241:
needed in this area. A Scottish study used cephalometric radiographs in order to find cause of sleep apnea. This was performed on adult men and women and found that location of the hyoid also correlates with the obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). The longer the distance of the hyoid to the mandibular plane along with a shorter mandibular corpus showed significantly associated with OSAHS. Compared with a control group, those with OSAHS had the hyoid bone lower in relation to the mandibular plane. By using a cephalometric analysis program, a study was able to conclude that people with a reduced midface length and an inferiorly placed hyoid tend to have smaller airways which can lead to obstructive sleep apnea. Lateral cephalography is useful in analyzing skeletal and soft tissue characteristics. They recorded 22 measurements from the lateral cephalograms and craniometric landmarks were digitized. In other studies, differences in characteristics were noted in the sagittal and vertical planes of apnea sufferers versus the controls. This study did not find these differences between their groups. They did find that using cephalometry there is a difference in craniofacial morphology of persons with obstructive sleep apnea versus the healthy population. On recent open public competitions, machine learning and shape analysis algorithms demonstrated the mean error of 1.92 mm for automated landmarking and up to 93.2% of agreement between automated and manual cephalometry
232:
being 18 years or older. Further, the study confirmed that there is not a strong degree of sexual dimorphism between mandibular ramus length until an individual reaches 16 years of age. The accuracy of predicting sex with mandibular ramus length is only 54% making it an unreliable indicator of sex in forensic contexts. The study also has impacts for providing age estimation of living people. This could be applicable in immigration, criminal and civil investigations, adoption of children, or old-age pension requests. The study utilized scanned cephalometric radiographs to conduct the study. Cephalometry remains to be the most popular and useful method for investigating the craniofacial skeletal morphology. Skull measurements are also important for facial reconstruction in cases of disputed identity. In the Punjab study, the mesocephalic was the most common craniotype followed by dolicocephalic in the tropical regions. The brachycephalic was more common in the temperate regions. Genetic and environmental factors have been suggested for the presence of variations in cephalic indices among population groups. Dietary habits have also been shown to modulate the craniofacial form of people. The data this study gathered is only valid for the adult population and may be useful in future forensic contexts.
250:
measurements are taken and entered into a worldwide craniometric database that is compared to other known cranial metrics. This information allows the user to be able to estimate ancestry in archaeological, forensic, and repatriation context. It has highest accuracy when sex is able to be determined. Dolphin
Imaging Cephalometric and Tracing Software is a cephalometric analysis that can measure airway dimensions and dentofacial parameters. It has been used for studies in obstructive sleep apnea. As cephalometry become more digitized by using different programs and scanners, caution should be taken when interpreting data. Objects measured by computer assisted methods may not be an exact match of the original. Scanning and surface reconstruction can produce some data measurement uncertainty. There have been known cases of different software producing different data even when the same skull is used under the same conditions. Software packages, AMIRA and TIVMI, were used for surface reconstructions. The mean difference between measurements was lower for TIVMI. AMIRA can produce up to 4% error in known measurements and 5% in dry skull measurements. Error rates should be taken into consideration when using digitized software for this purpose.
207:
method requires that the transponder be placed on the maternal abdomen over the area of the fetal head. The transponder is moved until a pair of echos are strong and equal. This indicates that the parietals are perpendicular to the transmitting beam. The distance of the reflections equal the biparietal diameter. From this, the size of the head and the fetal weight can be determined with incredible accuracy. The use of ultrasound cephalometry is meant to be used in addition to other radiographic techniques. Thus far, no ill effects have been reported to the fetus or the mother using the ultrasound fetal cephalometry.
147:
object-to-film interval of 15 cm and a source-to-object span of 5 feet, magnification of anatomical landmarks will be reduced in all three dimensions.When attempting to analyze a patient's anatomy through lateral and frontal cephalograms, the challenge arises due to these images being two-dimensional projections of three-dimensional structures. Magnification and distortion as an outcome of traditional radiography further complicates the process by blurring important details.
20:
106:, "head measurement") can be traced through art, science, and anthropology. The origins of the important method of measuring has its origins in the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci is perhaps the most well known scientist and artist studying facial proportions during the Renaissance. Da Vinci along with others utilized grids to study the proportions of the face and make generalizations about them. Da Vinci looked for
224:' to 'gnathion', bizygomatic breadth and stature were all measured and documented. The measurements of the women were placed into a database and then a normative value was given for each measurement within that population. Results indicated that only head circumference was positively statistically correlated with stature.
110:
in his quest to understand facial proportions. The divine proportion has since been found to exist in 20th centuries of facial proportions as they relate to esthetics. Beginning with Petrus Camper in the 18th century angles began to be employed in the measurement of facial form. Camper also began the
262:
Computer programs have been designed that are capable of utilizing lateral cephalograms and comparing them with growth algorithms to test the reliability of the algorithms. Significant results were found to be valid in utilizing Bolton and
Ricketts grown algorithms within 1.5mm. Two-year predictions
240:
An Asian study was performed on children ages 3–13 who had obstructive sleep apnea. The study concluded that four cephalometric anthropomorphic parameters were related to the apnea-hypopnea index. Three of which indicated the importance of hyoid position in pediatric sleep apnea. Future studies are
249:
Advances in technology have allowed scientists and anthropologists to utilize statistical programs in order to estimate ancestry of a skull by taking measurements of various craniometric points. CRANID is a statistical program that is used when the source of a cranium is of unknown origin. Cranial
231:
length is strongly related to chronological age and can be utilized to predict whether an individual is older than 18 years or older with a highly significant degree of accuracy (95% confidence interval). If the ramus length is 7.0 cm or more, then the individual has an 81.25% probability of
219:
One such database was utilized to test whether craniometric measurements can be utilized to measure stature when only fragmentary remains are available. Researchers created a database cranial measurements utilizing cephalograms of Garo women living in
Bangladesh. Head circumference, head length,
206:
imaging applications are now used in obstetric cephalometry. In 1961, Donald and Brown employed ultrasound technique for measurement of the fetal head. Other scientists tried the method and found that the ultrasound technique was 3mm different than the post-natal measurement with calipers. This
146:
To carry out cephalometry, the X-ray source is placed a steady five feet away from the mid sagittal plane, with film situated just 15 cm from there. This allows for accurate measurements to be taken and recorded. Distance has a direct impact on cephalometric image magnification. With an
215:
Cephalometry can be used to assist in forensic investigations. Researchers work to compile databases of population-level craniometric data. Due to variations in cranial measurements by population these types of databases can help assist investigators working in a known region.
115:
and classified different shapes of the head. Brachycephalic refers to a small, rounded head. Dolichocephalic refers to a long head. Mesocephalic refers to a medium-sized head, typically between the brachycephalic and dolichocephalic sizes.
897:
Guyomarc'h, Pierre; et al. (June 2012). "Three-dimensional computer-assisted craniometrics: A comparison of the uncertainty in measurement induced by surface reconstruction performed by two computer programs".
187:. Cephalometry focuses on linear and angular dimensions established by bone, teeth, and facial measurements. It has also been used for measurements of hard and soft tissues of the craniofacial complex.
385:
381:
933:
Sagun, Matthew (2015). "Evaluation of
Ricketts' and Bolton's growth prediction algorithms embedded in two diagnostic imaging and cephalometric software".
805:
Ibragimov, Wang (2015). "Evaluation and comparison of anatomical landmark detection methods for cephalometric X-Ray images: A grand challenge".
345:
Littlefield TR, Kelly KM, Cherney JC, Beals SP, Pomatto JK (January 2004). "Development of a new three-dimensional cranial imaging system".
137:
1961 Donald and Brown published an article about using ultrasounds for fetal head measurement correlation of diameter and fetal weight.
227:
One way in which cephalograms can be utilized is for accurate age estimation but not for sex estimation. One study confirmed that the
499:
Grayson B, Cutting C, Bookstein F, Kim H, McCarthy J. The threedimensional cephalogram: theory, technique, and clinical application.
441:
Gandikota, ChandraSekhar; Rayapudi, Naveen; Challa, PadmaLatha; Juvvadi, ShubhakerRao; Yudhister, Pv; Rao, GuttiHariprasad (2012).
700:
Riha; et al. (2005). "ACephalometric
Comparison of Patients With the Sleep Apnea/Hypopnea Syndrome and Their Siblings".
83:
406:
Wahl, Norman (2006). "Orthodontics in 3 millennia. Chapter 7: Facial analysis before the advent of the cephalometer".
657:
Ping-Ying; et al. (2012). "Systematic analysis of cephalometry in obstructive sleep apnea in Asian children".
75:
577:
Toledo de
Oliveira, Fernando (2014). "Mandibular ramus length as an indicator of chronological age and sex".
316:
Harris, J E, et al. "A field method for the cephalometric x-ray study of skulls in early Nubian cemeteries."
562:
Akhter, Z (2012). "Stature estimation from craniofacial anthropometry in
Bangladeshi Garo adult females".
294:
183:. This analysis informs treatment planning, quantifies changes during treatment, and provides data for
443:"A comparative study of linear measurements on facial skeleton with frontal and lateral cephalogram"
966:
202:. Cephalometry can also determine if an unborn child will pass through the birth canal. Certain
195:
67:
160:
79:
228:
107:
128:(1796–1860) Defined the cephalic index as means to classify ancient human remains in Europe.
8:
324:
Houlton MC (May 1977). "Divergent biparietal diameter growth rates in twin pregnancies".
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Study and prediction of facial growth by overlaying older images to compare growth.
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717:"Cephalometric comparison of obstructive sleep apnea patients and healthy controls"
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practice of ethnographic grouping based on facial form. Anders
Retzius defined the
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39:
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54:), is a large subset of cephalometry. Cephalometry also has a history in
47:
43:
19:
670:
299:
55:
35:
766:"A benchmark for comparison of dental radiography analysis algorithms"
62:, which is the study of facial features. Cephalometry as applied in a
530:
164:
71:
221:
199:
850:"Using CRANID to test the population affinity of known crania"
440:
172:
58:, which is the study of personality and character as well as
51:
408:
American
Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
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31:
176:
134:
1960s began the era of computed cephalometric radiology.
131:
1931, orthodontists consecrated the era of cephalometry.
896:
253:
171:, to gauge the size and spatial relationships of the
198:cephalometry is useful for determining baby growth
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958:
935:Journal of the World Federation of Orthodontists
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622:"A cephalometric study in southern punjab"
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86:guide surgeons in planning and operating.
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318:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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18:
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579:International Journal of Legal Medicine
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141:
807:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging
699:
405:
274:Evaluation of nasopharyngeal passage
30:is the study and measurement of the
271:Diagnosis of craniofacial anomalies
13:
268:Diagnostics of special pathologies
254:Other applications of cephalometry
50:, the measurement of the cranium (
14:
978:
848:Kallenberger, L (November 2012).
82:helps in treatment and research;
16:Study and measurement of the head
866:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01558.x
359:10.1097/00001665-200401000-00042
320:24, no. 2 (March 1966): 265–273.
926:
912:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.008
890:
841:
798:
757:
708:
515:"Ultrasonic Fetal Cephalometry"
501:Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop.
447:Contemporary Clinical Dentistry
310:
150:
70:. In clinical contexts such as
900:Forensic Science International
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650:
613:
570:
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513:Goldberg; et al. (1966).
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76:oral and maxillofacial surgery
1:
721:European Journal of Dentistry
635:10.29309/TPMJ/2015.22.09.1137
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94:The history of cephalometry (
715:Gungor; et al. (2013).
626:Professional Medical Journal
620:Khan M; et al. (2015).
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7:
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420:10.1016/j.ajodo.2005.12.011
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119:
10:
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564:Mymensingh Medical Journal
295:Craniofacial anthropometry
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591:10.1007/s00414-014-1077-y
819:10.1109/TMI.2015.2412951
460:10.4103/0976-237X.96823
84:cephalometric landmarks
68:biological anthropology
23:Craniometry Skull, 1902
770:Medical Image Analysis
764:Lindner, Wang (2016).
733:10.1055/s-0039-1698995
161:Cephalometric analysis
80:cephalometric analysis
24:
22:
263:were the most valid.
220:facial height from '
167:, and especially in
64:comparative anatomy
854:Journal of Anatomy
671:10.1002/lary.23297
305:Robert M. Ricketts
142:Machine Dimensions
108:divine proportions
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185:clinical research
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229:mandibular ramus
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169:orthodontics
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151:Applications
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28:Cephalometry
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388:2009-10-31)
236:Sleep apnea
163:is used in
60:physiognomy
48:Craniometry
44:radiography
393:References
300:Phrenology
245:Technology
196:Ultrasound
191:Obstetrics
56:phrenology
36:human head
776:: 63–76.
644:239312788
519:Radiology
469:0976-237X
211:Forensics
165:dentistry
156:Dentistry
72:dentistry
961:Category
920:22297143
884:22924771
827:25794388
792:26974042
751:23408768
687:25926760
679:22753016
607:24664868
599:25270589
487:22919218
428:16473724
386:Archived
375:20288713
367:14704586
279:See also
200:in utero
120:Timeline
97:cephalo-
42:such as
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831:S2CID
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683:S2CID
640:S2CID
603:S2CID
371:S2CID
173:teeth
52:skull
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880:PMID
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788:PMID
747:PMID
675:PMID
595:PMID
545:PMID
483:PMID
465:ISSN
424:PMID
363:PMID
334:PMID
177:jaws
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