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893:, which contained two markers within a curved mercury tube to record the maximum and minimum temperature through which the instrument traveled. Several of these thermometers would be lowered at various depths for recording. However, this design assumed that the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below. During the voyage,
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crew used methods that were developed in prior small-scale expeditions to make observations. To measure depth, they would lower a line with a weight attached to it until it reached the sea floor. The line was marked in 25-fathom (150 ft; 46 m) intervals with flags denoting depth. Because of
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antiquities which in the tranquil and little changed depths of the ocean have escaped the causes of destruction at work in the shallows and represent the predominant population of a past age." Nothing of the sort came to pass, however; though a few organisms previously regarded as extinct were found
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to solve a thorny and important question: to evaluate the error in the measurement of the temperature of deep waters caused by the high pressures to which the thermometers were subjected. Tait solved this question and continued his work with a more fundamental study on the compressibility of liquids
833:
One of the goals of the physical measurements for HMS Challenger was to be able to verify the hypothesis put forward by
Carpenter on the link between temperature mapping and global ocean circulation in order to provide some answers on the phenomena involved in the major oceanic mixing. This study is
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which, among many other discoveries, catalogued over 4,000 previously unknown species. John Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as "the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". The report
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used mainly sail power during the expedition; the steam engine was used only for dragging the dredge, station-keeping while taking soundings, and entering and leaving ports. It was loaded with specimen jars, filled with alcohol for preservation of samples, microscopes and chemical apparatus, trawls
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to collect biological samples. The dredges consisted of metal nets attached to a wooden plank and dragged across the sea floor. Mop heads attached to the wooden plank would sweep across the sea floor and release organisms from the ocean bottom to be caught in the nets. Trawls were large metal nets
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After several weeks in Hong Kong, the expedition departed in early
January 1875 to retrace their route south-east towards New Guinea. The first stop on this outward leg of the journey was Manila. From there, they continued on to Samboangan, but took a different route through the interior of the
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On 23 March 1875, at sample station number 225 located in the southwest
Pacific Ocean between Guam and Palau, the crew recorded a sounding of 4,475 fathoms (26,850 ft; 8,184 m), which was confirmed by a second sounding. As shown by later expeditions using modern equipment, this area
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A second important issue concerning the collection of different kinds of physical data on the ocean floor was the laying of submarine telegraph cables. Many transoceanic cables were being laid in the 1860s and 1870s and their efficient laying and operation were matters of great strategic and
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in Chile a few days later. The next stage of the journey commenced the following month, with the route taking the ship south-westward back out into the
Pacific, past the Juan Fernández Islands, before turning to the south-east and back towards South America, reaching Port Otway in the
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The period from early- to mid-April was spent sailing from
Ascension Island to the Cape Verde Islands. From here, the route taken in late April and early May 1876 was a westward loop to the north out into the mid-Atlantic, eventually turning due east towards Europe to touch land at
514:, the main island of the Tonga archipelago (then known as the Friendly Islands). The waters around the Fijian islands, a short distance to the north-west of Tonga, were surveyed during late July and early August 1874. The ship's course was then set westward, reaching
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expedition continued to be published until 1895, 19 years after the completion of its journey, by the
Challenger Office, Edinburgh, established for that purpose. The report contained 50 volumes and was over 29,500 pages in length. Specimens brought back by
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On its landmark journey circumnavigating the globe, 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken. About 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered.
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The original ship's complement included 21 officers and around 216 crew members. By the end of the voyage, this had been reduced to 144 due to deaths, desertions, personnel being left ashore due to illness, and planned departures.
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To prepare the ship for scientific work, HMS Challenger's refit commenced at the Royal Navy's
Sheerness Dockyard in June 1872. The Admiralty estimated that repairs and modifications would require six months of planning and
273:, who had carried out important hydrographic observations on previous voyages. Though he was not among the civilian scientific staff, Tizard would later help write the official account of the expedition, and also become a
1807:
904:, which could measure temperature at specified depths. Afterwards, this type of thermometer was used extensively until the second half of the 20th century. After the return of the Challenger, C.W. Thomson asked
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were, at best, accurate to the nearest 25-fathom (150 ft; 46 m) demarcation. The sinker often had a small container attached to it that would allow for the collection of bottom sediment samples.
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in
Australia by the end of August. The ship arrived in New Zealand in late June and left in early July. Before reaching Wellington (on New Zealand's North Island), brief stops were made at Port Hardy (on
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and cataloged among the many new discoveries, the harvest was typical of what might be found in exploring any equivalent extent of new territory. Furthermore, in the process of preserving specimens in
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At each of the 360 stations the crew measured the bottom depth and temperature at different depths, observed weather and surface ocean conditions, and collected seafloor, water, and biota samples.
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were distributed to the world's foremost experts for examination, which greatly increased the expenses and time required to finalize the report. The report and specimens were displayed at the
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To investigate the physical conditions of the deep sea in the great ocean basins—as far as the neighborhood of the Great
Southern Ice Barrier—in regard to depth, temperature, circulation,
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Under the scientific supervision of
Thomson himself, the ship traveled approximately 68,890 nautical miles (79,280 miles; 127,580 kilometres) surveying and exploring. The result was the
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Most of January 1876 was spent navigating around the southern tip of South America, surveying and touching at many of the bays and islands of the Patagonian archipelago, the
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435:, with sightings of icebergs, pack ice and whales. The route then took the ship north-eastward and away from the ice regions in March 1874, with the expedition reaching
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covering the sea bottoms, which was purported to be the link between non-living matter and living cells. The net effect was a setback for the proponents of evolution.
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north-east of New Guinea. The final stage of the voyage on this side of the Pacific was a long journey across the open ocean to the north, passing mostly west of the
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Over the following three months, from September to November 1874, the expedition visited several islands and island groups while sailing from Cape York to China and
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Because of the novelty of the expedition, some of the equipment was invented or specially modified for the occasion. It carried 181 miles (291 km) of Italian
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s discovery of this depth was a key finding of the expedition in broadening oceanographic knowledge about the ocean's depth and extent; the depression, the
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The route from Wellington to Tonga went along the east coast of New Zealand's North Island, and then north and east into the open Pacific, passing by the
295:. The new captain was Frank Tourle Thomson. The second-in-command, and the most senior officer present throughout the entire expedition, was Commander
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842:. These results are important for Carpenter because his explanation differed from that of another renowned oceanographer at the time, the American
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crew would sort, rinse, and store the specimens for examination upon return. The specimens were often preserved in either brine or alcohol.
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from January to July, 2023. Some specimens, many of which were the first discovered of their kind, are still examined by scientists today.
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in Uruguay in mid-February 1876. The ship left Montevideo at the end of February, heading first due east and then due north, arriving at
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The account of the expedition route given here is based on the 40 official nautical charts produced by the expedition, available at:
338:(both February 1873). The period from February to July 1873 was spent crossing the Atlantic westwards from the Canary Islands to the
202:, devices to collect sediment from the sea bed and great lengths of rope with which to suspend the equipment into the ocean depths.
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in Australia later that month. The journey eastward along the coast from Melbourne to Sydney took place in April 1874, passing by
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The expedition also verified the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge extending from the southern hemisphere to the northern one.
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in Spain towards the end of May. The final stage of the voyage took the ship and its crew north-eastward from Vigo, skirting the
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December 1873 to February 1874 was spent sailing on a roughly south-eastern track from the Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of
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A large number of scientists worked on categorizing the material brought back from the expedition including the paleontologist
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After leaving the Cape Verde Islands in August 1873, the expedition initially sailed south-east and then headed west to reach
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of seawater at various depths from the surface to the bottom, the organic matter in solution and the particles in suspension.
384:(now called Salvador) in Brazil. The period from September to October 1873 was spent crossing the Atlantic from Bahia to the
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1274:– pages 19 and 20 list the civilian staff and naval officers and crew, along with changes that took place during the voyage.
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From deep sea to laboratory. 2 : Discovering H.M.S. Challenger's physical measurements relating to ocean circulation
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608:. From Samboangan the ship diverged from the inward route, this time passing south of Mindanao—in early-February 1875.
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From deep sea to laboratory. 3, From Tait's work on the compressibility of seawater to equations-of-state for liquids
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on the island of Panay, before navigating within the interior of the archipelago en route to the bay and harbour of
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towed behind the ship to collect organisms at different depths of water. Upon the retrieval of a dredge or trawl,
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and then heading to the south-east before turning east towards the South American coast. The route touched at the
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17 guns were removed and its spars reduced to make more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special
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then headed east into the open sea, before turning to the south-east and making landfall at Humboldt Bay (now
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Modern soundings to 6,012 fathoms (36,070 ft; 10,994 m) have since been found near the site of the
940:". They believed that the conditions of constant cold temperature, darkness, and lack of currents, waves, or
1652:"Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years of 1872–76 (page 877)"
174:, but not within sight of it. However, it was the first scientific expedition to take pictures of icebergs.
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on the island of Luzon. The crossing north-westward from Manila to Hong Kong took place in November 1874.
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To ascertain the physical and chemical character of deep-sea deposits and the sources of these deposits.
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From deep sea to laboratory. 1: the first explorations of the deep sea by H.M.S. Challenger (1872–1876)
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Report of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–76
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to the north-east and the Australian mainland to the south-west. The first islands visited were the
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expedition, oceanography had been mainly speculative. As the first true oceanographic cruise, the
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One of the original boxes containing the photographic negatives brought back from the expedition
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431:. February 1874 was spent travelling south and then generally eastwards in the vicinity of the
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From Ternate, the route went north-westward towards the Philippines, passing east of Celebes (
361:. During this period, there was a detour in April and May 1873, sailing from Bermuda north to
265:, George Granville Campbell, and Andrew Francis Balfour (one of the sons of Scottish botanist
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850:(i.e. the expedition's secretary-artist) in his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.
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To investigate the distribution of organic life at different depths and on the deep seafloor.
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departed Japan in mid-June 1875, heading east across the Pacific to a point due north of the
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of 1872–1876 was a scientific programme that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of
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1775:"Exploring Our Oceans: The Challenger Expedition and Its Legacy | Natural History Museum"
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670:. A couple of weeks later, in mid-August, the ship departed south-eastward, anchoring at
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1365:"Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the "Mountains in the Sea" Expedition"
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from December 1872 until May 1876. The colour contours represent ocean surface density.
303:. Lords Campbell and Balfour left the ship in Valparaiso, Chile, after being promoted.
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events provided such a stable environment that evolution would slow or stop entirely.
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in December 1874, at which point Nares and Aldrich left the ship to take part in the
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1260:"The Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger 1873–1876. Narrative Vol. I. First Part. Chapter I"
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should put the seal on the work of that great pioneering expedition of oceanography.
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The expedition left Tahiti in early October, swinging to the west and south of the
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522:—at the end of August and thence arriving at Cape York, at the tip of Australia's
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found her deepest depth and it may be thought fitting that a ship with the name
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261:. As well as Nares and Maclear, others that were part of the naval crew included
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expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline. "
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believed that in the deeps "we should expect to find representatives of earlier
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Upheaval From the Abyss: Ocean Floor Mapping and the Earth Science Revolution
2026:(1994 reprint ed.). Oxford University Press and Natural History Museum.
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965:, Thomson and chemist John Young Buchanan realized that he had inadvertently
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2073:"Archive entry for journals of Andrew F. Balfour, including three from HMS
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in New Zealand, followed by a large loop north into the Pacific calling at
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53:. The expedition was named after the naval vessel that undertook the trip,
50:
1080:, herpetologist at the Natural History Museum, named a species of lizard,
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of Glasgow University established the composition of seawater. Murray and
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662:(Hawaiʻi), and then turning south, making landfall at the end of July at
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When the voyage resumed in June 1874, the route went east from Sydney to
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Thalassa: An Essay on the Depth, Temperature, and Currents of the Ocean
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Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). "Challenger".
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Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake of HMS Challenger
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was not more than 50 miles from the spot where the nineteenth-century
353:(home base of the North America and West Indies Station), east to the
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1947:. Birch Aquarium at Scripps Institute of Oceanography. Archived from
1931:. Birch Aquarium at Scripps Institute of Oceanography. Archived from
1333:. Terrey Hills, New South Wales: Australian Geographic. p. 115.
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2002:
At Sea with the Scientifics: The Challenger Letters of Joseph Matkin
1980:"Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S.
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671:
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846:. All these results of physical measurements were synthesized by
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and dredges, thermometers, barometers, water sampling bottles,
150:, on 21 December 1872. Other naval officers included Commander
2040:
537:). The first part of the route passed north and west over the
2988:
2333:. Edinburgh University Library (Archives Hub). Archived from
2150:
The Silent Landscape: the Scientific Voyage of HMS Challenger
1915:. University of Kansas Natural History Museum. Archived from
1736:
Under the Deep Oceans: Twentieth Century Voyages of Discovery
874:
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twice with the reverse journey crossing further to the east.
299:. Willemoes-Suhm died and was buried at sea on the voyage to
1024:, which in 1951 identified a depth of 5,944 fathoms nearby.
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The final stops, before heading out into the Atlantic, were
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and is one of the deepest known places on the ocean floor.
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Thomson believed, as did many adherents of the then-recent
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342:, then heading north to the North Atlantic archipelago and
206:
1518:
1516:
834:
a continuation of the preliminary exploratory missions of
2051:
1833:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 51.
1188:"Telling the story of the Challenger Expedition, 1872–76"
376:. From here, the route went south across the equator to
4193:
2108:
Neptune's Laboratory: Fantasy, Fear, and Science at Sea
2096:
The Challenger Expedition: Exploring the Ocean's Depths
1753:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 35.
1751:
Neptune's Laboratory: Fantasy, Fear, and Science at Sea
1513:
1460:
Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment
1304:(1959 ed.). United States: Vintage Books. p.
2062:
1109:, the oceanographic and marine geological survey ship
1016:, now bears the name of the vessel and its successor,
380:
during September 1873, and onwards that same month to
130:
and in 1872 modified the ship for scientific tasks at
1828:
1601:. University of California, San Diego. Archived from
1595:"HMS Challenger – The science: dredging and trawling"
102:, was placed under the scientific supervision of Sir
2346:
2171:
The Challenger Expedition, 1872–1876: A Visual Index
2125:
502:
pilot taken on board by the expedition in July 1874.
2215:"Centenary of the Challenger Expedition, 1872–1876"
1709:"IHO-IOC GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names"
318:The first leg of the expedition took the ship from
2237:
1738:. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. pp. 24–25.
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1295:
415:. The islands visited during this period were the
114:—assisted by five other scientists, including Sir
2261:
2167:
2020:Robert Wynn Jones and Henry Bowman Brady (1884).
1998:
1963:. Library of 19th Century Science. Archived from
1510:This also includes a map of the expedition route.
604:Philippines, this time touching at the island of
5502:
2058:. Harper & Brothers – via archive.org.
2247:(2010 reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing.
1466:
407:, drawn by crewman Sub-lieutenant Herbert Swire
2188:
2146:
1105:" was applied to such varied phenomena as the
678:, before continuing to the south and reaching
569:. At the time, all these islands were part of
134:, equipping it with separate laboratories for
2395:
2055:The Cruise of Her Majesty's ship "Challenger"
1457:
118:, a secretary-artist and a photographer. The
16:Oceanographic research expedition (1872–1876)
2212:
2104:
1547:
1545:
1331:The Australian Geographic book of Antarctica
1154:
885:The primary thermometer used throughout the
1624:Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019).
1623:
1552:Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019).
1551:
1494:University of Kansas Natural History Museum
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1185:
1159:Aitken, Frédéric; Foulc, Jean-Numa (2019).
1158:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
800:stated the voyage's scientific goals were:
2402:
2388:
565:) in October 1874, and then continuing to
2065:Notes by a Naturalist on the "Challenger"
1855:"Challenger (STA-099, OV-99): Background"
1617:
1542:
1429:"Bermuda And The "Challenger" Expedition"
357:, back to Madeira, and then south to the
5460:Pole of Inaccessibility research station
2098:(London: Royal Museums Greenwich, 2022)
1899:. Natural History Museum. Archived from
1399:"Scientific Equipment on HMS Challenger"
1391:
1243:
1131:
824:
791:
756:and then continuing northward, reaching
636:
493:
449:
394:
305:
220:
182:To enable it to probe the depths, 15 of
20:
5035:Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition
2041:Lord George Granville Campbell (1876).
1925:"The letters of Joseph Matkin from HMS
1733:
1290:
1032:II, observed that the later measurement
873:The crew used a variety of dredges and
752:towards the end of January, calling at
588:. The expedition called at Samboangan (
5503:
1973:Primary reports, accounts, and letters
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1216:
1214:
1212:
928:, that the deep sea would be home to "
164:Report of the Voyage of HMS Challenger
4179:
2421:
2409:
2383:
2244:Bermuda and the Challenger Expedition
1748:
1439:from the original on 24 February 2020
1328:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1107:Challenger Society for Marine Science
257:. The official expedition artist was
233:The scientific work was conducted by
1676:
1578:
1409:from the original on 31 January 2018
1220:
1186:Chamberlain, Daisy (26 March 2024).
5541:Expeditions from the United Kingdom
4821:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
3018:Norse colonization of North America
1679:"Oceans' deepest depth re-measured"
1490:"Challenger Expedition (1872–1876)"
1347:
1209:
991:represents the southern end of the
13:
4350:United States Exploring Expedition
2052:William James Joseph Spry (1877).
1880:
1715:from the original on 14 March 2012
1677:Amos, Jonathan (7 December 2011).
1658:from the original on 17 April 2012
1379:from the original on 25 April 2015
1362:
1322:
1277:
1179:
985:
936:in shallower waters, examples of "
865:this, the depth measurements from
14:
5572:
5424:Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
4792:Australasian Antarctic Expedition
2342:
2044:Log-letters from "The Challenger"
1831:The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles
1810:from the original on 13 June 2013
1583:. London, UK: Marcus Ward and Co.
142:. The expedition, led by Captain
5318:Amundsen's South Pole expedition
4711:Amundsen's South Pole expedition
2364:
2349:
2079:. AIM25 archives. Archived from
1689:from the original on 25 May 2012
1526:. Birch Aquarium. Archived from
956:stated that he expected to see "
253:. Frank Evers Bed was appointed
78:
67:
2063:Henry Nottidge Moseley (1879).
1999:Philip F. Rehbock, ed. (1992).
1988:Library of 19th Century Science
1941:"Map of the route taken by HMS
1847:
1822:
1792:
1767:
1742:
1727:
1701:
1670:
1644:
1587:
1572:
1451:
269:). Also among the officers was
177:
2219:Scottish Geographical Magazine
2005:. University of Hawaii Press.
1804:Natural History Museum, London
1421:
1067:British Natural History Museum
829:Examination of caught specimen
326:(January 1873) and then on to
1:
4697:Japanese Antarctic Expedition
4632:Scottish Antarctic Expedition
4180:
2192:The Voyage of the 'Challenger
2126:Helen M. Rozwadowski (2005).
1229:. Routledge. pp. 27–48.
1125:
1028:, the Chief Scientist on HMS
776:to make landfall in England.
216:
98:The expedition, initiated by
5054:Soviet Antarctic Expeditions
4870:Shackleton–Rowett Expedition
4676:French Antarctic Expeditions
4606:Swedish Antarctic Expedition
4492:Belgian Antarctic Expedition
2610:Lady Franklin Bay Expedition
2268:. Rutgers University Press.
2132:. Harvard University Press.
2111:. Harvard University Press.
1859:John F. Kennedy Space Center
553:. The ship then crossed the
470:, and then back westward to
7:
4139:Nuclear-powered icebreakers
3818:Austro-Hungarian Expedition
2683:Andrée's balloon expedition
2311:"Foraminifera in Brady HMS
2023:The Challenger Foraminifera
1223:"The Challenger Expedition"
693:in mid-November 1875, with
573:and are since 1949 part of
275:Fellow of the Royal Society
162:is available online as the
10:
5577:
3340:Franklin's lost expedition
3040:Christian IV's expeditions
2422:
2262:David M. Lawrence (2002).
2174:. Natural History Museum.
2168:Eileen V. Brunton (1994).
1800:"HMS Challenger: Findings"
1654:. 19thcenturyscience.org.
1630:. London, UK: ISTE-WILEY.
1558:. London, UK: ISTE-WILEY.
1165:. London, UK: Iste-Wiley.
921:mapped oceanic sediments.
891:Miller–Casella thermometer
764:at the end of March 1876.
729:; and Port Churruca, near
727:Queen Adelaide Archipelago
666:on the Hawaiian island of
518:—on the outer edge of the
100:William Benjamin Carpenter
5551:Oceanographic expeditions
5157:
4888:
4475:
4215:
4192:
4188:
4175:
3694:Great Northern Expedition
3588:
3370:Rae–Richardson expedition
3119:
2964:
2570:British Arctic Expedition
2462:
2434:
2430:
2417:
2231:10.1080/00369227208736231
1984:during the years 1873–76"
1579:Wild, John James (1877).
1524:"HMS Challenger: Science"
1051:
969:Huxley's prior report of
808:and penetration of light.
549:, followed by the nearby
322:(December 1872) south to
293:British Arctic Expedition
251:Rudolf von Willemoes-Suhm
193:platform were installed.
4978:British Antarctic Survey
4972:Captain Arturo Prat Base
4217:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
2284:Collections and archives
1734:Gaskell, Thomas (1960).
1083:Saproscincus challengeri
919:Alphonse François Renard
744:, and Elizabeth Island.
725:; Isthmus Bay, near the
634:, Japan, in April 1875.
592:) on Mindanao, and then
112:Merchiston Castle School
5454:Pole of inaccessibility
5117:Antarctic Treaty System
3458:2nd Grinnell expedition
2319:Foraminifera.eu-Project
2189:Eric Linklater (1974).
2147:R. M. Corfield (2003).
1913:Expedition (1872–1876)"
1192:Royal Museums Greenwich
1078:George Albert Boulenger
854:commercial importance.
571:Netherlands East-Indies
454:Expedition crew in 1874
365:and back, crossing the
120:Royal Society of London
108:University of Edinburgh
104:Charles Wyville Thomson
37:Illustrated London News
2299:Natural History Museum
2153:. Joseph Henry Press.
1749:Adler, Antony (2019).
1711:. GEBCO. August 2011.
1458:Peter K. Weyl (1970).
1403:HMS Challenger Project
1369:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
1046:
909:leading to his famous
844:Matthew Fontaine Maury
830:
691:Juan Fernández Islands
652:
646:Juan Fernández Islands
503:
455:
408:
330:. The next stops were
315:
247:Henry Nottidge Moseley
226:
39:
5124:Transglobe Expedition
5023:Operation Deep Freeze
4432:Challenger expedition
3298:Coppermine expedition
2819:Drifting ice stations
2213:John B. Tait (1972).
2105:Antony Adler (2019).
1329:Scott, Keith (1993).
1034:
1005:s original sounding.
902:reversing thermometer
828:
792:Scientific objectives
721:; Puerta Bueno, near
706:on 31 December 1875.
697:reaching the port of
640:
497:
491:to reach Wellington.
481:Queen Charlotte Sound
453:
417:Prince Edward Islands
398:
309:
224:
24:
2376:at Wikimedia Commons
2089:Secondary literature
1919:on 14 December 2012.
1221:Rice, A. L. (1999).
840:HMS Porcupine (1844)
836:HMS Lightning (1823)
813:chemical composition
561:, to reach Amboina (
122:obtained the use of
5511:1870s in Antarctica
5294:South magnetic pole
3960:Brusilov expedition
3069:Danish colonization
2507:North magnetic pole
2337:on 14 January 2012.
2305:on 2 November 2014.
2129:Fathoming the Ocean
1903:on 2 November 2014.
1605:on 19 February 2015
1500:on 14 December 2012
1302:The Immense Journey
1272:on 14 October 2013.
972:Bathybius haeckelii
926:theory of evolution
889:expedition was the
630:, reaching port in
524:Cape York Peninsula
487:passed through the
378:Fernando de Noronha
271:Thomas Henry Tizard
267:John Hutton Balfour
243:John Young Buchanan
148:Portsmouth, England
5561:Global expeditions
4985:Operation Windmill
4966:Operation Highjump
3941:Rusanov expedition
3846:A. E. Nordenskiöld
3590:North East Passage
3394:McClure expedition
2331:Papers, 1872–1876"
2239:George Watson Cole
2100:online book review
1961:Medal Roll (1895)"
1865:on 3 February 2009
1530:on 26 January 2013
1074:Gabriel Warton Lee
1056:Findings from the
900:s crew tested the
831:
711:Strait of Magellan
682:in mid-September.
653:
520:Great Barrier Reef
504:
456:
441:Wilsons Promontory
409:
359:Cape Verde Islands
316:
227:
40:
5498:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5490:
5489:
4952:Operation Tabarin
4814:Far Eastern Party
4660:Nimrod Expedition
4171:
4170:
4167:
4166:
3730:M. Pronchishcheva
3652:Siberian Cossacks
3121:Northwest Passage
2454:Research stations
2411:Polar exploration
2369:Media related to
1967:on 13 March 2009.
1951:on 22 March 2012.
1435:. 29 March 2013.
1297:"The Great Deeps"
1112:Glomar Challenger
811:To determine the
731:Santa Ines Island
719:Wellington Island
620:Admiralty Islands
425:Kerguelen Islands
386:Cape of Good Hope
344:Imperial fortress
5568:
4999:Ronne Expedition
4484:
4478:
4342:Dumont d'Urville
4190:
4189:
4177:
4176:
3725:V. Pronchishchev
2432:
2431:
2419:
2418:
2404:
2397:
2390:
2381:
2380:
2368:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2338:
2322:
2306:
2301:. Archived from
2279:
2258:
2234:
2209:
2195:
2185:
2164:
2143:
2122:
2084:
2068:
2059:
2048:
2037:
2016:
1995:
1990:. Archived from
1968:
1952:
1936:
1935:on 23 July 2008.
1920:
1904:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1861:. Archived from
1851:
1845:
1844:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1549:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1520:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1496:. Archived from
1485:
1464:
1463:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1360:
1345:
1344:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1299:
1288:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1265:. Archived from
1264:
1256:
1241:
1240:
1218:
1207:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1156:
1011:
1004:
899:
863:
806:specific gravity
762:Ascension Island
750:Falkland Islands
715:Tierra del Fuego
660:Sandwich Islands
624:Caroline Islands
557:touching at the
508:Kermadec Islands
477:d'Urville Island
433:Antarctic Circle
413:60 degrees south
390:Tristan da Cunha
188:
170:sailed close to
82:
71:
5576:
5575:
5571:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5566:
5565:
5536:1876 in science
5531:1875 in science
5526:1874 in science
5521:1873 in science
5516:1872 in science
5501:
5500:
5499:
5486:
5161:
5153:
5029:McMurdo Station
4898:Modern research
4896:
4884:
4619:O. Nordenskjöld
4482:
4476:
4471:
4387:Ross expedition
4211:
4184:
4163:
3592:
3584:
3125:Northern Canada
3123:
3115:
2968:
2960:
2466:
2458:
2426:
2413:
2408:
2355:
2348:
2345:
2325:
2309:
2289:
2276:
2255:
2206:
2193:
2182:
2161:
2140:
2119:
2094:Jones, Erika.
2083:on 9 June 2012.
2071:
2034:
2013:
1994:on 7 July 2005.
1978:
1955:
1939:
1923:
1907:
1891:
1883:
1881:Further reading
1878:
1868:
1866:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1827:
1823:
1813:
1811:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1781:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1747:
1743:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1692:
1690:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1659:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1622:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1550:
1543:
1533:
1531:
1522:
1521:
1514:
1503:
1501:
1488:
1486:
1467:
1456:
1452:
1442:
1440:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1410:
1405:. 2 June 2015.
1397:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1361:
1348:
1341:
1327:
1323:
1316:
1289:
1278:
1269:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1244:
1237:
1219:
1210:
1196:
1194:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1157:
1132:
1128:
1054:
1014:Challenger Deep
1009:
1002:
988:
986:Challenger Deep
915:William Dittmar
897:
861:
848:John James Wild
794:
628:Mariana Islands
616:Yos Sudarso Bay
498:Amatabaulay, a
374:St Paul's Rocks
259:John James Wild
235:Wyville Thomson
219:
186:
180:
136:natural history
96:
95:
94:
93:
85:
84:
83:
74:
73:
72:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5574:
5564:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5496:
5495:
5492:
5491:
5488:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5468:
5467:
5462:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5446:Vostok Station
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5397:Cherry-Garrard
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5362:
5361:
5360:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5314:
5313:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5290:
5289:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5261:
5260:
5259:
5247:
5246:
5245:
5237:Southern Cross
5233:
5232:
5231:
5218:
5217:
5216:
5203:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5167:
5165:
5159:Farthest South
5155:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5139:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5120:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5083:
5082:
5081:
5074:
5069:
5050:
5049:
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5031:
5026:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5007:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4981:
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4969:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4948:
4947:
4946:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4920:
4913:
4908:
4902:
4900:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4866:
4865:
4864:
4856:Ross Sea party
4852:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4817:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4803:
4788:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4742:
4741:
4740:
4733:
4726:
4721:
4707:
4706:
4705:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4672:
4671:
4670:
4656:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4640:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4574:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4550:Southern Cross
4543:Southern Cross
4539:
4538:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4487:
4485:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4467:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4428:
4423:
4422:
4421:
4408:
4402:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4306:
4305:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4289:Bellingshausen
4279:
4272:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4252:
4251:
4250:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4221:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4186:
4185:
4173:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4148:
4136:
4131:
4124:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4037:
4036:
4035:
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3648:
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3638:
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3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3598:
3596:
3594:Russian Arctic
3586:
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3577:
3576:
3575:
3561:
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3559:
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3540:
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3209:
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3194:
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3177:
3165:
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3117:
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3084:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3036:
3031:
3029:Snæbjörn galti
3026:
3021:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2992:
2985:
2980:
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2525:
2520:
2515:
2503:
2498:
2493:
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2483:
2478:
2472:
2470:
2464:Farthest North
2460:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2428:
2427:
2415:
2414:
2407:
2406:
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2361:
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2344:
2343:External links
2341:
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2323:
2307:
2281:
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2274:
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2235:
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2204:
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2117:
2102:
2086:
2085:
2069:
2060:
2049:
2038:
2032:
2017:
2011:
1996:
1970:
1969:
1953:
1937:
1921:
1905:
1882:
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1846:
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1450:
1420:
1390:
1363:Bishop, Tina.
1346:
1340:978-1862760103
1339:
1321:
1314:
1292:Eiseley, Loren
1276:
1242:
1235:
1208:
1178:
1171:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1117:Space Shuttle
1053:
1050:
1026:Thomas Gaskell
993:Mariana Trench
987:
984:
930:living fossils
823:
822:
819:
816:
809:
793:
790:
723:Hanover Island
687:Tubuai Islands
676:Hawaiʻi Island
567:Ternate Island
535:British colony
421:Crozet Islands
405:Southern Ocean
388:, touching at
340:Virgin Islands
336:Canary Islands
263:Pelham Aldrich
218:
215:
200:sounding leads
179:
176:
146:, sailed from
87:
86:
77:
76:
75:
66:
65:
64:
63:
62:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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5556:Royal Society
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4603:
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4577:Discovery Hut
4575:
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4110:
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4107:A. Sibiryakov
4104:
4100:
4097:
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4094:
4090:
4086:
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4081:
4080:
4079:Glavsevmorput
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3998:
3996:
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3808:
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3800:
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3406:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3397:
3396:
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3391:
3389:
3386:
3382:
3381:J. Richardson
3379:
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3210:
3206:
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3200:
3195:
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3170:
3166:
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3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3143:M. Corte-Real
3141:
3139:
3138:G. Corte-Real
3136:
3134:
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3118:
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3066:
3062:
3061:C. Richardson
3059:
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2870:Georgiy Sedov
2866:
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2757:Riiser-Larsen
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2118:9780674972018
2114:
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2018:
2014:
2008:
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1997:
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1842:
1840:9781421401355
1836:
1832:
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1809:
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1801:
1795:
1780:
1779:www.nhm.ac.uk
1776:
1770:
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1760:9780674972018
1756:
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1714:
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1633:
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1565:9781786303752
1561:
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1499:
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1478:
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1472:
1470:
1462:. p. 49.
1461:
1454:
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1400:
1394:
1378:
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1236:9781857287059
1232:
1228:
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1215:
1213:
1205:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1174:
1172:9781786303745
1168:
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1023:
1021:
1015:
1008:
1001:
996:
994:
983:
981:
978:
974:
973:
968:
964:
959:
955:
954:Thomas Huxley
951:
947:
946:Louis Agassiz
943:
939:
938:missing links
935:
931:
927:
922:
920:
916:
912:
911:Tait equation
907:
903:
896:
892:
888:
883:
881:
876:
871:
868:
860:
855:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
827:
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817:
814:
810:
807:
803:
802:
801:
799:
798:Royal Society
789:
787:
783:
779:
775:
774:Bay of Biscay
771:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
707:
705:
704:Gulf of Penas
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
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629:
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621:
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613:
609:
607:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
559:Banda Islands
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
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496:
492:
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370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
313:
310:Track of HMS
308:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
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223:
214:
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208:
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196:
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185:
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137:
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125:
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109:
105:
101:
91:
81:
70:
61:
59:
58:
52:
48:
46:
38:
34:
30:
29:
23:
19:
5452:
5440:Pole of Cold
5438:
5364:
5355:
5323:
5316:
5292:
5263:
5249:
5243:Borchgrevink
5235:
5222:
5207:
5187:
5172:
5141:
5122:
5115:
5099:
5085:
5076:
5059:
5052:
5033:
5021:
4997:
4983:
4976:
4964:
4950:
4936:
4922:
4915:
4876:
4868:
4854:
4847:
4845:
4827:
4819:
4812:
4799:
4790:
4752:
4744:
4735:
4728:
4716:
4709:
4695:
4683:Pourquoi-Pas
4682:
4674:
4666:
4658:
4653:Orcadas Base
4651:
4643:
4630:
4624:C. A. Larsen
4612:
4604:
4590:
4583:
4570:
4562:
4556:Borchgrevink
4549:
4541:
4498:
4490:
4465:C. A. Larsen
4458:
4439:
4431:
4430:
4412:
4394:
4385:
4372:
4357:
4348:
4335:
4296:
4282:
4275:
4256:
4241:
4151:
4144:
4127:
4120:
4106:
4091:
4077:
4064:
4039:
4025:
4023:
4009:
4007:
4001:
3999:
3965:
3958:
3939:
3905:
3903:
3889:
3887:
3869:
3859:
3857:
3837:
3835:
3816:
3692:
3650:
3633:
3601:
3565:
3563:
3543:
3542:
3522:
3521:
3507:
3494:
3479:
3465:
3456:
3443:
3414:
3402:Investigator
3401:
3392:
3368:
3355:
3347:
3338:
3325:
3296:
3273:
3258:
3243:
3213:
3198:
3168:
3087:
3067:
3038:
3034:Erik the Red
3016:
2994:
2987:
2944:submersibles
2941:
2935:Arktika 2007
2933:
2926:
2919:
2916:
2900:
2891:
2888:
2869:
2867:
2860:
2853:
2824:
2817:
2793:
2779:
2778:
2770:
2768:
2734:
2732:
2703:
2700:
2689:S. A. Andrée
2681:
2668:
2643:
2635:
2632:
2608:
2590:
2577:
2568:
2550:
2541:
2539:
2505:
2371:
2335:the original
2328:
2318:
2312:
2303:the original
2298:
2292:
2283:
2282:
2264:
2243:
2222:
2218:
2198:. Cardinal.
2191:
2170:
2149:
2128:
2107:
2095:
2088:
2087:
2081:the original
2074:
2067:. Macmillan.
2064:
2054:
2047:. Macmillan.
2043:
2022:
2001:
1992:the original
1987:
1981:
1972:
1971:
1965:the original
1958:
1949:the original
1942:
1933:the original
1926:
1917:the original
1910:
1901:the original
1894:
1885:
1884:
1867:. Retrieved
1863:the original
1849:
1830:
1824:
1812:. Retrieved
1794:
1782:. Retrieved
1778:
1769:
1750:
1744:
1735:
1729:
1717:. Retrieved
1703:
1691:. Retrieved
1682:
1672:
1660:. Retrieved
1646:
1626:
1619:
1607:. Retrieved
1603:the original
1598:
1589:
1580:
1574:
1554:
1532:. Retrieved
1528:the original
1502:. Retrieved
1498:the original
1493:
1459:
1453:
1441:. Retrieved
1432:
1423:
1411:. Retrieved
1402:
1393:
1381:. Retrieved
1368:
1330:
1324:
1301:
1267:the original
1226:
1202:
1195:. Retrieved
1191:
1181:
1161:
1118:
1111:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1071:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1047:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1029:
1019:
1006:
999:
997:
989:
970:
923:
894:
886:
884:
879:
872:
866:
858:
856:
852:
832:
795:
780:returned to
777:
766:
754:Port Stanley
748:reached the
745:
735:
708:
694:
684:
655:
654:
641:
611:
610:
602:
579:
563:Ambon Island
528:
516:Raine Island
510:en route to
505:
484:
457:
429:Heard Island
410:
400:
392:on the way.
371:
317:
311:
297:John Maclear
284:
283:
279:
232:
228:
204:
194:
183:
181:
178:Preparations
167:
158:
156:
152:John Maclear
144:George Nares
123:
97:
89:
88:Maps of the
56:
51:oceanography
44:
43:
41:
31:refitted at
27:
18:
5546:Exploration
5143:Lake Vostok
5093:Tryoshnikov
5015:Schlossbach
4906:Christensen
4848:James Caird
4769:E. R. Evans
4535:Dobrowolski
4505:de Gerlache
4207:Expeditions
4093:Aviaarktika
4047:Samoylovich
3918:Kolomeitsev
3812:Middendorff
3772:Gedenshtrom
3192:I. Fyodorov
2954:Chilingarov
2842:E. Fyodorov
2449:Expeditions
2315:Collection"
2295:collection"
1897:expedition"
1869:21 December
1443:24 February
1093:Before the
742:Sandy Point
738:Port Famine
586:Celebes Sea
584:) into the
551:Kai Islands
547:Aru Islands
539:Arafura Sea
489:Cook Strait
367:Gulf Stream
239:John Murray
116:John Murray
5505:Categories
5366:Terra Nova
5271:Shackleton
5214:J. C. Ross
5173:Resolution
5163:South Pole
4938:New Swabia
4862:Mackintosh
4834:Shackleton
4753:Terra Nova
4746:Terra Nova
4480:Heroic Age
4440:Challenger
4400:J. C. Ross
4310:Bransfield
4242:Resolution
4157:icebreaker
4121:Chelyuskin
3862:expedition
3840:Expedition
3782:Matyushkin
3740:Kh. Laptev
3735:Chelyuskin
3629:Heemskerck
3619:Chancellor
3614:Willoughby
3609:Koch boats
3552:Stefansson
3486:McClintock
3450:Inglefield
3292:J. C. Ross
3199:Resolution
3051:Cunningham
2949:Sagalevich
2638:expedition
2597:Stephenson
2557:C. F. Hall
2544:expedition
2518:J. C. Ross
2481:Heemskerck
2468:North Pole
2374:expedition
2372:Challenger
2329:Challenger
2313:Challenger
2293:Challenger
2254:116639994X
2225:(3): 221.
2205:0351172238
2181:0565011391
2160:0309089042
2139:0674027566
2075:Challenger
2033:0198540965
2012:082481424X
1982:Challenger
1959:Challenger
1943:Challenger
1927:Challenger
1911:Challenger
1895:Challenger
1814:3 December
1693:7 December
1609:13 October
1534:3 December
1504:2 February
1413:31 January
1383:31 January
1315:0394701577
1126:References
1119:Challenger
1115:, and the
1103:Challenger
1099:Challenger
1095:Challenger
1088:Challenger
1063:Challenger
1058:Challenger
1042:Challenger
1038:Challenger
1030:Challenger
1020:Challenger
1007:Challenger
1000:Challenger
980:protoplasm
958:zoological
952:periods."
950:geological
906:Peter Tait
895:Challenger
887:Challenger
880:Challenger
867:Challenger
859:Challenger
778:Challenger
758:Montevideo
746:Challenger
699:Valparaiso
695:Challenger
656:Challenger
642:Challenger
612:Challenger
543:New Guinea
485:Challenger
460:Wellington
401:Challenger
320:Portsmouth
312:Challenger
285:Challenger
217:Expedition
195:Challenger
184:Challenger
172:Antarctica
168:Challenger
128:Royal Navy
124:Challenger
90:Challenger
57:Challenger
47:expedition
45:Challenger
28:Challenger
5465:Tolstikov
5251:Discovery
5221:HMS
5206:HMS
5188:Adventure
5186:HMS
5171:HMS
5107:Tolstikov
4828:Endurance
4613:Antarctic
4598:Drygalski
4571:Discovery
4564:Discovery
4525:Arctowski
4438:HMS
4411:HMS
4405:Abernethy
4393:HMS
4371:USS
4358:Vincennes
4356:USS
4336:Astrolabe
4276:San Telmo
4257:Adventure
4255:HMS
4240:HMS
4235:Kerguelen
4197:Continent
4182:Antarctic
4059:Urvantsev
4017:Vilkitsky
3870:Jeannette
3868:USS
3860:Jeannette
3824:Weyprecht
3802:Pakhtusov
3752:Chichagov
3745:D. Laptev
3688:Permyakov
3663:Stadukhin
3658:Perfilyev
3635:Mangazeya
3573:H. Larsen
3538:Rasmussen
3493:HMS
3464:USS
3413:HMS
3400:HMS
3364:Collinson
3354:HMS
3346:HMS
3324:HMS
3272:HMS
3257:HMS
3242:HMS
3227:Mackenzie
3214:Discovery
3212:HMS
3197:HMS
3169:Discovery
3148:Frobisher
3111:Rasmussen
3024:Gunnbjörn
2970:Greenland
2899:USS
2890:USS
2762:Ellsworth
2704:Roosevelt
2634:Nansen's
2591:Discovery
2589:HMS
2576:HMS
2523:Abernethy
2491:Marmaduke
1197:15 August
977:acellular
786:Hampshire
590:Zamboanga
575:Indonesia
555:Banda Sea
531:Hong Kong
512:Tongatabu
472:Cape York
445:Cape Howe
437:Melbourne
328:Gibraltar
289:Hong Kong
255:prosector
209:rope for
140:chemistry
132:Sheerness
126:from the
92:'s route.
55:HMS
35:in 1872,
33:Sheerness
26:HMS
5477:A. Fuchs
5434:V. Fuchs
5414:McKinley
5377:E. Evans
5336:Bjaaland
5331:Amundsen
5281:Marshall
5194:Furneaux
5046:V. Fuchs
5010:E. Ronne
5005:F. Ronne
4944:Ritscher
4798:SY
4786:Filchner
4730:Framheim
4724:Amundsen
4530:Racoviță
4515:Amundsen
4510:Lecointe
4379:Ringgold
4373:Porpoise
4263:Furneaux
4099:Shevelev
4054:Begichev
4033:Amundsen
3995:Nagórski
3973:Brusilov
3967:Sv. Anna
3881:Melville
3851:Palander
3807:Tsivolko
3767:Sannikov
3762:Billings
3705:Chirikov
3624:Barentsz
3566:St. Roch
3557:Bartlett
3531:Amundsen
3515:Sverdrup
3415:Resolute
3304:Franklin
3232:Kotzebue
3099:Sverdrup
3082:Scoresby
3056:Lindenov
2907:Plaisted
2892:Nautilus
2837:Shirshov
2811:Belyakov
2806:Baydukov
2780:Nautilus
2742:Amundsen
2702:SS
2661:Sverdrup
2656:Johansen
2626:Brainard
2621:Lockwood
2476:Barentsz
2241:(1901).
1808:Archived
1719:20 March
1713:Archived
1687:Archived
1683:BBC News
1662:26 March
1656:Archived
1599:Aquarium
1437:Archived
1407:Archived
1377:Archived
1294:(1946).
1086:, after
967:debunked
782:Spithead
672:Hilo Bay
664:Honolulu
632:Yokohama
626:and the
582:Sulawesi
533:(then a
334:and the
287:reached
211:sounding
191:dredging
106:—of the
5482:Messner
5429:Hillary
5409:Balchen
5357:Polheim
5351:Wisting
5229:Crozier
5201:Weddell
5179:J. Cook
5149:Kapitsa
5130:Fiennes
5072:Klenova
5041:Hillary
4991:Ketchum
4917:BANZARE
4892:·
4737:Polheim
4703:Shirase
4689:Charcot
4499:Belgica
4418:Crozier
4330:Morrell
4325:Weddell
4303:Lazarev
4248:J. Cook
4202:History
4152:Arktika
4128:Krassin
4113:Voronin
4085:Schmidt
4071:Ushakov
4010:Vaygach
3978:Albanov
3947:Rusanov
3928:Kolchak
3923:Matisen
3897:Makarov
3876:De Long
3777:Wrangel
3757:Lyakhov
3710:Malygin
3668:Dezhnev
3495:Pandora
3466:Advance
3433:Kennedy
3428:Belcher
3421:Kellett
3408:McClure
3332:Beechey
3326:Blossom
3319:Simpson
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3205:J. Cook
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2996:Vikings
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1886:General
1784:23 June
1433:Bernews
963:alcohol
942:seismic
934:extinct
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351:Bermuda
332:Madeira
5392:Bowers
5387:Wilson
5346:Hassel
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5310:Mackay
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5265:Nimrod
5223:Terror
5208:Erebus
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4806:Mawson
4800:Aurora
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4764:Wilson
4667:Nimrod
4644:Scotia
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4026:Maud
3913:Toll
3838:Vega
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2134:ISBN
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1871:2008
1835:ISBN
1816:2013
1786:2023
1755:ISBN
1721:2012
1695:2011
1664:2012
1632:ISBN
1611:2014
1560:ISBN
1536:2013
1506:2012
1445:2020
1415:2018
1385:2018
1373:NOAA
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648:off
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