1768:, a prominent campaigner for women's rights and a believer that the Raj authorities were not getting to grips with Indian social issues, used figures from the 1931 census to support her misguided claim that such marriages were not in decline and that the act had caused a significant spike in the numbers. She claimed that there had been a 50 percent increase in wives under the age of 15 and a quadrupling of wives under 5 years old since 1921, and that the lives of women were being blighted. She thought Indians incapable of helping themselves and in need of firmer instruction from British authorities, who should enforce change, rather than merely encourage it. In turn, debates such as those, based on untrustworthy information, informed opinions about
33:
1744:...by far the least structured census ever conducted in the subcontinent and a printer's nightmare, since rather than fit the population into pre-determined categories census takers asked relatively open-ended questions about religious beliefs and occupations. The result was a proliferation of columns concerning occupations in particular. Individuals appeared as 'con-man', 'pimp', 'prostitute', 'idiot' and 'thief', or however else they might appear or describe themselves. Worse still, castes and tribes were listed as to whether they were 'animist', Christian, Hindu or Mohammedan, with little structure or system beyond the self-representation of the respondents.
259:
160:
176:
government machine or from interest groups that seek recognition and self-advantage. The questions and available responses, as well as the statistical and logistical methods, change over time, and the same can be true of geographical boundaries and of population identities, such as race and nationalities. However, as well as being an administrative tool, a series of censuses can act as a coalescent of the population or at least of parts of it, causing various groups within the whole to form identities in space and over time. The ability of people to classify themselves can both reinforce and create classifications with which they identify.
1740:, which had suffered a famine that was estimated to have caused the deaths of around a third of its three million people but whose numbers within five years exceeded the pre-famine total. The information provided for religion was described as "not altogether reliable, the Hindoos being probably over-estimated, the Mahomedans under-rated, and with the exceptions of the Christians, the Jews, and the Parsees, the remainder being more or less conjectural". The figures for caste and nationality were also described as "for the most part conjectural". The 1872 census was, in the opinion of Crispin Bates,
1852:
enumerators were happy to be rewarded with a certificate acknowledging their good work and that the village officials "whose services are fortunately made available for three days or so by the simple expedient of decreeing a public holiday for the census, and turning every official thus set at liberty on to a block as near as possible to his ordinary residence. There is thus comparatively little need of outside agents, and such as are wanted can be got, on payment of out-of-pocket expenses, for the distinction of flourishing round with pen and ink and two or three torch bearers and attendants".
572:
occupations of women, the inheritance of property and the maintenance of widows, even diet, to name a few obvious cases, vary according to the caste and the religious community of the individual. The time will no doubt come when occupation will serve the purpose at present served by religion and caste in presenting demographic data, but that time is not yet, and at the present moment their barriers have not so far decayed that their social importance can be ignored for public purposes.
1727:"suddenly found that he had unconsciously been the ruler of an additional population more than equal to that of the whole of England and Wales". Proposed benefits such as improvements in public health and targeted famine relief, but they were often not realised in those particular instances because the poor data relating to age (mortality rates, as an example) prevented the sort of mapping of the population that over time was improving the well-being of the British populace.
645:
700:
635:
323:, who was Census Commissioner in 1931, stated that "tribe was provided to cover the many communities still organised on the basis in whose case the tribe has not become a caste; it was likewise determinate enough, and no attempt was made to define the term race which was generally used so loosely as almost to defy any definition". That assumptions such as immutability were inadequate was acknowledged, for example, by the 1911 Commissioner,
665:
1678:
was common in
Britain and other Western countries. The nature of time had a different meaning to the people of India, who considered age to be a bureaucratic device and were more concerned with practical measures of time, such as the demarcations of natural disasters, a tendency to measure life by harvests and the cultural impact of puberty that starkly differentiated adults from children. Other cultural influences included the
685:
283:... such accounts risk overstating the capacity of British census officials to control their subjects through the mere act of counting them. If age, seemingly one of the most straight-forward features of the census, posed the serious difficulties of biased reports and independent verification, concepts like "objectification" are of especially dubious value in more controversial categories like caste and ethnicity.
1789:
675:
151:
obtuse". Objections based on various rumours that the censuses were intended to introduce new taxes, aid military or labour recruitment, assist in conversions to
Christianity or force migration were not uncommon, at least in the early decades. There were also incidents of violence although they tended to occur in places where tensions between native people and the British were already high.
655:
300:. The reliance on elites formed part of a colonial strategy to create attachment to a national identity in an arbitrarily-defined highly-disparate whole. The Raj aimed to gain favour with the elites, whose position would then lead to the idea of Indian nationhood percolating through the remainder of society. However, even the concept of Brahmanic elites is tricky:
625:
337:
aspirational people to seek advancement and caused the evolution, sometimes almost overnight, of completely-new social identities that often adopted the honorific titles of perceived superior groups such as
Brahmins and Rajputs as part of their name. Caste associations were formed to establish the authenticity of such claims, often by
271:, reject that idea, which Gupta considers to imply that Indians had "no identity worth the name" prior to the colonial period, but he acknowledges that the Raj had a significant role in how caste is now practised. Timothy Alborn is somewhat more sceptical, but his primary concern is to refute studies based on the theories of
1695:
misunderstanding, with the populace often being unconvinced that the submitted data was not used at a personal level but was rather aggregated for analysis. Those issues could not easily be corrected because there were also significant variances caused by periodic outbreaks of famine and diseases such as
266:
Caste and religion still form the most significant social constructs in India and the former, in particular, has been influenced by the Raj census efforts. Although there were certainly some enumerations of caste prior to the arrival of the
British, some modern academics, such as Cohn and Dirks, have
124:
authorities concluded the first "all-India census". However, S. C. Srivastava noted that it did not in fact cover all of the country and that it was asynchronous by being conducted between 1867 and 1872 after an initial 1856 decision to introduce decennial enumerations from 1861 had been disrupted by
1712:
The response of actuaries to the challenge of inadequate Indian age returns between the
Bengali census of 1871 and the final British-administered all-India census of 1931 was not very different from the recent critical work of historians and demographers about such unstable census-data categories as
384:
appeared out of nowhere and were created as official categories for what had been geographically-disparate differently-named communities that happened to share traditional occupations, respectively as dairymen/grazers and craft artisans such as goldsmiths and carpenters. The Yadavs were also another
2107:
companies. Among the many statistical oddities was the population's liking for certain numbers; in 1911, 56 percent of respondents were found to have ages ending in 0, 2 or 5. The correlation of registration records to census data also revealed improbabilities, with discrepancies suggesting that 60
1682:
and a tendency among
Brahmins to understate the age of unmarried late-teenage daughters because for them not to have been married by that time implied a dereliction of parental and religious duty, which would consign the parents to a torrid period between death and reincarnation. Also, Indians were
1677:
As with caste, recording age in the census amounted to a problematic attempt to impose
Western values on the population. Most people in British India did not know their age anyway, and the few who did, mostly Brahmins, were often reluctant to divulge the information with the degree of accuracy that
150:
people objecting on the grounds of superstition and
Burmese people on the grounds of artistry. Enumerators also faced dangerous situations, including instances of being attacked by tigers. According to the 1891 Census Commissioner, the respondents were almost all illiterate and often "unwilling and
1686:
In parallel with the introduction of censuses, the campaign to end infanticide led to the first formal attempts to register births, marriages and deaths. Legislation for that purpose was enacted between 1866 and 1872, but the system was underresourced and reliant on village officials. Although the
413:
and ancient texts. It also did not apply throughout the country. Furthermore, as
Ibbetson and others in the Punjab realised after 1872, the Brahmanic system had no practical purpose from an administrative point of view. In 1881, Punjab abandoned the primary categorisation by varna that was used in
51:
which was conducted periodically from 1865 to 1941. The censuses were primarily concerned with administration and faced numerous problems in their design and conduct ranging from the absence of house numbering in hamlets to cultural objections on various grounds to dangers posed by wild animals to
601:
were known to follow both Hindu and Muslim rituals and caused the census to classify them as socially Hindus but Muslim by faith. The Raj had also introduced constitutional changes that gave certain groups political representation. That led to events such as that in the 1931 census. According to
1851:
Clerical labour was cheap in India anyway, but the relatively-low costs of physically visiting and enumerating the population, relative to other countries and to the costs of tabulating the results, may have been in part from vanity. Writing in 1900, Baines stated that outside the major cities,
295:
were recorded as castes and as tribes, but the category of tribe was not formally adopted until the 1901 census. The recorded details changed in every census from 1872 to 1941 and the administrators struggled to comprehend Indian culture. They relied heavily on elitist strictures through their
192:
have argued that the censuses of the Raj period significantly influenced the social and spatial demarcations within India that exist today. The use of enumerative mechanisms such as the census, which were intended to bolster the colonial presence, may indeed have sown the seeds that grew to be
571:
It is not in its devotional aspect that the census is concerned with religion.... ocial conduct is much influenced by practices which may not be in themselves religious but which are subject to religious sanctions. The age of marriage, the practice of remarriage, the observance of purdah, the
336:
Hutton was observing the effects of a popular belief that the purpose of the census was to define the relative position of people in society. Therefore, respondents would often claim to be of a socially-superior community to that which they actually were. That misconception gave an outlet for
197:... classifications of convenience for government officials transformed into contested identities for the Indian public as the census went from an enumerative exercise of the British government to an authoritative representation of the social body and a vital tool of indigenous interests.
1735:
stated that the 1872 census "must be regarded more as a creditable, and in the main successful attempt to deal with an exceptionally difficult subject, than as a complete or reliable statement of a class of facts". Among the problems, which were noted as "surely... some grave error", was the
175:
of a population and it is inherently constrained. For example, the questions required non-overlapping responses, and both the questions and the lists of response options were guided by preconceptions resulting from political desires or needs. The political forces may emanate from within the
2080:
Baines noted in 1900 that in some "high class" households, "domestic privacy is a matter of social honour". He also noted that some suspicion regarding age recording existed in some
European countries, where it was felt that the detail might be used for the purpose of determining military
1748:
That caste should not be treated as a fixed designation is now commonly recognised since new groups come and go, and there are movements between groups. Bhagat describes them as "fluid, fuzzy and dynamic historically" and gives as an example the emergence in the early 20th century of the
61:
from the value system and the societies of the West were highlighted by the inclusion of "caste", "religion", "profession" and "age" in the data to be collected, as the collection and analysis of that information had a considerable impact on the structure and politics of Indian society.
1694:
The problems of registration, age irrelevance and ignorance were known to the census authorities, whose officials produced tables that demonstrated statistically-implausible spikes and age distributions from the 1880s onward. They came to recognise that the issues were exacerbated by a
1703:, as well as the very imperfect system of registering life events. Attempts at correction were made, but the figures remained unreliable throughout the Raj period, and perhaps worse, the attempts to correct them in the official reports were not always based on sound methodology.
222:
Administrative needs were indeed a necessity, and the imperative increased with a recognition that the 1857 Rebellion had been a significant challenge to Britain's presence in India. The shock of that caused the end of the Company Rule and also caused influential members of the
2055:
1891 census: Includes all "Unitarians" (5 persons), "Theists" (47 persons), "Deists" (12 persons), "Atheists" (27 persons), "Freethinkers" (5 persons), "Agnostics" (69 persons), "Positivists" (2 persons), "No religion" (18 persons), and "Religion not Returned" (42,578 persons)
217:
Our ignorance of the customs and beliefs of the people among whom we dwell is surely in some respects a reproach to us; for not only does that ignorance deprive European science of material which it greatly needs, but it also involves a distinct loss of administrative power to
1776:
and that "educated Indian women were working in every province of their country to eradicate social evils and outmoded customs and prejudices, and we refused to accept the assertion that the removal of social evils in Indian society was the responsibility of the British".
2112:
suggested that the population had risen by 1.1 million, but the birth and death records indicated a fall of 217,469. The difference could not be attributed to migration. In 1931, there was an inexplicable difference of 4.6 million births between census and registration
421:, the Commissioner in 1881, designated categories of Brahmans, Rajputs, Castes of Good Social Position, Inferior Castes and Non-Hindus or Aboriginal Castes; in 1921, the category of "depressed classes" was used; and in 1931 the nomenclature became "exterior classes".
1722:
The outcomes of the census exercise were sometimes startling. For example, the 1872 census in Bengal suggested that the population was considerably greater than had been believed. A supervisor there noted that it "rose in one day from 42 to 67 millions" and that the
606:
Feeling ran so high over the return of religion in the Punjab that some exterior castes, asked by one party to register as Hindus, by others as Sikhs, and even as Moslems, declared themselves Ad Dharmi or "adherents of the original religion," whatever that may
345:, and they presented what Frank Conlon has described as a "deluge" of petitions for official recognition to the census authorities. Through such recognition, they thought that they could later make political and economic gains even though, as with the
408:
The 1872 and 1881 censuses attempted to classify people fundamentally according to the Varna mentioned in ancient texts. The broad caste basing proved not to reflect the realities of social relationships, but it was met with approval from scholars of
331:
a caste which had applied in one province to be called Brahman (priestly caste) asked in another to be called Rajput (warrior caste) and there are several instances at this census of castes claiming to be Brahman who claimed to be Rajputs ten years
1707:
is among those who have been criticised for allegedly failing to appreciate the underlying statistical problems in the published data. Noting that some of the officials queried even trying to impose the age category, Alborn noted:
183:
and cultures, ethnicities and religions, many of which have evolved over several millennia. The 1931 census enumerated nearly 20 percent of the world's population, spread over 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km);
576:
Despite the general ruling that caste was restricted to Hindus, which was later modified to include Jains, there were over 300 recorded Christian castes, and more than 500 castes were Muslim. The definition of Hindu,
396:
Linguistic differences also presented difficulties, with different spellings and pronunciations for similar castes and administrative attempts to create language-based caste categories that had not been known.
1841:
Perfect synchronicity was not achievable because of issues such as terrain and climate. For example, the 1931 census in Burma took place two days before the exercise was carried out in much of the rest of the
372:, which was commonly used as a generic description for all low-caste people, was mistakenly used as a specific caste name by the authorities. That caused much resentment and attempts to achieve recognition as
1764:(Sarda Act) of 1929. The legislation had been supported by the 1931 Census Commissioner, Hutton, who had noticed a declining trend in the custom of child marriages and saw the act as encouraging the decline.
1687:
registration processes improved over the years, they were significantly disrupted at times, notably when officials were preoccupied in dealing with famines and, from the 1920s onward, by the actions of the
125:
the 1857 Rebellion. The first synchronous decennial census was conducted in 1881 and has continued thus since, but the 1941 exercise was severely curtailed and very little of its data was published due to
56:
called the census exercise "more telling of the administrative needs of the British than of the social reality for the people of British India". The differences in the nature of Indian society during the
250:
stating, "Risley's anthropology worked not so much to retard nationalism as to render it communal. In so doing, it also left a bloody legacy for South Asia that continues to exact a mounting toll".
116:
is sometimes referred to as the first proper census in India. By 1872, the only administrative area of British India in which there had not been an attempt to conduct a regionwide enumeration was
2135:
The Sarda Act imposed penalties for marriage of girls under the age of 14 and boys under the age of 18. It led to incorrect data being supplied regarding age and marriage status in areas such as
349:(whose claim to Brahmin status itself is contested), their associations might comprise very disparate socioeconomic groups. Frequently, the enumerators just took what people claimed for granted.
1713:"occupation" or "race." As much as possible, they made do with what they had, all the while preaching caution about the shaky empirical foundation on which their charts and graphs were built.
2166:
that might result in large temporary movements. Temporary economic migration (nomadic groups, seasonal harvesting, people working on construction projects and suchlike) certainly took place.
74:(of a much smaller population) had been in 1801, repeated every ten years thereafter, and this provided the pattern for the Indian process, although this threw up many different problems.
581:
and Jain religious beliefs was always blurred, and even the Christian and Muslim believers could cause difficulties with classification although they were usually more easily defined.
1772:
and the role of Britain generally in the country. Rathbone herself was confronted by Rama Rau, an Indian feminist, who said that the British were simply not well-placed to understand
179:
While the above is true of all population censuses, the nature of society in British India posed particular problems. Even the geographically-smaller post-Partition India contains a
1887:, is very different from that of northern India.. The 1931 census recorded 50 million such people as "depressed classes", representing 14 percent of the population recorded.
414:
other British Indian jurisdictions in that year and preferred instead to assign more weight to the category of occupation. In 1891, the other jurisdictions followed suit.
231:, to think that if further discontent was to be avoided, a better understanding of the colonial subjects was needed. The censuses formed one aspect of a wider series of
3112:
2634:
1683:
not very good at estimating the age of others, which made it difficult for census enumerators to assess or to correct the information with which they were supplied.
3728:
Harris, Richard; Lewis, Robert (2013). "Colonial Anxiety Counted: Plague and Census in Bombay and Calcutta, 1901". In Peckham, Robert; Pomfret, David M. (eds.).
129:. The 1931 census is often considered be the last British-administered census. The report of the 1881 census comprised three volumes; that of 1931 comprised 28.
1861:
Literacy rates were poor. Despite improvements in education by 1931, it was calculated then that 9.5 percent of the population could read and write a postcard.
327:, who commented on the demonstrably obvious processes of fusion and fission in social groups that gave rise to new group identities. Similarly, Hutton noted:
2162:, tended to limit its effects, but it was important to try to arrange the date of the census so that it minimised clashes with major religious festivals and
17:
185:
368:
paradigm on the census caste categories. The census administrators themselves also created caste communities in which none existed previously. In Bengal,
2090:
In one recorded instance, native census enumerators used figures varying between 16 and 60 when they were asked to estimate the age of a specific person.
3928:
2126:, between the censuses of 1871 and that of 1921, detailed caste-based occupation data were mentioned to estimate the impact of famines on lower castes.
427:
The first census results came in 1872. During the 1941 census, it was decided to merge the different caste groups under a single monolithic category β
240:
146:
Those tasked with gathering the data faced various unusual situations. Matters of culture affected even simple processes such as house numbering, with
2108:
percent or more of life events were going unrecorded, causing one actuary in 1911 to remark that system was "practically useless". The 1911 census in
120:. The various limited exercises conducted prior to 1869 have been described as "fragmentary, hardly systematic and lack any uniformity". In 1872, the
296:
interpretation of regional literature and on the advice of Brahmins, who subscribed to a traditional but impractical ritual ranking system, known as
143:, responsibility for census operations lay with temporary administrative structures, which were established for each census and then dismantled.
1760:
Despite its variability, the published information relating to age caused significant angst among social reformers, notably in relation to the
3755:
287:
From the outset in 1872, there was never a formal definition of the census categories for caste, race or tribe. For example, in 1891, the
3956:
267:
argued that the British, through their census and other works, effectively created the caste system as it exists today. Others, such as
405:
had recorded 179 languages and 544 dialects, while the 1931 census, which covered a somewhat more extensive area, noted 225 languages.
417:
Attempts continued to recognise the broad socio-economic implications of the varna system, but they were also applied inconsistently.
3785:
3683:
Yang, Anand A. (1987), "A Conversation of Rumors: The Language of Popular "Mentalitès" in Late Nineteenth-Century Colonial India",
3581:
Robb, Peter (1997), "The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example on the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s",
393:
and a Kshatriya status. Their creation as a caste was aided also by the Raj's policy of grouping people who bore similar names.
202:
81:
as well as to assess landholdings for revenue purposes, which was then a primary consideration, as attested in the writings of
3817:
3802:
3739:
3674:
3518:
3470:
3450:
3428:
3405:
3385:
3337:
3279:
3231:
3102:
2961:
2010:
2858:
2742:
352:
The theories of Risley, which broadly assumed that caste and race were related and were based on now-discredited methods of
3951:
3905:
3131:
235:, the categorisations of which became an essential part of the British administrative mechanism. Of those categorisations,
224:
311:
There was a general presumption that the caste of a person was immutable and unchanging and that it could only apply to
188:
said in 1935 that was the largest such exercise in the world but "also the quickest and the cheapest". Scholars such as
3125:
319:
were also thus categorised from 1901. In 1911, the caste of Christians and Muslims was recorded if given by them.
3479:
Peabody, Norbert (2001), "Cents, Sense, Census: Human Inventories in Late Precolonial and Early Colonial India",
567:
The significance of religion, as well as caste, was considerable. Hutton said in his census report for 1931 that
239:
was regarded as being "the cement that holds together the myriad units of Indian society", according to the 1901
210:
201:
The censuses that came later were much broader and, according to Crispin Bates, "more sophisticated" attempts at
3507:
Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (1997), "India's Population: Second and Growing", in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.),
3966:
3778:
3169:
189:
1865:, the 1891 Census Commissioner, thought that only 2 percent of the population could fill out a census form.
1802:
1761:
1688:
301:
193:
independent India, but not everybody accepts that. Peter Gottschalk has stated of that cultural influence:
71:
32:
3149:
Bhagat, Ram B. (2006), "Census and caste enumeration: British legacy and contemporary practice in India",
3961:
3371:
3056:
1862:
53:
3036:
Anon (Journal of the Statistical Society of London) (1876), "The Census of British India of 1871β72",
2064:
2059:
1931 census: Includes all "No religion" (153 persons), "Indefinite Beliefs" (940 persons), "Chinese (
1829:
1731:
690:
499:
86:
3181:
Conlon, Frank F. (1974), "Caste by Association: The Gauda Sarasvata Brahmana Unification Movement",
3910:
3771:
3094:
Villages, Women, and the Success of Dairy Cooperatives in India: Making Place for Rural Development
2052:
1872 census: Includes all "Others" (5,025,721 persons) and "Not Known" (425,175 persons) responses.
418:
98:
48:
398:
113:
2857:(Supplement to Commerce Reports ed.). Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. p. 46.
3900:
2970:
1884:
3662:
3269:
3240:
Ghosh, J. K.; Maiti, P.; Rao, T. J.; Sinha, B. K. (1999), "Evolution of Statistics in India",
1902:
project that began in the 1990s and relied heavily on Raj ethnographies, recorded 4635 castes.
97:, too, carried out quantitative exercises in various places and at various times prior to the
3932:
3438:
2951:
1821:
346:
258:
228:
159:
102:
3508:
3325:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3822:
3626:
8:
2027:
1898:
1828:
around 1869 but it was not completed until a few years after the first all-India census;
1724:
338:
308:
were more similar to other castes in Bengal than to any of the Brahmin groups elsewhere.
78:
3630:
3971:
3700:
3650:
3642:
3606:
3598:
3552:
3544:
3488:
3313:
3305:
3257:
3206:
3198:
3158:
3080:
3045:
3025:
3009:
2913:
2884:
2826:
2797:
2768:
2710:
2681:
2652:
1769:
272:
180:
136:
94:
3288:
Guha, Sumit (2003), "The Politics of Identity and Enumeration in India c. 1600β1990",
3735:
3670:
3610:
3556:
3514:
3496:
3466:
3446:
3424:
3414:
3401:
3381:
3333:
3317:
3275:
3227:
3210:
3121:
3098:
3017:
2957:
2123:
2109:
357:
320:
276:
140:
117:
3654:
2678:"Report on the census of British India, taken on the 17th February 1881 ..., Vol. 2"
3692:
3634:
3590:
3536:
3360:
Jassal, Smita Tewari (2001), "Caste in the Colonial State: Mallahs in the census",
3297:
3249:
3190:
3072:
3035:
3029:
3001:
2976:
1765:
305:
297:
2707:"Census of India, 1891. General tables for British provinces and feudatory states"
3794:
3729:
3460:
3418:
3395:
3375:
3361:
3350:
3346:
3221:
3114:
Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: The Early Origins of Indian Anthropometry
3092:
2917:
2909:
2888:
2880:
2852:
2830:
2822:
2801:
2793:
2772:
2764:
2736:
2714:
2706:
2685:
2677:
2656:
2648:
386:
206:
44:
2635:"Caste census: India's affirmative action policy is based on 90+ years old data"
424:
The 1901 census recorded 1646 distinct castes, which increased to 4147 in 1931.
3571:
3567:
3217:
2104:
1773:
670:
539:
385:
example of a group that invented tradition in the process often referred to as
268:
247:
3594:
3301:
3271:
Religion, Science, and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India
3945:
2992:
Alborn, Timothy L. (1999), "Age and Empire in the Indian Census, 187I-1931",
2158:
Permanent migration was uncommon anyway. Cultural constraints, such as caste
1924:
1750:
1737:
365:
353:
132:
106:
90:
3397:
The Other Empire: Metropolis, India and Progress in the Colonial Imagination
3005:
1832:
was among those who had conducted earlier limited surveys in areas of India.
3696:
3563:
3500:
3021:
2060:
1794:
1736:
seemingly inexplicable figure for the "diseased and starved" population in
660:
590:
531:
243:
126:
77:
There were historical attempts to enumerate the population in parts of the
3540:
3172:(1987), "The census, social structure and objectification in South Asia",
3462:
In quest of Indian folktales: Pandit Ram Gharib Chaube and William Crooke
2040:
1920:
1916:
1757:
castes through coalescence of like-minded, politically motivated groups.
1704:
582:
381:
262:
Local table for "Caste, tribe, race or nationality", from the 1901 census
232:
121:
105:, was replaced by the administrators operating under the auspices of the
58:
3731:
Imperial Contagions: Medicine, Hygiene, and Cultures of Planning in Asia
3162:
3704:
3548:
3492:
3309:
3261:
3202:
3084:
3049:
2030:" (140,422 persons), and "Other Christian" (135,462 persons) responses.
2017:" (349,863 persons), and "Other Hindu" (206,117,326 persons) responses.
1995:
1980:
1965:
1950:
1935:
1874:
The Patidars gained recognition as a distinct caste in the 1931 census.
324:
3646:
3602:
3242:
International Statistical Review / Revue Internationale de Statistique
3013:
2099:
The officials employed to make sense of the raw age data were in fact
2006:" (418,789 persons), and "Other Hindu" (18,898,884 persons) responses.
699:
171:
Ram Bhagat points out that a demographic census is an exercise in the
101:
after which its authority to govern the country, often referred to as
2014:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1969:
1961:
1954:
1946:
1939:
1931:
1912:
1700:
373:
3253:
3194:
3076:
3060:
2850:
634:
246:. The role of Risley has sometimes drawn particular attention, with
139:
occurred. Throughout the British Raj, and onwards until 1961 in the
3638:
2159:
2026:
1941 census: Includes all "Indian Christian" (6,040,665 persons), "
644:
640:
620:
507:
483:
410:
369:
361:
312:
82:
36:
Cover of Volume 17 of the 1911 census report (fully digitized file)
3763:
664:
2140:
2100:
1696:
695:
680:
650:
598:
547:
523:
515:
342:
341:
allegedly connected to mythology and ancient history, as did the
316:
164:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
684:
2136:
2068:
1679:
586:
292:
3617:
Shirras, George Findlay (1935), "The Census of India, 1931",
2881:"Census of India 1931. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Imperial tables"
2191:
2071:)" (150,240 persons), and "Others" (1,065 persons) responses.
1754:
630:
594:
491:
428:
377:
236:
3355:, Printed by the Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab
2444:
2442:
2211:
2039:
1881 census: Includes all "Tribal" (6,426,511 persons) and "
674:
3663:"Data Collection in Census: A Survey of Census Enumerators"
2163:
578:
390:
147:
3223:
Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India
2977:
Anon (Journal of the Statistical Society of London) (1876)
2741:. The story of nations. G. P. Putnam's sons. p. 355.
1911:
1872 census: Includes all "Hindu" (187,937,450 persons), "
2439:
654:
288:
3326:"The certitude of caste: when identity trumps hierarchy"
2949:
2245:
3174:
An Anthropologist Among the Historians and Other Essays
2401:
2399:
2314:
2312:
275:
and objectification that have emerged from the work of
2844:
2649:"Memorandum on the census of British India of 1871-72"
2500:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2257:
2765:"Census of India 1901. Vol. 1A, India. Pt. 2, Tables"
2570:
2547:
2512:
2488:
2476:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
624:
279:. He stated of the claimed objectification of caste:
2823:"Census of India 1921. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Tables"
2524:
2309:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2272:
1784:
2931:
2536:
2376:
2336:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
3929:Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India
3527:Reddy, Deepa S. (2005), "The Ethnicity of Caste",
3377:South Asia's Modern History: Thematic Perspectives
3239:
2616:
2594:
2582:
2410:
2348:
2324:
2206:
2179:
2605:
2269:
3943:
3810:
2559:
2465:
2454:
2428:
2223:
2103:, whose more usual work took place on behalf of
1732:The Journal of the Statistical Society of London
2794:"Census of India, 1911. Vol. 1., Pt. 2, Tables"
3667:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment
3510:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment
3443:India's Demographic Transition: A Reassessment
2728:
612:Religious groups in British India (1872β1941)
589:worshipped both Hindu idols and the Christian
3779:
3721:The Census in British India: New Perspectives
2851:United States Department of Commerce (1924).
389:. They claimed descent from the mythological
209:, the Deputy Superintendent of the census in
3038:Journal of the Statistical Society of London
1883:The caste system in southern India, such as
65:
3727:
3176:, Oxford University Press, pp. 224β254
3120:, Edinburgh Papers In South Asian Studies,
2943:
3786:
3772:
3481:Comparative Studies in Society and History
3290:Comparative Studies in Society and History
3267:
2902:
2873:
2815:
2786:
2757:
2699:
2670:
2641:
2448:
2251:
2217:
562:
364:and the colonial authorities to impose a
3458:
3393:
3345:
3065:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
2854:Trade and Economic Review for 1922 No.34
2494:
2482:
2263:
257:
213:in 1881, stated in his official report:
158:
31:
3718:
3616:
3478:
3413:
2542:
2506:
2405:
14:
3944:
3660:
3573:The People of India (Memorial edition)
3562:
3359:
3180:
3148:
3061:"On Census-Taking and its Limitations"
3055:
2991:
2910:"Census of India, 1941. Vol. 1, India"
2734:
2622:
2600:
2518:
2423:
2371:
2318:
2304:
1824:had commenced work on what became the
3767:
3665:, in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.),
3526:
3506:
3441:, in Rajan, Sebastian Irudaya (ed.),
3436:
3323:
3216:
3110:
2937:
2611:
2553:
2530:
2342:
2330:
2240:
154:
27:Census of India prior to independence
18:Census of India prior to independence
3906:2011 Socio Economic and Caste Census
3682:
3580:
3370:
3287:
3168:
3090:
2994:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
2588:
2576:
2565:
2471:
2460:
2434:
2185:
3793:
2956:. Mittal Publications. p. 37.
24:
3957:History of the government of India
3712:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
52:census personnel. The sociologist
25:
3983:
3749:
3363:Contributions to Indian Sociology
3330:Contributions to Indian Sociology
2950:Jebagnanam Cyril Kanmony (2010).
3719:Barrier, N. Gerald, ed. (1981).
2861:from the original on 13 May 2023
1787:
1672:
896:
893:
890:
887:
698:
683:
673:
663:
653:
643:
633:
623:
163:Map showing the distribution of
3400:, Manchester University Press,
2984:
2745:from the original on 8 May 2023
2627:
2152:
2129:
2116:
2093:
2084:
2074:
2046:
2033:
2020:
1905:
1890:
1877:
1868:
1855:
1845:
1835:
3734:. Hong Kong University Press.
3423:, Cambridge University Press,
3226:, Princeton University Press,
2043:" (143,581 persons) responses.
1815:
360:, loomed large in attempts by
135:ceased to exist in 1947, when
13:
1:
3347:Ibbetson, Denzil Charles Jelf
2173:
1826:Statistical Account of Bengal
3661:Vemuri, Murali Dhar (1997),
3465:, Indiana University Press,
3183:The Journal of Asian Studies
1987:" (6,388 persons) responses.
1972:" (5,504 persons) responses.
1957:" (4,050 persons) responses.
1942:" (1,147 persons) responses.
1803:Government of India Act 1858
1762:Child Marriage Restraint Act
1689:Indian independence movement
302:Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis
72:census in the United Kingdom
7:
3952:Government of British India
3439:"New Pathways: Census 1961"
3274:, Oxford University Press,
2009:1941 census: Includes all "
1990:1931 census: Includes all "
1975:1921 census: Includes all "
1960:1911 census: Includes all "
1930:1891 census: Includes all "
1780:
1717:
10:
3988:
3459:Naithani, Sadhana (2006),
3366:, Mouton, pp. 319β351
3268:Gottschalk, Peter (2012),
2953:Dalits and Tribes of India
2883:. 1931. pp. 513β519.
1994:" (219,300,645 persons), "
1983:" (467,578 persons), and "
1979:" (216,260,620 persons), "
1968:" (243,445 persons), and "
1964:" (217,337,943 persons), "
1949:" (207,050,557 persons), "
1945:1901 census:Includes all "
1934:" (207,688,724 persons), "
1927:" (913 persons) responses.
1923:" (347,994 persons), and "
1863:Jervoise Athelstane Baines
1562:
1454:
1346:
1238:
1130:
1022:
914:
814:
403:Linguistic Survey of India
3923:
3893:
3842:
3835:
3801:
3685:Journal of Social History
3595:10.1017/s0026749x0001430x
3529:Anthropological Quarterly
3302:10.1017/s0010417503000070
2912:. 1941. pp. 97β101.
2013:" (48,813,180 persons), "
1953:" (92,419 persons), and "
1938:" (39,952 persons), and "
1830:Francis Buchanan-Hamilton
707:
704:
694:
689:
679:
669:
659:
649:
639:
629:
619:
616:
227:, such as the folklorist
66:Administrative background
3324:Gupta, Dipankar (2004),
3091:Basu, Pratyusha (2009),
2825:. 1921. pp. 39β44.
2796:. 1911. pp. 37β42.
2767:. 1901. pp. 57β62.
2709:. 1891. pp. 87β95.
2651:. 1872. pp. 50β54.
1808:
419:William Chichele Plowden
253:
99:Indian Rebellion of 1857
3394:Marriott, John (2003),
3111:Bates, Crispin (1995),
3006:10.1162/002219599551912
2680:. 1881. pp. 9β18.
563:Religion and occupation
114:North-Western Provinces
112:The 1865 census of the
41:Census in British India
3901:Indian economic census
3756:Census of India, 1921
3669:, M. D. Publications,
3513:, M. D. Publications,
3445:, M. D. Publications,
3332:, vol. 38, SAGE,
1998:" (990,233 persons), "
1919:" (398,409 persons), "
1746:
1715:
609:
574:
347:Goud Saraswat Brahmins
334:
304:has demonstrated that
285:
263:
220:
199:
168:
37:
3933:Demographics of India
3911:Census of agriculture
3541:10.1353/anq.2005.0038
3420:Ideologies of the Raj
2735:Frazer, R.W. (1897).
1822:William Wilson Hunter
1742:
1710:
604:
569:
329:
281:
261:
229:Richard Carnac Temple
215:
195:
162:
35:
3967:Censuses in Pakistan
3697:10.1353/jsh/20.3.485
3583:Modern Asian Studies
3564:Risley, Herbert Hope
3437:Mitra, Asok (1997),
2002:" (5,378 persons), "
1915:" (1,147 persons), "
1885:that found in Kerala
339:inventing traditions
233:ethnographic studies
225:Indian Civil Service
3631:1935GeoRv..25..434S
3619:Geographical Review
2207:Ghosh et al. (1999)
1899:The People of India
1896:The oft-criticised
1725:Lieutenant-Governor
613:
241:Census Commissioner
181:myriad of languages
167:per the 1911 census
79:Indian subcontinent
3415:Metcalf, Thomas R.
3218:Dirks, Nicholas B.
2220:, pp. 185β189
1770:Indian nationalism
611:
273:imagined community
264:
203:social engineering
186:G. Findlay Shirras
169:
155:Role of the census
95:East India Company
38:
3962:Censuses in India
3939:
3938:
3919:
3918:
3843:National censuses
3836:Post-Independence
3831:
3830:
3811:National censuses
3741:978-9-88813-912-5
3676:978-8-175-33028-3
3520:978-8-175-33028-3
3472:978-0-253-34544-8
3452:978-8-175-33028-3
3430:978-0-521-58937-6
3407:978-0-7190-6018-2
3387:978-1-31762-446-2
3339:978-0-761-93324-3
3281:978-0-195-39301-9
3233:978-1-400-84094-6
3104:978-1-604-97625-0
3097:, Cambria Press,
2963:978-81-8324-348-3
2918:saoa.crl.28215532
2889:saoa.crl.25793234
2831:saoa.crl.25394121
2802:saoa.crl.25393779
2773:saoa.crl.25352838
2715:saoa.crl.25318666
2686:saoa.crl.25057654
2657:saoa.crl.25057647
2449:Gottschalk (2012)
2252:Gottschalk (2012)
2218:Gottschalk (2012)
2124:Madras Presidency
2110:Bombay Presidency
1670:
1669:
708:Total population
376:. Castes such as
358:scientific racism
321:John Henry Hutton
277:Benedict Anderson
141:Republic of India
70:The first modern
16:(Redirected from
3979:
3840:
3839:
3808:
3807:
3803:Pre-independence
3788:
3781:
3774:
3765:
3764:
3745:
3724:
3707:
3679:
3657:
3613:
3577:
3576:, Thacker, Spink
3559:
3523:
3503:
3475:
3455:
3433:
3410:
3390:
3367:
3356:
3342:
3320:
3284:
3264:
3236:
3213:
3177:
3170:Cohn, Bernard S.
3165:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3130:, archived from
3119:
3107:
3087:
3052:
3032:
2979:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2637:. 25 April 2023.
2631:
2625:
2620:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2579:, pp. 50β55
2574:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2421:
2408:
2403:
2374:
2369:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2307:
2302:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2238:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2204:
2189:
2183:
2167:
2156:
2144:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2114:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2065:Ancestor Worship
2050:
2044:
2037:
2031:
2024:
2018:
1909:
1903:
1894:
1888:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1866:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1819:
1797:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1766:Eleanor Rathbone
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
702:
687:
677:
667:
657:
647:
637:
627:
614:
610:
554:
546:
538:
530:
522:
514:
506:
500:Tribal religions
498:
490:
482:
306:Bengali Brahmins
21:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3915:
3889:
3827:
3797:
3795:Census of India
3792:
3752:
3742:
3715:
3713:Further reading
3710:
3677:
3568:Crooke, William
3521:
3473:
3453:
3431:
3408:
3388:
3340:
3282:
3254:10.2307/1403563
3234:
3195:10.2307/2052936
3140:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3117:
3105:
3077:10.2307/2979722
2987:
2982:
2975:
2971:
2964:
2948:
2944:
2936:
2932:
2922:
2920:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2893:
2891:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2864:
2862:
2849:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2777:
2775:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2748:
2746:
2733:
2729:
2719:
2717:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2688:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2661:
2659:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2595:
2587:
2583:
2575:
2571:
2564:
2560:
2556:, pp. xβxi
2552:
2548:
2541:
2537:
2529:
2525:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2501:
2495:Naithani (2006)
2493:
2489:
2483:Ibbetson (1916)
2481:
2477:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2455:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2411:
2404:
2377:
2370:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2270:
2264:Marriott (2003)
2262:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2170:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2147:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2117:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2038:
2034:
2025:
2021:
2011:Scheduled Caste
2008:
2007:
1989:
1988:
1974:
1973:
1959:
1958:
1944:
1943:
1929:
1928:
1910:
1906:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1720:
1675:
1663:
1662:
1653:
1652:
1643:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1613:
1612:
1603:
1602:
1593:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1573:
1572:
1555:
1554:
1545:
1544:
1535:
1534:
1525:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1505:
1504:
1495:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1475:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1447:
1446:
1437:
1436:
1427:
1426:
1417:
1416:
1407:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1377:
1376:
1367:
1366:
1357:
1356:
1339:
1338:
1329:
1328:
1319:
1318:
1309:
1308:
1299:
1298:
1289:
1288:
1279:
1278:
1269:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1249:
1248:
1231:
1230:
1221:
1220:
1211:
1210:
1201:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1171:
1170:
1161:
1160:
1151:
1150:
1141:
1140:
1123:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1103:
1102:
1093:
1092:
1083:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1063:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1015:
1014:
1005:
1004:
995:
994:
985:
984:
975:
974:
965:
964:
955:
954:
945:
944:
935:
934:
925:
924:
907:
906:
885:
884:
875:
874:
865:
864:
855:
854:
845:
844:
835:
834:
825:
824:
565:
560:
559:
558:
552:
544:
536:
528:
520:
512:
504:
496:
488:
480:
476:
475:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
453:
449:
448:
445:
442:
439:
399:George Grierson
387:Sanskritisation
256:
211:Punjab Province
207:Denzil Ibbetson
190:Bernard S. Cohn
157:
118:Bengal Province
68:
45:census of India
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3985:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3937:
3936:
3924:
3921:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3897:
3895:
3894:Other censuses
3891:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3844:
3837:
3833:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3776:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3750:External links
3748:
3747:
3746:
3740:
3725:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3691:(3): 485β505,
3680:
3675:
3658:
3639:10.2307/209312
3625:(3): 434β448,
3614:
3589:(2): 245β283,
3578:
3560:
3535:(3): 543β584,
3524:
3519:
3504:
3487:(4): 819β850,
3476:
3471:
3456:
3451:
3434:
3429:
3411:
3406:
3391:
3386:
3368:
3357:
3343:
3338:
3321:
3296:(1): 148β167,
3285:
3280:
3265:
3237:
3232:
3214:
3189:(3): 351β365,
3178:
3166:
3157:(2): 119β134,
3146:
3137:on 5 July 2016
3126:
3108:
3103:
3088:
3053:
3044:(2): 411β416,
3033:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2969:
2962:
2942:
2930:
2901:
2872:
2843:
2814:
2785:
2756:
2727:
2698:
2669:
2640:
2626:
2615:
2604:
2593:
2581:
2569:
2558:
2546:
2543:Peabody (2001)
2535:
2523:
2511:
2507:Metcalf (1997)
2499:
2487:
2475:
2464:
2453:
2438:
2427:
2409:
2406:Shirras (1935)
2375:
2347:
2335:
2323:
2308:
2268:
2256:
2244:
2222:
2210:
2190:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2128:
2115:
2105:life assurance
2092:
2083:
2073:
2045:
2032:
2019:
1904:
1889:
1876:
1867:
1854:
1844:
1834:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1782:
1779:
1774:Indian culture
1719:
1716:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1649:
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1526:
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1516:
1512:
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1502:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1492:
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1489:
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1481:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1002:
1001:
999:
996:
992:
991:
989:
986:
982:
981:
979:
976:
972:
971:
969:
966:
962:
961:
959:
956:
952:
951:
949:
946:
942:
941:
939:
936:
932:
931:
929:
926:
922:
921:
919:
916:
912:
911:
908:
904:
903:
901:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
882:
881:
879:
876:
872:
871:
869:
866:
862:
861:
859:
856:
852:
851:
849:
846:
842:
841:
839:
836:
832:
831:
829:
826:
822:
821:
819:
816:
812:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
710:
709:
706:
703:
693:
688:
678:
671:Zoroastrianism
668:
658:
648:
638:
628:
618:
564:
561:
557:
556:
550:
542:
540:Zoroastrianism
534:
526:
518:
510:
502:
494:
486:
477:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
446:
443:
440:
437:
436:
435:
434:
433:
269:Dipankar Gupta
255:
252:
248:Nicholas Dirks
173:classification
156:
153:
67:
64:
43:refers to the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3984:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3934:
3930:
3927:
3922:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3789:
3784:
3782:
3777:
3775:
3770:
3769:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3753:
3743:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3726:
3722:
3717:
3716:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3678:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3522:
3516:
3512:
3511:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3474:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3457:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3432:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3403:
3399:
3398:
3392:
3389:
3383:
3380:, Routledge,
3379:
3378:
3373:
3372:Mann, Michael
3369:
3365:
3364:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3352:Panjab Castes
3348:
3344:
3341:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3272:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3235:
3229:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3133:
3129:
3127:1-900-79502-7
3123:
3116:
3115:
3109:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3095:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3057:Baines, J. A.
3054:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2989:
2978:
2973:
2965:
2959:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2905:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2860:
2856:
2855:
2847:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2738:British India
2731:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2623:Jassal (2001)
2619:
2613:
2608:
2602:
2601:Conlon (1974)
2597:
2590:
2585:
2578:
2573:
2567:
2562:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2539:
2533:, p. 227
2532:
2527:
2521:, p. 278
2520:
2519:Risley (1915)
2515:
2509:, p. 119
2508:
2503:
2496:
2491:
2484:
2479:
2473:
2468:
2462:
2457:
2451:, p. 183
2450:
2445:
2443:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2424:Baines (1900)
2420:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2373:
2372:Alborn (1999)
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2344:
2339:
2332:
2327:
2321:, p. 111
2320:
2319:Vemuri (1997)
2315:
2313:
2306:
2305:Bhagat (2006)
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2266:, p. 209
2265:
2260:
2254:, p. 191
2253:
2248:
2242:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2188:, p. 169
2187:
2182:
2178:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2087:
2077:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2049:
2042:
2036:
2029:
2023:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1901:
1900:
1893:
1886:
1880:
1871:
1864:
1858:
1848:
1838:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1726:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1692:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1673:Recording age
1665:
1658:
1655:
1648:
1645:
1638:
1635:
1628:
1625:
1618:
1615:
1608:
1605:
1598:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1578:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1540:
1537:
1530:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1480:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1439:
1432:
1429:
1422:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1402:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1382:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1264:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1223:
1216:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1196:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1176:
1173:
1166:
1163:
1156:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1078:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1058:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1038:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1007:
1000:
997:
990:
987:
980:
977:
970:
967:
960:
957:
950:
947:
940:
937:
930:
927:
920:
917:
913:
909:
902:
899:
880:
877:
870:
867:
860:
857:
850:
847:
840:
837:
830:
827:
820:
817:
813:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
711:
701:
697:
692:
686:
682:
676:
672:
666:
662:
656:
652:
646:
642:
636:
632:
626:
622:
615:
608:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
573:
568:
551:
549:
543:
541:
535:
533:
527:
525:
519:
517:
511:
509:
503:
501:
495:
493:
487:
485:
479:
478:
432:
430:
425:
422:
420:
415:
412:
406:
404:
400:
394:
392:
388:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
354:anthropometry
350:
348:
344:
340:
333:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
309:
307:
303:
299:
294:
290:
284:
280:
278:
274:
270:
260:
251:
249:
245:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
219:
214:
212:
208:
204:
198:
194:
191:
187:
182:
177:
174:
166:
161:
152:
149:
144:
142:
138:
134:
133:British India
130:
128:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
107:British Crown
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:Muhnot Nainsi
88:
84:
80:
75:
73:
63:
60:
55:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
19:
3925:
3757:
3730:
3720:
3688:
3684:
3666:
3622:
3618:
3586:
3582:
3572:
3532:
3528:
3509:
3484:
3480:
3461:
3442:
3419:
3396:
3376:
3362:
3351:
3329:
3293:
3289:
3270:
3248:(1): 13β34,
3245:
3241:
3222:
3186:
3182:
3173:
3154:
3150:
3139:, retrieved
3132:the original
3113:
3093:
3071:(1): 41β71,
3068:
3064:
3041:
3037:
3000:(1): 6Iβ89,
2997:
2993:
2985:Bibliography
2972:
2952:
2945:
2940:, p. 61
2938:Mitra (1997)
2933:
2921:. Retrieved
2904:
2892:. Retrieved
2875:
2863:. Retrieved
2853:
2846:
2834:. Retrieved
2817:
2805:. Retrieved
2788:
2776:. Retrieved
2759:
2747:. Retrieved
2737:
2730:
2718:. Retrieved
2701:
2689:. Retrieved
2672:
2660:. Retrieved
2643:
2629:
2618:
2612:Reddy (2005)
2607:
2596:
2591:, p. 51
2584:
2572:
2561:
2554:Gupta (2004)
2549:
2538:
2531:Dirks (2001)
2526:
2514:
2502:
2490:
2478:
2467:
2456:
2430:
2345:, p. 16
2343:Mitra (1997)
2338:
2331:Rajan (1997)
2326:
2259:
2247:
2241:Bates (1995)
2213:
2181:
2154:
2131:
2118:
2095:
2086:
2076:
2048:
2035:
2028:Anglo-Indian
2022:
1907:
1897:
1892:
1879:
1870:
1857:
1847:
1837:
1825:
1817:
1795:India portal
1759:
1747:
1743:
1730:
1729:
1721:
1711:
1693:
1685:
1676:
1666:386,666,623
1558:350,529,557
1450:316,128,721
1342:313,547,840
1234:294,361,056
1126:287,223,431
1018:253,891,821
910:190,563,048
661:Christianity
605:
591:Holy Trinity
575:
570:
566:
532:Christianity
426:
423:
416:
407:
402:
395:
351:
335:
330:
310:
286:
282:
265:
244:H. H. Risley
221:
216:
200:
196:
178:
172:
170:
145:
131:
127:World War II
111:
103:Company Rule
76:
69:
54:Michael Mann
49:independence
40:
39:
29:
3141:15 February
2589:Basu (2009)
2577:Basu (2009)
2566:Robb (1997)
2497:, p. 6
2485:, p. v
2472:Guha (2003)
2461:Cohn (1987)
2435:Yang (1987)
2333:, p. 1
2186:Mann (2015)
2041:Nat Worship
1925:Kumbhipatia
1921:Kabirpanthi
1705:Amartya Sen
1566:255,280,369
1458:239,613,929
1350:216,734,586
1242:217,586,892
1134:207,147,026
1026:207,731,727
918:188,685,913
818:139,248,568
382:Vishwakarma
362:Indologists
122:British Raj
59:British Raj
3946:Categories
3723:. Manohar.
2174:References
2056:responses.
1636:25,441,489
1576:92,058,096
1478:12,786,806
1468:77,677,545
1370:11,571,268
1360:68,735,233
1312:10,295,168
1262:10,721,453
1252:66,647,299
1144:62,458,077
1036:57,321,164
928:50,121,585
828:40,882,537
325:E. A. Gait
218:ourselves.
3972:Ethnology
3926:See also:
3611:145299102
3566:(1915) ,
3557:144905106
3349:(1916) ,
3318:145529059
3211:161174511
2101:actuaries
2061:Confucian
2015:Ad-Dharmi
2004:Ad-Dharmi
1992:Brahmanic
1977:Brahmanic
1962:Brahmanic
1947:Brahmanic
1932:Brahmanic
1701:influenza
1646:1,449,286
1606:6,316,549
1596:5,691,447
1538:1,252,105
1528:8,280,347
1498:6,296,763
1488:4,335,771
1430:1,178,596
1420:9,774,611
1390:4,754,064
1380:3,238,803
1322:1,248,182
1282:3,876,203
1272:3,014,466
1214:1,334,148
1204:8,584,148
1174:2,923,241
1164:2,195,339
1154:9,476,759
1106:1,416,638
1096:9,280,467
1066:2,284,380
1056:1,907,833
1046:7,131,361
998:1,221,896
988:6,570,092
958:1,862,634
948:1,853,426
938:3,418,884
900:5,450,896
848:1,174,436
838:2,832,851
602:Shirras,
374:Namasudra
315:although
137:Partition
87:Abul Fazl
47:prior to
3818:Overview
3758:Volume I
3655:28729901
3501:18646375
3417:(1997),
3374:(2015),
3220:(2001),
3163:29789312
3059:(1900),
3022:21991619
2859:Archived
2743:Archived
2160:endogamy
2113:records.
2081:service.
1842:country.
1781:See also
1718:Outcomes
641:Buddhism
621:Hinduism
508:Buddhism
484:Hinduism
411:Sanskrit
370:Chandala
343:Patidars
83:Kautilya
3705:3788109
3627:Bibcode
3570:(ed.),
3549:4150981
3493:2696671
3310:3879485
3262:1403563
3203:2052936
3085:2979722
3050:2339124
3030:2739080
2141:Kashmir
1917:Satnami
1697:cholera
1616:114,890
1586:232,003
1548:152,398
1508:109,752
1400:101,778
1292:100,096
1224:129,900
858:896,658
705:Others
696:Jainism
681:Judaism
651:Sikhism
599:Gujarat
548:Judaism
524:Jainism
516:Sikhism
366:Western
293:Rajputs
3738:
3703:
3673:
3653:
3647:209312
3645:
3609:
3603:313030
3601:
3555:
3547:
3517:
3499:
3491:
3469:
3449:
3427:
3404:
3384:
3336:
3316:
3308:
3278:
3260:
3230:
3209:
3201:
3161:
3124:
3101:
3083:
3048:
3028:
3020:
3014:206986
3012:
2960:
2923:20 May
2916:
2894:20 May
2887:
2836:20 May
2829:
2807:20 May
2800:
2778:20 May
2771:
2720:20 May
2713:
2691:20 May
2684:
2662:20 May
2655:
2137:Baroda
2069:Taoist
2067:, and
2000:Brahmo
1985:Brahmo
1970:Brahmo
1955:Brahmo
1940:Brahmo
1913:Brahmo
1738:Orissa
1680:zodiac
1656:60,014
1626:22,480
1581:23.81%
1571:66.02%
1518:24,141
1473:22.16%
1463:68.36%
1440:18,004
1410:21,778
1365:21.74%
1355:68.56%
1332:37,101
1302:20,980
1257:21.26%
1194:18,228
1184:94,190
1149:21.22%
1139:70.37%
1116:42,763
1086:17,194
1076:89,904
1041:19.96%
1031:72.32%
1008:59,985
983:0.005%
978:12,009
968:85,397
933:19.74%
923:74.32%
883:0.004%
868:69,476
833:21.45%
823:73.07%
691:Tribal
595:Kunbis
593:, and
587:Bombay
555:Others
553:
545:
537:
529:
521:
513:
505:
497:
489:
481:
313:Hindus
165:lepers
93:. The
3701:JSTOR
3651:S2CID
3643:JSTOR
3607:S2CID
3599:JSTOR
3553:S2CID
3545:JSTOR
3489:JSTOR
3314:S2CID
3306:JSTOR
3258:JSTOR
3207:S2CID
3199:JSTOR
3159:JSTOR
3151:Genus
3135:(PDF)
3118:(PDF)
3081:JSTOR
3046:JSTOR
3026:S2CID
3010:JSTOR
2914:JSTOR
2885:JSTOR
2865:8 May
2827:JSTOR
2798:JSTOR
2769:JSTOR
2749:8 May
2711:JSTOR
2682:JSTOR
2653:JSTOR
2164:melas
1809:Notes
1755:Reddy
1751:Kamma
1661:0.02%
1651:0.37%
1641:6.58%
1631:0.01%
1621:0.03%
1611:1.63%
1601:1.47%
1591:0.06%
1563:1941
1553:0.04%
1543:0.36%
1533:2.36%
1523:0.01%
1513:0.03%
1493:1.24%
1483:3.65%
1455:1931
1445:0.01%
1435:0.37%
1425:3.09%
1415:0.01%
1405:0.03%
1385:1.02%
1375:3.66%
1347:1921
1337:0.01%
1317:3.28%
1307:0.01%
1297:0.03%
1287:1.24%
1277:0.96%
1267:3.42%
1247:69.4%
1239:1911
1229:0.04%
1219:0.45%
1209:2.92%
1199:0.01%
1189:0.03%
1179:0.99%
1169:0.75%
1159:3.22%
1131:1901
1121:0.01%
1111:0.49%
1101:3.23%
1091:0.01%
1081:0.03%
1061:0.66%
1051:2.48%
1023:1891
1013:0.02%
1003:0.48%
993:2.59%
973:0.03%
963:0.73%
953:0.73%
943:1.35%
915:1881
905:2.86%
878:7,626
873:0.04%
863:0.47%
853:0.62%
843:1.49%
815:1872
631:Islam
617:Year
583:Kolis
492:Islam
429:Hindu
378:Yadav
332:ago".
317:Jains
298:varna
254:Caste
237:caste
3885:2024
3880:2011
3875:2001
3870:1991
3865:1981
3860:1971
3855:1961
3850:1951
3823:1891
3736:ISBN
3671:ISBN
3515:ISBN
3497:PMID
3467:ISBN
3447:ISBN
3425:ISBN
3402:ISBN
3382:ISBN
3334:ISBN
3276:ISBN
3228:ISBN
3143:2015
3122:ISBN
3099:ISBN
3018:PMID
2958:ISBN
2925:2024
2896:2024
2867:2023
2838:2024
2809:2024
2780:2024
2751:2023
2722:2024
2693:2024
2664:2024
2139:and
1996:Arya
1981:Arya
1966:Arya
1951:Arya
1936:Arya
1753:and
1699:and
1503:1.8%
1395:1.5%
1327:0.4%
1071:0.8%
804:pop.
794:pop.
784:pop.
774:pop.
764:pop.
754:pop.
744:pop.
734:pop.
724:pop.
714:pop.
579:Sikh
473:1941
470:1931
467:1921
464:1911
461:1901
458:1891
455:1881
452:1872
391:Yadu
380:and
356:and
291:and
289:Jats
148:Bhil
89:and
3693:doi
3635:doi
3591:doi
3537:doi
3298:doi
3250:doi
3191:doi
3073:doi
3002:doi
2122:In
607:be.
597:in
585:in
447:400
444:300
441:200
438:100
401:'s
3948::
3931:,
3699:,
3689:20
3687:,
3649:,
3641:,
3633:,
3623:25
3621:,
3605:,
3597:,
3587:31
3585:,
3551:,
3543:,
3533:78
3531:,
3495:,
3485:43
3483:,
3328:,
3312:,
3304:,
3294:45
3292:,
3256:,
3246:67
3244:,
3205:,
3197:,
3187:33
3185:,
3155:62
3153:,
3079:,
3069:63
3067:,
3063:,
3042:39
3040:,
3024:,
3016:,
3008:,
2998:30
2996:,
2441:^
2412:^
2378:^
2350:^
2311:^
2271:^
2225:^
2193:^
2063:,
1691:.
897:β
891:β
431:.
205:.
109:.
85:,
3787:e
3780:t
3773:v
3744:.
3695::
3637::
3629::
3593::
3539::
3300::
3252::
3193::
3075::
3004::
2966:.
2927:.
2898:.
2869:.
2840:.
2811:.
2782:.
2753:.
2724:.
2695:.
2666:.
2143:.
894:β
888:β
809:%
799:%
789:%
779:%
769:%
759:%
749:%
739:%
729:%
719:%
20:)
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