August 2008), "Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe",

5627:, there stood a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position. 3330:; however, recent genetics research has found that, between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA was overturned by 11419: 9096: 4939:

and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of

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group in the western Meseta, between the Tormes, Douro and Tagus Rivers. They were characterised by the production of

14515: 14328: 12760: 12586: 12473: 12457: 12373: 12359: 12271: 12257: 12243: 12224: 12205: 12186: 12021: 11883: 11868: 11853: 11730: 11351: 11071: 10863: 10658: 10292: 10123: 9799: 9571: 9410: 9254: 7358: 6448: 4548: 4399: 3427:. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical 2019: 1972: 127: 8575: 7614: 5784:—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull. There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god 4810:

The reverse side of a British bronze mirror, with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain

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Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man. 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of

1870: 634: 12890: 12501: 11767: 4638:(in Latin). Strabo, writing in Roman times, distinguished between the Celts and Britons. However, Roman historian 3070: 2140: 15114: 13507: 12917: 11913: 8645: 6356: 5648: 5313:, or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, 4382:. Thousands were employed in 283–246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow 145: 15845: 9736: 6977:, p. 144. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic 6150: 4559:) became Gaelic. By the 10th century AD, the Insular Celtic peoples had diversified into the Brittonic-speaking 8744: 8017:

Olalde, I; et al. (May 2017). "The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe".

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Vitali, Daniele (1996). "Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana: le potenzialità non-sfruttate".

6317:, p. 144. "Celts, in its modern usage, is an encompassing term referring to all Celtic-speaking peoples." 5772:

probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility (

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Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the

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In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of

4483:). The renown of insular Celts has caused a popular belief that Celtic clans only lived in the British Isles. 15571: 14498: 10495: 8858: 8401:

Consumption and Colonial Encounters in the Rhône Basin of France: A Study of Early Iron Age Political Economy

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are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.

2181: 1899: 1471: 740: 677: 478: 364: 8309:

The Celts in Iberia: An Overview – Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero (

5632: 5571: 5130:. Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier 5047:

Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland

2539:. Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer 15775: 15167: 14771: 11801: 9702: 8920: 8779: 7161: 4971: 4544: 3558: 3491: 3407: 2543:, writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both 2511: 2500: 2459: 2200: 1159: 662: 473: 468: 463: 358: 12825: 8680: 7800:"Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9" 5158:

during the 4th century BC. Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily

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from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years.

13971: 13231: 8344: 7003: 3534: 3310: 1476: 971: 672: 551: 537: 518: 12139: 7967:, No. 39 (2006); Bethany Fox, 'The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland', 5187:

lived in "an upside-down world and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman".

15470: 15307: 15303: 14542: 14417: 14022: 13991: 13371: 12720: 12058:"Origin and mobility of Iron Age Gaulish groups in present-day France revealed through archaeogenomics" 8820: 6909: 6835: 5501: 5273:

art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called

4763: 4536: 814: 772: 372: 15642: 12496: 11762: 11059: 9349:(in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 84–87. 3513: 16902: 15612: 14503: 14338: 13966: 12838: 11896: 8551:

Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France

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Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France

7886: 6601: 6175: 6058:(including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) before the Roman conquest. 5080:. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high 4854:. Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude. Slavery was hereditary, though 4460: 2822:

Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales,

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Deutschland in der Bronzezeit : Bauern, Bronzegiesser und Burgherren zwischen Nordsee und Alpen

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This article is about the ancient and medieval peoples of Europe. For Celts of the present day, see

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Casparie, Wil A.; Moloney, Aonghus (January 1994). "Neolithic wooden trackways and bog hydrology".

7380: 7278: 7063: 6736: 6698: 6440: 6395:"PUEBLOS CELTAS Y NO CELTAS DE LA GALICIA ANTIGUA: FUENTES LITERARIAS FRENTE A FUENTES EPIGRÁFICAS" 6166:

of Bronze Age Western Europe. Like the Bell Beakers, ancient Celts carried a substantial amount of

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in Europe. The majority of ancient Celtic males have been found to be carriers of this sub-lineage.

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described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers such as

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probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as

4351:, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and 3162: 2282:

tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and

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in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by

17162: 15768: 15269: 15202: 15187: 14554: 14202: 13748: 13462: 13281: 13171: 12800: 12540: 11918: 11738: 8881: 7207: 6241: 6183: 5990: 5739: 5702: 4524: 4383: 2936: 2755: 2271: 2236: 2166: 2028: 1671: 1398: 508: 503: 493: 137: 10372: 10089: 6076:

to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain, such as

5056:, lead, iron, silver and gold. Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for 15593: 15465: 15299: 15212: 15152: 15022: 14941: 14904: 13976: 13261: 13256: 12862:

Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories

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by an Otherworld resident. Irish myth says that the spirits of the dead travel to the house of

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the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display. Roman historian

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and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea".

3462:, writing in the 4th century BC, believed the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the 3331: 3323: 2220: 1661: 1633: 1417: 1319: 1085: 931: 555: 393: 285: 224: 179: 119: 111: 10695: 10568:

Gender in archaeology: analyzing power and prestige: Volume 9 of Gender and archaeology series

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began to resolve these differences, mostly by adopting the current Roman practices, which the

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of her tribe and its land. There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with

5457: 5435: 5162:, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women. 2176: 2102:

Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the

17519: 17514: 17287: 17240: 16422: 15822: 15622: 15342: 15280: 14788: 14603: 14348: 14248: 13619: 13457: 13436: 12655: 12611: 12300: 11249: 10726: 10720: 10110: 8703: 8182: 7734:

Celtic from the West Chapter 1: Celticization from the West – The Contribution of Archaeology

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P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008. "Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms: towards a classification", in

6286:, p. 42. "Celts and Germans were of course derived from the same Indo-European stock."; 5710: 5478: 5418:. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years. 5366: 5314: 5210: 4498:. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the islands' Celtic languages form an 3424: 3252: 3240: 3150: 3100: 3050: 3011: 3002: 2838:. These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are 2607: 2487: 2379: 2251: 2103: 1808: 1637: 545: 541: 526: 522: 35: 15662: 15347: 11129: 10687: 9534: 9504:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

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are believed to represent the main Celtic gods of Ireland. Their traditional rivals are the

5325:. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: 5321:. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and 5154:

reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the

4818:

A 4th century BC Celtic gold ring from southern Germany, decorated with human and rams heads

3283:

inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of

3061:, Austria. Because the burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the 2211:, though they were clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with 15726: 15647: 15458: 15453: 15207: 15182: 15147: 14931: 14803: 14537: 14187: 13584: 13502: 13311: 13236: 12668: 12619: 12548: 12409: 12313: 12075: 12034: 11975: 11926: 11805: 11164: 10406: 10342: 9854: 9347:

Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon

9038: 8099: 8047: 8018: 7964: 6199: 6195: 5890: 5828:. Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld. 5768:

The Celts seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead (

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is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age. The earliest records of a Celtic language are the

3216: 3105: 3090: 2944: 2449: 2423: 1754: 1719: 1032: 715: 667: 604: 574: 532: 512: 376: 230: 10837: 9936: 6227:, display substantial genetic continuity with the Iron Age populations of the same areas. 5373:

of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles.

5174:... a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a 900: 8: 17927: 17456: 17192: 15880: 15805: 15485: 15367: 15290: 15222: 15177: 15107: 15080: 14818: 14687: 14617: 14598: 14577: 14510: 14333: 14207: 14027: 14012: 14007: 13961: 13936: 13609: 13497: 13482: 13296: 13115: 12910: 12752: 12528: 8331: 7930: 7373: 7271: 6433: 6163: 6109: 6089: 6067: 6044: 5958:, who represents the land and bestows sovereignty on a king by marrying him. The goddess 5955: 5879: 5837: 5689: 5624: 5473: 5342: 5334: 5057: 4827: 4674: 4667: 4655: 4456: 4448: 4147: 3984: 3959: 3897: 3847: 3586: 3412: 3224: 3203: 3194: 3154: 3109: 3075: 2952: 2859: 2808: 2365: 2158: 1027: 1022: 918: 842: 807: 730: 720: 579: 280: 275: 244: 15337: 14217: 12672: 12413: 12317: 12079: 12038: 11979: 11809: 10410: 9858: 9615:

Rome and the Barbarians in Central and Eastern Europe: 1st Century B.C.–1st Century A.D.

9042: 8103: 8051: 7918: 6145: 6137: 5929: 5889:. Some Celtic peoples built temples or ritual enclosures of varying shapes (such as the 5512:. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of 4210:, Serbia) in the 3rd century BC. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a 2895: 17873: 16344: 15721: 15632: 15382: 14984: 14715: 14608: 14572: 14493: 14448: 14343: 14169: 14060: 14017: 13946: 13753: 13528: 13291: 13276: 13271: 13266: 13176: 13033: 12989: 12689: 12650: 12524: 12483: 12430: 12391: 12334: 12295: 12216: 12122: 12098: 12057: 11998: 11957: 11828: 11788:"Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history" 11787: 10422: 10310: 10261: 10169: 9910: 9888: 9875: 9840: 9059: 9026: 8125: 8068: 7899: 7559: 6097: 5965:

Some figures in medieval Insular Celtic myth have ancient continental parallels: Irish

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A Race Apart: Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75

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about 600 BC, with some objects (mostly drinking ceramic vessels) being traded up the

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Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland,

3039: 2972: 2129: 17962: 17753: 17334: 17275: 16164: 15903: 15899: 15692: 15332: 15295: 14848: 14823: 14813: 14549: 14522: 14403: 14258: 14243: 14238: 14197: 14192: 14097: 13986: 13941: 13931: 13923: 13594: 13548: 13538: 13379: 13206: 13186: 13145: 12756: 12724: 12694: 12651:"Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history" 12623: 12582: 12552: 12469: 12453: 12435: 12396: 12369: 12355: 12339: 12284: 12267: 12253: 12239: 12220: 12201: 12182: 12103: 12003: 11930: 11879: 11864: 11849: 11833: 11415: 11347: 11141: 11130: 10920: 10859: 10730: 10699: 10688: 10654: 10628: 10603: 10426: 10298: 10288: 10249: 10239: 10149: 10119: 10050: 10023: 9998: 9973: 9892: 9880: 9795: 9683: 9640: 9567: 9477: 9350: 9313: 9250: 9213: 9186: 9159: 9064: 8554: 8529: 8504: 8477: 8442: 8404: 8379: 8260: 8222: 8188: 8149: 8117: 8073: 7934: 7903: 7891: 7810: 7737: 7606: 7596: 7524: 7492: 7458: 7413: 7384: 7354: 7307: 7282: 7257:

Breve noticia sobre o santuário campestre romano de Miróbriga dos Celticos (Portugal)

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peninsula, where their culture became dominant. Meanwhile, much of northern Britain (

4504: 4158: 4091:, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC). Anciently spoken in 4088: 4049: 4000: 3996: 3965: 3909: 3717: 3661: 3166: 3095: 3086: 3035: 2968: 2940: 2741: 2654:

might be a Greek inflection. Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic

2556: 2228: 2208: 2196: 2151:. A newer theory, "Celtic from the West", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a 2114: 2107: 1747: 1713: 1705: 1649: 1643: 1625: 1596: 1575: 1561: 1553: 1323: 1184: 1124: 1106: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1004: 999: 828: 691: 340: 333: 326: 312: 298: 258: 237: 174: 166: 56: 9757:

Ball, Martin, Muller, Nicole (eds.) The Celtic Languages, Routledge, 2003, pp. 67ff.

8129: 7214:: "the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Celtici" ("Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur"). 6141: 5680: 5365:

After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially

4806: 3768:). A modern scholarly review found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain: 3474:

about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome.

3264: 17891: 17758: 17544: 16967: 16859: 16140: 15914: 15672: 15617: 15412: 15172: 14877: 14838: 14793: 14780: 14700: 14679: 14582: 14527: 14212: 14032: 13951: 13763: 13543: 13477: 13367: 13246: 13241: 13211: 13181: 13135: 13097: 12963: 12684: 12676: 12615: 12544: 12491: 12425: 12417: 12329: 12321: 12093: 12083: 12042: 11993: 11983: 11922: 11904: 11823: 11813: 11076: 10414: 10177: 9870: 9862: 9845: 9673: 9288: 9054: 9046: 8107: 8063: 8055: 7926: 7881: 7871: 6596: 6586: 6224: 6215: 6187: 5914: 5898: 5897:), though they also maintained shrines at natural sites. Celtic peoples often made 5864: 5848: 5797: 5706: 5600: 5509: 5402: 5252: 5205: 5104: 4915:

In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used

4775: 4444: 4131: 4081: 4038: 3969: 3613: 3501: 3495: 3335: 3297:

Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is

3272: 3267:. Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of 3199: 3015: 3010:

The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the

2932: 2855: 2816: 2536: 2350: 2279: 2275: 2216: 2110: 2040: 1990: 1949: 1741: 1691: 1508: 1314: 1202: 1142: 1119: 1062: 1057: 994: 981: 976: 966: 639: 252: 200: 192: 185: 88: 15237: 12601: 9811:

Cunliffe, Barry, Koch, John T. (eds.), Celtic from the West, David Brown Co., 2012

8038:

Novembre, J; et al. (November 2008), "Genes mirror geography within Europe",

7991: 5433:. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or 4037:, that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), 3597:

developed along the Mediterranean coast. The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as

3078:. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in 17763: 16279: 15707: 15667: 15475: 15428: 15391: 15311: 15263: 15258: 15162: 14920: 14858: 14798: 14761: 14733: 14695: 14660: 14640: 14423: 14413: 14398: 14285: 14092: 13956: 13719: 13574: 13533: 13523: 13362: 13301: 13221: 13216: 13201: 13196: 13109: 12873: 12789: 12746: 12710: 12664: 12446: 12309: 12146: 12133: 12115: 12047: 12016: 11988: 11745: 11734: 11066: 10953: 10887: 10097: 9207: 9119: 9082: 8954: 8644:(1). Center for Celtic Studies, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Archived from 8424: 7333: 7202: 6957: 6903: 6875: 6829: 6207: 6171: 6101: 6019:

Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the Gaels as

5986: 5925:. These were written down in the early Middle Ages, mainly by Christian scribes. 5922: 5918: 5860: 5856: 5587: 5567: 5466: 5462: 5426: 5378: 5306: 5231: 5064: 5032: 4920: 4759: 4755: 4592: 4556: 4516: 4329: 4161:

in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.

4077: 4004: 3992: 3988: 3862: 3839: 3509: 3471: 3400: 3347: 3288: 3246: 2883: 2851: 2843: 2799: 2572: 2374: 2346: 2338: 2330: 2322: 2298: 2148: 2076: 1936: 1822: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1762: 1698: 1677: 1655: 1240: 1129: 1052: 961: 894: 835: 701: 433: 418: 408: 403: 319: 291: 15538: 12593: 12296:"Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons" 5951: 5255:, a ceremonial bronze shield dated 3rd–1st century BC, is an example of La Tène 4650: 3729:

Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and

2987: The eventual area of Hallstatt influence (by 500 BC, HaD) in light yellow. 17986: 17954: 17726: 16927: 16407: 16244: 16159: 16089: 15941: 15749: 15627: 15509: 15418: 15357: 15322: 15275: 15227: 15217: 15137: 15100: 14959: 14949: 14925: 14872: 14828: 14743: 14723: 14705: 14650: 14645: 14613: 14458: 14438: 14263: 14164: 14143: 14138: 13775: 13709: 13704: 13693: 13674: 13668: 13664: 13472: 13467: 13426: 13353: 13339: 13251: 13226: 13191: 13150: 13140: 13076: 13063: 13003: 12947: 12939: 12930: 12903: 12829: 12197: 12126: 12119:

The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts: A Linguistic and Historical Study.

12088: 11908: 11793:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

11757: 11222: 11125: 9866: 9678: 9661: 8314: 6941: 6863: 6800: 6679: 6211: 6051: 5943: 5894: 5777: 5762: 5750: 5660:

has struck it off. There are also many legends in Celtic regions of saints who

5643: 5544: 5527: 5448: 5390: 5354: 5338: 5283: 5270: 5036: 4898: 4879: 4841: 4716: 4568: 4508: 4464: 4408: 4266: 4258: 4139: 3943: 3917: 3679: 3621: 3590: 3420: 3284: 3276: 3260: 3184: 3019: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2666:, it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of 2603: 2526: 2506: 2342: 2334: 2326: 2314: 2306: 2056: 1931: 1567: 1434: 1309: 867: 821: 789: 725: 216: 31: 15557: 15542: 11080: 10253: 8112: 7973: 7876: 7859: 6591: 6574: 4850:, as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented 3934: 2673:

Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland

2602:), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the 17980: 17147: 16541: 16329: 15731: 15711: 15588: 15497: 15423: 15285: 14756: 14728: 14635: 14627: 14369: 14321: 14107: 14055: 13784: 13724: 13714: 13614: 13589: 13375: 12866: 11436:"'It's upset a lot of people': outrage after tidy-up of Scottish sacred well" 10810: 10075: 9687: 9523:. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 647–648. 9510: 9505: 7895: 7814: 7156: 6905:

One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups

6831:

One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups

6077: 6005: 5793: 5665: 5374: 5346: 5330: 5247: 5108:

Reconstruction of the dress and equipment of an Iron Age Celtic warrior from

4800: 4751: 4727: 4708: 4684: 4576: 4434: 4184:

A map of Celtic invasions and migrations in the Balkans in the 3rd century BC

4061: 4053: 4026: 3609: 3598: 3553: 3549: 3487: 3396: 3189: 2926: 2863: 2658:("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for 2518: 2495: 2419: 2354: 2153: 1827: 1291: 1207: 924: 782: 644: 398: 15525: 12857:

An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD.

12815: 12421: 11818: 10302: 7974:"Fox—The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland" 7610: 7126:

McCone, Kim (2013). "The Celts: questions of nomenclature and identity", in

4111:, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day 4045:

expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe.

3792:

were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula (e.g. Celtic Baeturia).

2494:

is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of

614: 17958: 17932: 17408: 17152: 17120: 16952: 16467: 16387: 16179: 16014: 15816: 15715: 15657: 15405: 15352: 15074: 14867: 14655: 14179: 14133: 14072: 13981: 13758: 13736: 13729: 13166: 13091: 13081: 13013: 12706: 12698: 12487: 12439: 12343: 12107: 12007: 11837: 11492: 11465: 11407: 11319: 11098: 11029: 10233: 9884: 9292: 9068: 8121: 8077: 7686: 7452:

Cultural identity and archaeology: the construction of European communities

7409: 6961: 6949: 6883: 6871: 6352: 6203: 5902: 5875: 5833: 5661: 5653: 5636: 5628: 5540: 5452: 5430: 5406: 5386: 5287: 4814: 4720: 4588: 4560: 4394: 4169: 3811: 3789: 3773: 3749: 3669: 3578: 3395:"Culture Groups" could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was held by 3228: 3180: 3146: 2709: 2561: 2310: 2294: 2267: 2247: 2087: 2048: 1446: 1284: 758: 629: 428: 423: 413: 17709: 15565: 15534: 15501: 15157: 13358: 11727: 11169:

Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions

11094:"The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows" 9907:"Ancient DNA study reveals large scale migrations into Bronze Age Britain" 9345:

Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004).

9027:"The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe" 6989:"Mythologizing Identity and History: a look at the Celtic past of Galicia" 5382: 4997:

During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or

3861:. This area was romanised late, as it was not conquered by Rome until the 3818: 2981: The core Hallstatt territory (HaC, 800 BC) is shown in solid yellow. 17804: 17738: 17451: 17364: 17058: 16392: 16234: 16154: 16136: 16074: 16054: 15828: 15515: 15505: 15445: 15317: 14989: 14974: 14375: 14294: 14102: 14087: 14077: 14050: 13876: 13829: 13741: 13487: 13104: 13008: 12895: 12856: 12833: 12794: 12520: 11540: 11538: 10650:

Volume IX Books 71–80, Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator (1927),

10282: 10206: 9841:"Large-scale migration into Britain during the Middle to Late Bronze Age" 9566:

by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond,

7595:. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053. 7590: 6953: 6879: 6246: 6223:

Modern populations of Western Europe, particularly those who still speak

5773: 5646:

is a motif in Irish myth and Arthurian legend, most famously in the tale

5583: 5532: 5350: 5326: 5310: 5274: 5175: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5127: 5123: 5093: 5048: 4883: 4855: 4600: 4596: 4480: 4092: 3443: 3128: 3079: 3054: 2999: The eventual area of La Tène influence (by 250 BC) in light green. 2899: 2827: 2765: 2302: 2259: 1422: 1408: 1372: 1080: 76: 13644: 13410: 12680: 12325: 11591: 11525: 11523: 11229:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 275–277, 286, 291–296. 9794:

Koch, J.T., (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO,

9050: 8059: 7807:

Palaeohispánica: Revista Sobre Lenguas y Culturas de la Hispania Antigua

6394: 5715: 5150:

mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.

4523:

Like many Celtic peoples on the mainland, the Insular Celts followed an

3363:

Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Altburg near

2993: The core territory of the La Tène culture (450 BC) in solid green. 2266:. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the 609: 17826: 17677: 17667: 17657: 17564: 17559: 17461: 17349: 17329: 17202: 17115: 17038: 16749: 16619: 16609: 16589: 16584: 16579: 16559: 16549: 16525: 16482: 16462: 16362: 16334: 16249: 16184: 16148: 16144: 16097: 16079: 16059: 15974: 15834: 15197: 14912: 14900: 14353: 14317: 14117: 14082: 14042: 13634: 13396: 13387: 12843: 12392:"The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years" 12071: 10418: 8317:, Volume 6: 167–254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, 1 February 2005 6081: 6055: 5868: 5863:, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by 5829: 5724: 5596: 5591: 5264: 5256: 4712: 4704: 4584: 4360: 4203: 4073: 3479: 3459: 3364: 3334:

in a migration that brought large amounts of Steppe DNA (including the

3316: 3268: 3202:, the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the 3158: 3153:

argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the

3043: 3023: 2922: 2099: 1385: 1299: 1177: 942: 12211:

Kruta, Venceslas, Otto Hermann Frey, Barry Raftery and M. Szabo. eds.

11535: 10877:

Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World

6133: 5425:

wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the

5084:, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of 4770:

To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian

4715:. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a 4642:

says the Britons resembled the Celts of Gaul in customs and religion.

4606:

Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland

4286:

become of mixed Thraco-Celtic origin. Further south, Celts settled in

4123:, which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula. 3950: 3498:

wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history.

3419:

break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from

3132:

A map of Europe in the Bronze Age, showing the Atlantic network in red

3027: 2203:

are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names.

17922: 17853: 17843: 17833: 17770: 17743: 17699: 17619: 17426: 17374: 17369: 17359: 17344: 17324: 17217: 17110: 17068: 17043: 17023: 16980: 16882: 16849: 16844: 16809: 16799: 16754: 16739: 16734: 16729: 16719: 16694: 16679: 16664: 16659: 16654: 16649: 16639: 16634: 16629: 16624: 16569: 16521: 16477: 16412: 16304: 16289: 16209: 16204: 15994: 15989: 15969: 15959: 15924: 15652: 15561: 15493: 15398: 15232: 14312: 13419: 11520: 10115: 9728: 9247:

La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza

7860:"An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'" 7147:, J. L. García Alonso (ed.), 101–18. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca. 6945: 6887: 6575:"An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'" 6179: 5947: 5933: 5852: 5805: 5743: 5685: 5608: 5513: 5302:) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head. 5295: 5216: 5191: 5155: 5135: 5109: 5089: 4936: 4909: 4859: 4783: 4659: 4621: 4531:. Some of the southern British tribes had strong links with Gaul and 4398:

Britain & Ireland in the early–mid 1st millennium AD, before the

4379: 4314: 4219: 4199: 4116: 4065: 4030: 4022: 3930:

by the Danube, Germany, c. 600 BC, the oldest city north of the Alps.

3927: 3922: 3761: 3699: 3695: 3634: 3570: 3508:

both suggest that the heartland of the people they call Celts was in

3448: 3327: 3145:), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. 3066: 3058: 2891: 2680: 2631: 2614: 2584: 2580: 2453: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2411: 2232: 2212: 2185: 2125: 1588: 1365: 1357: 1350: 1343: 1329: 1197: 15327: 13624: 13325: 6617: 4332:, Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement. 3223:

whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in the

2659: 17966: 17896: 17821: 17714: 17694: 17689: 17634: 17604: 17594: 17534: 17484: 17476: 17431: 17389: 17384: 17379: 17339: 17319: 17311: 17301: 17296: 17283: 17197: 17167: 17157: 17092: 17087: 17076: 17063: 17053: 16990: 16917: 16887: 16839: 16829: 16824: 16819: 16814: 16779: 16769: 16724: 16684: 16614: 16594: 16574: 16554: 16512: 16507: 16497: 16487: 16472: 16367: 16319: 16299: 16254: 16229: 16224: 16219: 16199: 16174: 16117: 16004: 15999: 15979: 15964: 15954: 14969: 14433: 13886: 13841: 13805: 13793: 13639: 13599: 13414: 13406: 13401: 13383: 13306: 13043: 13038: 13023: 12062: 12030: 11962: 11550: 11241: 10840:[Home] (in French). Site archéologique de Tintignac-Naves. 10496:"The Gallic Wars: How Julius Caesar Conquered Gaul (Modern France)" 10287:. S. A. Handford, Jane F. Gardner. London. pp. Section 3: 33. 10145: 9941: 9344: 8023: 6182:

and the early Bronze Age and associated with the initial spread of

6084:

in Scotland, Anglo-Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe (see

6024: 6020: 5994: 5978: 5954:

his consort, each of whom had other names. One common motif is the

5825: 5789: 5769: 5720: 5523: 5370: 5279: 5151: 4901: 4823: 4799:, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of 4796: 4771: 4692: 4580: 4572: 4552: 4495: 4492: 4488: 4352: 4295: 4291: 4278: 4207: 4198:

river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the

4135: 4057: 3913: 3886: 3878: 3858: 3843: 3827: 3796: 3765: 3757: 3741: 3730: 3725: 3707: 3691: 3673: 3638: 3605: 3467: 3382: 3298: 3256: 3138: 3113: 3031: 2963: 2887: 2875: 2831: 2823: 2812: 2427: 2283: 2052: 2036: 1531: 1522: 1413: 1214: 1189: 1093: 584: 160: 47:

Distribution of Celtic peoples over time, in the traditional view:

15519: 15362: 13654: 12236:

The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400–1200 AD.

8500:

Roman Gaul (Routledge Revivals): The Three Provinces, 58 BC-AD 260

6190:. Examined individuals overwhelmingly carry types of the paternal 5421:

French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by

4180: 3656: 3574: 3357: 2043:

and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included the

43: 17946: 17906: 17901: 17838: 17809: 17780: 17775: 17748: 17704: 17684: 17662: 17614: 17599: 17589: 17584: 17539: 17524: 17504: 17494: 17446: 17441: 17436: 17416: 17354: 17177: 17102: 17072: 17018: 16947: 16834: 16804: 16794: 16789: 16764: 16744: 16714: 16709: 16704: 16699: 16689: 16674: 16604: 16442: 16427: 16377: 16324: 16309: 16294: 16284: 16264: 16259: 16239: 16214: 16169: 16132: 16127: 16112: 16069: 16064: 16044: 16034: 16024: 15984: 15949: 15895: 15890: 15885: 14979: 14954: 14833: 14808: 14443: 14408: 14381: 14308: 14290: 13881: 13817: 13441: 13071: 13048: 11510: 11508: 11506: 8425:"Gallia Comata | Gaul, Celtic Tribes, Julius Caesar | Britannica" 8330:. Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography, 6937: 6867: 6214:

ancestry in Iberia, and may be connected to the expansion of the

6028: 5974: 5886: 5817: 5813: 5781: 5552: 5536: 5415: 5147: 5003: 4916: 4847: 4639: 4627: 4532: 4511:

in what is now England. Cunliffe and Koch propose in their newer

4348: 4344: 4340: 4322: 4299: 4246: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4165: 4151: 3882: 3854: 3753: 3703: 3645: 3630: 3582: 3455: 3117: 2871: 2804: 2692: 2647: 2567: 2510:. Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist 2318: 2189: 1581: 1545: 1538: 1336: 956: 589: 12366:

In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.

11690: 9820:

Cunliffe, Barry, Facing the Ocean, Oxford University Press, 2004

9234:Überlingen: Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt, 8984:"Celtic City: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg" 8403:. Monographies d'Archéologie Meditérranéenne, 21, CNRS, France. 7775:. 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula: 167–254. Archived from 7560:"Celtic language Branch - Origins & Classification - MustGo" 5962:

was linked with nature as well as poetry, healing and smithing.

3644:

Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that

3112:

shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the

2751: 2227:

literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from

2082: 17950: 17883: 17848: 17814: 17731: 17672: 17639: 17629: 17624: 17579: 17569: 17554: 17549: 17529: 17509: 17489: 17207: 17182: 17172: 17125: 17048: 16937: 16774: 16759: 16599: 16564: 16517: 16457: 16447: 16417: 16397: 16314: 16269: 16194: 16189: 16039: 16029: 15548: 15530: 14964: 14751: 14533:

Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles

14453: 14428: 14392: 14386: 14299: 14222: 14148: 14067: 13569: 13053: 12998: 11678: 11608: 11606: 10940: 10781:"History of the Law in Ireland | The Courts Service of Ireland" 10238:(2nd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. pp. 49, 192, 200. 6032: 5982: 5959: 5882: 5821: 5765:, believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit. 5657: 5604: 5497: 5485: 5410: 5358: 5068: 5024: 5020: 4840:

of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of

4836: 4731: 4663: 4356: 4318: 4287: 4242: 4195: 4112: 4104: 3869: 3807: 3505: 3483: 3142: 3062: 2776: 2760: 2540: 2170: 2032: 1304: 1258: 777: 594: 17270: 11618: 11581: 11579: 11577: 11503: 9236:

Oberbadische Verlag, Singen, 1949, pp. 11–17, specifically 15.

5843:

Celtic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as

5738:

Like other European Iron Age societies, the Celts practised a

5664:. In Irish myth, the severed heads of warriors are called the 4142:) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as 3946:, helping press its previous Celts further south and southeast 3612:

led a revolt against Roman occupation but was defeated at the

2695:

says the Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion.

2642:) most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who 17719: 17609: 17574: 17499: 17466: 17421: 17212: 17082: 16644: 16107: 16009: 15919: 15870: 15791: 15553: 15253: 15123: 13853: 13659: 13604: 13492: 13086: 13028: 13018: 11562: 11136:. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 10459:

Beatrice Cauuet (Université Toulouse Le Mirail, UTAH, France)

8971:

Tartessian: Celtic From the South-west at the Dawn of History

5844: 5809: 5801: 5785: 5669: 5422: 5179: 5085: 5016: 5012: 4998: 4940: 4894: 4792: 4735: 4614: 4564: 4528: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4463:

in the 1st century AD, the Insular Celts were made up of the

4426: 4417: 4375: 4274: 4238: 4215: 4143: 4120: 4096: 3737: 3625:

formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of

3543: 3463: 3432: 2879: 2792:

in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region.

2764:, "foreigner, Roman, Celt", whence the English word 'Welsh' ( 2674: 2522: 2403: 2370: 2349:

are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while

2290: 2240: 2165:

in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as

2064: 2060: 2044: 1926: 1403: 1277: 1253: 624: 599: 99: Areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today 12885: 11702: 11666: 11654: 11603: 11060:

Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France

10585:. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. pp. 1.89–275. 7340:, Denis Staunton, October 20, 2015, accessed April 17, 2023. 7114:. 5 vols. 2006. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, p. 371. 3954:

Peoples of Cisalpine Gaul during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC

3724:

cultures. However, since according to the definition of the

2329:

in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as

2195:

The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the

17961:. The Madeira and Azores islands were unoccupied until the 17028: 16452: 16049: 15865: 14112: 13649: 13629: 13564: 13392: 11971: 11630: 11574: 11289: 11287: 11285: 10798: 9662:"Re-approaching Celts: Origins, Society, and Social Change" 8943:

Aproximação à identidade etno-cultural dos Callaici Bracari

7546:

The Celts with an introductory chapter by J.X.W.P. Corcoran

6009: 5970: 5966: 5616: 5612: 5575: 5489: 5299: 5028: 5008: 4944: 4905: 4688: 4336: 4100: 3823: 3428: 3381:

Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in

3220: 3215:

it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the

2728:(first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French 2435: 2068: 1999: 1955: 1795: 9585:"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SE´RDICA" 8634:"Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times" 8037: 6186:. This ancestry was particularly prevalent among Celts of 5122:

Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on

11756: 10690:

Land of Women: Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland

7767:

Lorrio and Ruiz Zapatero, Alberto J. and Gonzalo (2005).

6326: 6287: 6080:. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of 5073: 5053: 5027:

were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the

4886:

were discouraged by law and the word for "female slave",

3589:

in 124–123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the

3562:

described the 1st-century BC descendants of those Gauls.

2008: 15760: 15092: 12179:

The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People Or Modern Invention?

11282: 9185:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 363–. 7766: 5526:(2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a 4830:, drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 2490:. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that 2467: 12579:

Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.

11346:. Translated by Myles Dillon, Turtle Island Foundation 11342:(originally published in French, 1940, reissued 1982). 10912: 10595: 10396: 8328:

Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art"

8145:

Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia

6866:

are related to the other Celtic peoples of Europe, the

6477:

The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People or Modern Invention

6298: 6296: 5832:

is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of

4138:

and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as

3999:

had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The

3326:

did settle Britain (and all of Northern Europe) in the

2555:

as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in

12891:

XIII. International Congress of Celtic Studies in Bonn

11956:

Fischer, Claire-Elise; et al. (6 December 2018).

11217: 11215: 11213: 5484:

The Celts were described by classical writers such as

4363:'s mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin. 2908:

are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and

13845: 12174:. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1993. 3rd edn. 2005. 12151: