Chera dynasty - Knowledge

1138: 81: 1127: 2188:", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity. There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India. Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the 1907: 1017: 2063: 2152:

state formation. According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics". Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.

1258:. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. 2196:

the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India. Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era. In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by

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political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).

2352:. It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form. Though the vast majority of the population followed native practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed 2174: 2118:"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." 1005: 846:

and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".

2239:, in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE. With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators. 2106:, in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a 2299:. The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as 5350: 2195:

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make

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on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter

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The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the

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in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient

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Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish

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kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta,

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The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava south India (before c. third century CE) was a matter of considerable debate among historians. Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of

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Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan

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ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost

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as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against the chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from

2139:. The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. 1977:

The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period. Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 CE) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi". The son of this alliance,

1682:. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai. 1066:

respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava) consisted of the present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The

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The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change. The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE) can be described as a

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of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai. Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants). Also known as

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riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the

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The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.

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was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs).

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and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this, the Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of

1218:) suggest a strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). 2155:

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement. It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.

1501:) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. 1930:

645 – 70 CE) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king. Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 CE), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions. His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the

2970:, p. 34: "Sri Lanka was known as "Cerantivu" (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil" 2007:

in 910 CE (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known). Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 CE).

1826:. There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- 1953:), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates). Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the 1761:

Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler

936:. Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. 2336:. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions. Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god 1313:

anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.

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from medieval south India and Sri Lanka. There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high-carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE at

2000:) in the last years of the 9th century CE (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885). 1876:, with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record. Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country. 1418:

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler

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century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from

1168:- 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of 2033:

is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant. This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a

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In general, early Tamil texts reflect the southern Indian cultural tradition as well as elements of the northern Indian cultural tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with

2228:, "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms. 2601: 2165:"semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." 1966: 1504:

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)

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The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".

1146: 6548: 6533: 2379:("group") to denote "caste". A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE) is the high status accorded to women. 711:

merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at

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took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint

4975: 1328:- 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. 5184: 1734:

Antuvan Cheral Irumporai - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decade). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).

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Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".

1358:(2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. 341: 327: 313: 299: 285: 260: 4722: 2383:

patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.

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ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give

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Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka". It was initially assumed by

2340:. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess 2280:. This steel was termed "the finest steel in the world" by the Romans who referred to it by the term "Seric". It was exported to Rome, Egypt, China and the 1946:)", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 CE), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur. 823:. After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. 5465: 4130: 6558: 1157:

Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near

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In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative

1494:(and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. 1370:

is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of

4280: 3157:, pp. 37–39: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today. 2315:, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the 5292: 1678:"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at 6439: 1815:

CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little is known about Cheras during this period.

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coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from

692:, has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. 920:

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from

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Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "

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Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century CE) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.

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military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.

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Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at

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from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from

1285:- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the 1480:

Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of

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Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.

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legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of

5706: 5664: 624: 981:. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with 6523: 5458: 2312: 1872:

566 - 598 CE) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 CE) of king

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traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the

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Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini.

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The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.

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in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form the

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indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.

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The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived

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He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (

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prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess). Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king (

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Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu". Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.

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edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by

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Majumdar, S. B. (2016). "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast". In K. S. Mathew (ed.).

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inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (

1893:, XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not 1393:). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the 4780: 2114:

settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.

1842:. An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave. 6528: 6303: 5656: 4636: 2212: 1949:

It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 CE) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur (

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describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (

5278: 2235:. This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 17: 6159: 5773: 5596: 2375:

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word

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emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in

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He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the

1409:). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( 6513: 6503: 4145: 617: 6278: 1239:

in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.

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Fischel, Walter J. (1967). "The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast".

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Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)

2295:, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as 939:

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as

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Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). "History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala".

4888: 4849: 3272: 3255: 3238: 2912:, p. 15: According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the 2057: 1894: 838: 814: 553: 527: 4196: 6508: 6241: 5979: 5895: 5739: 5692: 5602: 5474: 2202: 2083: 973: 874: 557: 5021: 3169:: "We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound" 6518: 6441:

Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture"

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The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive

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Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.

66: 6538: 6498: 6493: 4932: 4919: 4192: 3289: 2038: 1979: 1787:

Man Venko - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.

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by 500 BCE. The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".

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Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in

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map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).

5164: 5152: 2928:(or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala. 2470: 1318: 1198:

A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at

801:, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with 1612:

at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by

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to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.

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Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the

882: 842: 826: 708: 677: 483: 2348:. It is theorised that Kottava was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess 770:. However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between 6073: 5900: 5844: 5800: 5132: 5107: 5070: 5041: 5008: 4782:

Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China

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Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/

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There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator

1058:) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely 870: 771: 696: 653: 278: 2015:

Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the

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Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.

1321:, is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to 6312: 6308: 6266: 6255: 6233: 6201: 6187: 5872: 5192: 5111: 5099: 5074: 5045: 4940: 4904: 4807: 4786: 4765: 4746: 4698: 4677: 4653: 4632: 4611: 4590: 4569: 4545: 4517: 4495: 4471: 4447: 4247: 4220: 4172: 4057: 3843: 2839: 1701: 1469: 1275: 992:, derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of 806: 547: 541: 395: 306: 6197: 6182: 6178: 6131: 6127: 6087: 6053: 6049: 5868: 5091: 5062: 5033: 5000: 4900: 4896: 4724:

Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade

4559: 4090: 3243:. International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization. p. 104. 2296: 2097:. Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created 1861: 1846: 890: 598: 334: 1516:

Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)

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The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the

1880: 1835: 1827: 1498: 1394: 1227: 1083: 1055: 1031: 952: 4862: 6171: 6044: 5941: 5542: 5053:

Subbarayalu, Y. (2015). "Trade Guilds of South India up to the Tenth Century".

5037: 4393: 4212: 2397: 2248: 2136: 2034: 1919: 1865: 1854: 1750: 1616:. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. 1585: 1423:. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. 1334: 1271: 1243: 1150: 1063: 982: 929: 854: 819: 783: 689: 673: 465: 320: 5591: 5022:"Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala" 4961:

Fawcett, F. (1901). "Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad".

2916:

myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of

1957:

to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the

6487: 6123: 6083: 5984: 5967: 5920: 5905: 5891: 5864: 5860: 5820: 5805: 5794: 5746: 5196: 5103: 5095: 5066: 4531: 4499: 2392: 2304: 2132: 2016: 1954: 1911: 1850: 1838:

king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in

1329: 1232: 1199: 1035: 802: 763: 748: 732: 685: 669: 665: 4217:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology

2311:, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 1608:

Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola

6039: 5912: 5812: 5682: 5620: 5585: 5567: 5559: 5503: 5443: 2308: 2300: 2292: 2232: 2224:

was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the

2189: 2062: 2009: 1958: 1362:

him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat.

1204: 1203:

route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the

1169: 1130: 968: 798: 794: 759: 700: 144: 4649:

A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages

1922:

conquests of the Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

1546: 6460:

The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century

6228: 6221: 6104: 6078: 5886: 5856: 5517: 5432: 5387: 4310:"Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population" 4079:"Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India" 2925: 2913: 2281: 2252: 2231:

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for

2030: 2004: 1763: 1558: 1487: 902: 894: 878: 810: 704: 512: 406: 5136: 5120: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 1803: 6290: 6100: 5270: 4269:(April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company. 3627: 3625: 3623: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2361: 2345: 2261: 2071: 1950: 1713: 1679: 1576: 1399: 1378: 1309: 1299: 834: 779: 767: 744: 658: 149: 5012: 3799: 2471:"The Cheras - The creators of the land of Kerala | History Unravelled" 1996:

The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or

1986:

that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.

1636:

Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).

758:

and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the

6033: 5349: 4285: 3753: 3751: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3709: 3707: 3649: 2596: 2333: 2288: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2257: 2177: 2090: 2066:

Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

2026:(Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince. 2012:(c. 956 – c. 973 CE) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens. 1773: 1491: 1404: 1388: 1355: 1293: 1145: 1104: 1100: 1009: 993: 775: 740: 736: 728: 681: 642: 572: 367: 139: 3775: 3620: 3291:

A Study of the Literature of the Cēra Country Upto 11th Century A.D.

2755: 2184:

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "

1226:

A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the

6111: 5994: 5852: 5678: 5670: 5624: 5615: 5004: 4095: 4078: 3891: 3852: 2921: 2357: 2341: 2265: 2094: 2023: 1997: 1822:) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central 1613: 1609: 1420: 1384: 1236: 1211: 1108: 861:(the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of 712: 195: 168: 163: 3748: 3719: 3704: 6192: 6118: 6019: 6000: 5848: 5721: 5674: 5636: 5629: 5331: 2743: 2353: 2337: 2221: 2207: 2185: 2111: 2098: 2086:(literally "the Chera king") with some of the earliest Perumals. 1943: 1939: 1839: 1093: 1051: 1039: 956: 787: 716: 676:

to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the

265: 182: 173: 125: 101: 4168:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

1965: 857:

is believed to be the continuations of Chera dynasty. Rulers of

6155: 5726: 5641: 5573: 5499: 5410: 5392: 5267:(1981) R. Nagaswamy, Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology 4930: 4399: 4021: 2917: 2528: 2526: 2107: 2103: 2075: 2022:

Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king

1823: 1807:

The approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India.

1639: 1075: 1059: 1043: 944: 933: 906: 886: 862: 850: 830: 724: 720: 661: 531: 362: 4823:

History of Tamil Language and Literature: Beginning to 1000 AD

2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 1246:" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to 813:, or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding 5402: 5371: 5324: 4976:"Classical Indo-Roman Trade: A Misnomer in Political Economy" 3679: 3677: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2349: 2173: 1935: 1819: 1643: 1255: 1215: 1158: 1047: 1004: 869:

was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of

858: 487: 113: 4697:. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4565:

A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations

3981: 3918: 3787: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2523: 1474:

Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)

932:, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of 5686: 5527: 3908: 3906: 3823: 3763: 3138: 3136: 3025: 2838:. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 631–666. 2559: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2415: 2365: 1646:. Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. 1079: 948: 865:

in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.

3811: 3674: 3637: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 2973: 2961: 2803:

Life and Culture of Thiyyas in the extreme North of Kerala

2778: 2625: 1486:

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from

1107:(c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher 809:

are a major source of information about the early Cheras.

6549:

States and territories disestablished in the 12th century

4673:

Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy

4054:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art

3881: 3879: 3571: 3569: 3544: 3542: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3481: 3479: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3445: 3443: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3411: 3409: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3148: 3111: 3109: 3015: 3013: 2951: 2949: 2661: 1883:

records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.

817:, the principal female character of the Sangam epic poem 6534:

States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

4607:

The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India

3903: 3864: 3133: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2538: 2434: 1497:

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly

1350:. A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with 30:"Chera" and "Cheras" redirect here. For other uses, see 4417: 4359: 4357: 4355: 3736: 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 797:

cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of

5245:"Pattanam Richest Indo-Roman Site on Indian Ocean Rim" 5185:"Edakal Cave Yields One More Tamil-Brahmi Inscription" 4033: 3969: 3947: 3945: 3876: 3694: 3692: 3608: 3598: 3596: 3581: 3566: 3539: 3527: 3510: 3491: 3476: 3455: 3440: 3421: 3406: 3387: 3364: 3319: 3298: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3172: 3106: 3010: 2946: 2889: 2887: 2885: 1934:

The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi (

4924:

Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia

4381: 4281:"An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil" 3274:

Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336

3257:

Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336

3121: 2808: 2707: 2513: 2511: 2344:

was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and

1527:

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.

4628:

Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature

4405: 4369: 4352: 4112:

Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World

3220: 3218: 3216: 3184: 2724: 2680: 2642: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 1901: 1572:

was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).

1376:). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( 6453:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 5121:"Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region?" 3957: 3942: 3930: 3689: 3593: 3554: 3196: 2998: 2936: 2934: 2903: 2898:

Ancient Kerala: Studies in Its History and Culture,

2882: 1990: 1103:(c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher 3160: 1717:collection (some of the names are re-duplications) 3240:History of Kongu: Pre-historic period to 1300 A.D 3213: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3059: 3057: 3042: 3040: 2488: 1172:, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. 6485: 4056:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 380. 2931: 1864:king to claim overlordship over Chera/Kerala is 1792: 1265: 999: 27:300s BCE–1100s CE dynasty in ancient South India 5150: 4803:The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities 4530: 4027: 3845:Castes And Tribes Of Southern India Vol.5 (m-p) 3031: 2867:Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo 4917: 4160: 4158: 3071: 3054: 3037: 2532: 5459: 5286: 5176: 4931:P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson, ed. (2008). 1121: 833:and only a few kilometres of current western 664:dynasty which unified various regions of the 618: 5473: 5219:"Copper Coins of Adi Chera Period Excavated" 5153:"A Magnum Opus on Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions" 4850:"India (History) - Southern Indian Kingdoms" 4829: 4740: 4652:(3rd ed.). Asian Educational Services. 4494:. Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society. 4446:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 4128: 3142: 2967: 1766:, Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation. 6434: 5052: 4470:(2007 ed.). Kerala, India: D C Books. 4272: 4233: 4219:. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. 4205: 4201:. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 111. 4155: 4131:"Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal" 3987: 2805:, sree sankaracharya university, page-68,69 2589: 2051: 5466: 5452: 5293: 5279: 5125:Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 4893:The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Empire 4778: 4301: 4278: 4185: 4076: 4039: 2313:200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama 1074:(Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor 943:(Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor 873:, which had included parts of present-day 625: 611: 79: 5242: 5232:"Artefacts from the Lost Port of Muziris" 5229: 5216: 5203: 5182: 5163: 4666: 4558: 4307: 4094: 4013: 3999: 3924: 3829: 3817: 3805: 3793: 3781: 3769: 3757: 3742: 3730: 3713: 3683: 3668: 3631: 3098: 3084: 3063: 3046: 2992: 2789: 2772: 2749: 2718: 2428: 2372:were also known to have lived in Kerala. 2216:portrays the "trade" in the territory of 1918:There are clear attestations of repeated 1383:. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near 1177:Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription 6448: 5300: 5118: 5081: 4993:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4973: 4873: 4860: 4841: 4720: 4645: 4624: 4603: 4582: 4443:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 4171:. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20. 4164: 4083:Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 4077:Srinivasan, Sharada (15 November 1994). 3841: 3835: 3190: 3178: 3154: 3115: 2955: 2896:, p. 21: Citing K. Achyutha Menon, 2859: 2857: 2855: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2701: 2674: 2655: 2636: 2577: 2457: 2172: 2061: 2003:The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king 1964: 1905: 1802: 1738:"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai 1605:Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess) 1332:author of the legendary Tamil epic poem 1262:traditional symbol of the Chera family. 1144: 1136: 1125: 1015: 1003: 762:, the principal trade route between the 6559:12th-century disestablishments in India 4990: 4960: 4886: 4690: 4211: 4165:Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (1998). 4109: 3698: 3643: 2870:. Government Press, Madras. p. 373 2251:resulted from the unique properties of 2192:and South India with uneven chiefdoms. 2070:While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in 996:that takes root from the term "Chera". 14: 6554:3rd-century BC establishments in India 6486: 6457: 6023:Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism 5204:Subramanian, T. S. (28 January 2007). 5183:Subramanian, T. S. (9 February 2012). 5019: 4847: 4820: 4799: 4731: 4439: 4387: 4279:Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). 4191: 3912: 3897: 3885: 3870: 3858: 3166: 3127: 2814: 2604:from the original on 19 September 2013 2517: 2322: 6425: 6220: 6037: 5966: 5939: 5890: 5885: 5447: 5274: 4743:The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago 4711: 4506: 4484: 4460: 4423: 4411: 4375: 4363: 3975: 3963: 3951: 3936: 3614: 3602: 3587: 3575: 3560: 3548: 3533: 3521: 3504: 3485: 3470: 3449: 3434: 3415: 3400: 3381: 3358: 3313: 3253: 3224: 3207: 3019: 3004: 2909: 2893: 2852: 2833: 2820: 2737: 2590:Subramanian, T. S (28 January 2007). 1747:Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai 1711:The following Cheras are knowns from 1669:Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai 928:meaning "declivity of a mountain" in 829:are known to have controlled eastern 652: 5388:Kodungallur (Mahodaya Pura/Makothai) 5144: 4833:The Spring of the Indus Civilisation 4759: 4400:P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson 2008 4138:Indian Journal of History of Science 4051: 2940: 2920:, flung his axe across the sea from 2863: 2583: 1133:inscription from Pugalur, near Karur 4954: 4239: 3260:. University of Madras. p. 50. 2795: 1141:A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai" 1020:Names, routes and locations of the 747:was ruled by the Cheras during the 24: 3287: 1182:Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam 905:. Later the Taluk was merged with 368:Kongu region of Tamil Nadu (India) 25: 6570: 5256: 4926:. Vol. II (Second ed.). 4825:. Madras: New Century Book House. 3294:University of Madras. p. 29. 3270: 3236: 1902:Pandya conquests in Chera country 1690:"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai 1319:Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism 699:. Exchange of spices, especially 6406: 6397: 6388: 6379: 6370: 6361: 6352: 6343: 6333:References and sources for table 5348: 5230:Bhanj, J. D. (3 December 2014). 5206:"Roman Connection in Tamil Nadu" 4937:The Encyclopedia of Christianity 4806:. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 4732:Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). 4714:Chera Kings of the Sangam Period 4327: 4260: 4122: 4110:Coghlan, Herbert Henery (1977). 3288:Ci, Pālacuppiramaṇiyan̲ (2007). 2592:"Roman connection in Tamil Nadu" 1991:Chola conquests of Chera country 1849:(Kalvar) rulers kept the Chera, 1470:Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan 1434:Cells table centred Cheras from 1274:works collectively known as the 1221: 1186:Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai 951:edicts (3rd century BCE). While 743:in the north. The region around 339: 325: 311: 297: 283: 258: 65: 5411:Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam) 5393:Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam) 4103: 4070: 4045: 4007: 3993: 3281: 3264: 3247: 3230: 3092: 2327: 1910:Chera Perumal Kingdom with the 1700:Described as the descendant of 1618:Controlled the port of Naravu. 5217:Sudhi, K. S. (30 April 2004). 4901:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 4745:. Asian Educational Services. 4544:(Fourth ed.). Routledge. 4433: 4308:Ragupathy, P. (28 June 2010). 2616: 2463: 2242: 2206:of the 1st century CE, and by 2180:(Red) and Spice Routes (Blues) 2168: 1830:(early historic) south India. 1559:Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan 1536:Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral 1092:of the 1st century CE, and by 1086:in the 1st century CE, in the 1070:The Cheras are referred to as 1023:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 893:, when Malabar came under the 782:, who was more related to the 520:Kerala Kesari Adhirajarajadeva 425:Kudakko Illam Cheral Irumporai 407:Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan 13: 1: 6524:Empires and kingdoms of India 4980:Economic and Political Weekly 4610:. Brill Academic Publishers. 4513:Kerala History and its Makers 3900:, pp. 331-32 and 379-80. 3861:, pp. 331-32 and 364-65. 3808:, pp. 304-05 and 322-23. 2801:M.V Vishnu Nambutiri, (2001) 2408: 2287:The method was to heat black 2142: 1926:Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan ( 1793:Cheras in the medieval period 1784:Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan 1653: 1599:Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan 1322: 1279: 1266:Cheras from early Tamil texts 1247: 1162: 1112: 1000:Cheras of ancient south India 752: 517:Vira Kerala Amarabhujangadeva 403:Kalangai Kanni Narmudi Cheral 6462:, Cambridge University Press 6430:, Cambridge University Press 6160:Decline of Buddhism in India 5597:Northern Black Polished Ware 5424: 5403:Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas) 5151:Champakalakshmi, R. (2003). 4918:Edward Balfour, ed. (1871). 4891:. In J. M. MacKenzie (ed.). 4246:. Vol. 2. p. 365. 3671:, pp. 90-91 and 103-04. 3254:C. E., Ramachandran (1974). 1857:rulers in their confinement. 1116: 3rd - 4th century BCE 912: 731:. They governed the area of 580:Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladithya 411:Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan 7: 6428:An Introduction to Hinduism 5084:Studies in People's History 5055:Studies in People's History 4568:. Oxford University Press. 4193:Burton, Sir Richard Francis 4052:Ward, Gerald W. R. (2008). 4028:Kulke & Rothermund 2004 3784:, pp. 116-117 and 136. 3634:, pp. 80–81 and 88–93. 2775:, pp. 89-90 and 92-93. 2386: 2210:in the 2nd century CE. The 1513:Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan 827:Cheras of the Kongu country 723:on the Indian Ocean coast ( 715:in Kerala, and harbours at 400:Palyani Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan 10: 6575: 6451:Hinduism. Past and present 6321:Chera Perumals of Makkotai 6279:Chera Perumals of Makkotai 5671:Rise of Shramana movements 5317:Early Cheras (pre-Pallava) 5243:Nair, C. G. (3 May 2009). 5177:Newspaper reports/features 5038:10.1177/037698360903600102 4861:Pletcher, Kenneth (2018). 4821:Pillai, Vaiyapuri (1956). 4800:Slapak, Orpa, ed. (2003). 4779:McLaughlin, Raoul (2010). 4741:Kanakasabhai, V. (1997) . 4736:. Oxford University Press. 4712:Aiyar, K.G. Sesha (1937). 4646:Caldwell, Robert (1998) . 4491:A Survey of Kerala History 4467:A Survey of Kerala History 4243:Ancient and Medieval India 4240:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 2200:in the 1st century CE, in 2159: 2055: 1796: 1755:Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan 1731:Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko 1627:Selva Kadumko Valia Athan 1563:Son of Nedum Cheral Athan 1149:A Chera coin with legend " 1122:Archaeological discoveries 414:Chelva Kadumko Valia Athan 29: 6458:Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), 6330: 6227: 6206:Pandyan kingdom (revival) 6191: 6170: 6145: 6117: 6077: 6072: 6013: 5899: 5834: 5792: 5771: 5755: 5744: 5737: 5720: 5704: 5690: 5661: 5654: 5600: 5582: 5579:Painted Grey Ware culture 5564: 5556: 5540: 5516: 5513: 5508: 5495: 5490: 5481: 5423: 5401: 5378: 5364: 5357: 5346: 5316: 5309: 4830:Ramachandran, M. (1991). 4129:Sasisekharan, B. (1999). 3760:, pp. 98-99 and 111. 3733:, pp. 95-96 and 108. 3716:, pp. 93-95 and 107. 2836:Malabar Manual (Volume-I) 2058:Chera/Perumals of Makotai 1969:Cheras of central Kerala 1845:Tradition tells that the 1818:Cheras of Kongu country ( 1542:Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1443: 1307:, the fourth book in the 1062:, Muchiri (Muziris), and 885:in it. Later it became a 528:Chera/Perumals of Makotai 445:Perum Kadungo (Irumporai) 442:Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai 355: 237: 233: 223: 213: 209: 201: 191: 181: 157: 133: 87: 78: 62: 57: 45: 6426:Flood, Gavin D. (1996), 6015:"Golden Age of Hinduism" 5980:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 5896:Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty 5657:Persian-Greek influences 5475:Middle kingdoms of India 5119:Gurukkal, Rajan (2002). 5096:10.1177/2348448918759852 5067:10.1177/2348448915574403 5026:Indian Historical Review 4974:Gurukkal, Rajan (2015). 4734:A History of South India 4676:. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. 4625:Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). 4604:Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). 4583:Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). 4440:Thapar, Romila (2004) . 3842:Thurston, Edgar (1909). 3271:N, Subrahmanian (2008). 2752:, pp. 89–90, 92–93. 2213:Periplus Maris Erythraei 2203:Periplus Maris Erythraei 2052:Chera Perumals of Kerala 1769:Kudakko Cheral Irumporai 977:refers to the Cheras as 974:Periplus Maris Erythraei 595:Adithyan Goda Ranadithya 558:Cheraman Perumal Nayanar 448:Ilam Kadungo (Irumporai) 6449:Michaels, Axel (2004), 6147:Late-Classical Hinduism 5310:Iron Age-Early Historic 4887:Dalziel, N. R. (2016). 4880:Encyclopedia Britannica 4867:Encyclopedia Britannica 4854:Encyclopedia Britannica 4848:Thapar, Romila (2018). 4836:. Prasanna Pathippagam. 4727:. Cambridge: Routledge. 4716:. London: Luzac and Co. 4691:Shulman, David (2016). 2834:Logan, William (2010). 2125:Encyclopædia Britannica 1630:Son of Anthuvan Cheral 1096:in the 2nd century CE. 959:refer to the Cheras as 36:Cheras (disambiguation) 5533:Middle Gangetic Plain 5323:Vanchi Karuvur/Karur ( 5020:Ganesh, K. N. (2009). 4874:Tikkanen, Amy (2018). 3237:V, Ramamurthy (2008). 2181: 2129: 2067: 1970: 1915: 1808: 1539:Son of Imayavaramban. 1283: 2nd century BCE 1276:Sangam (Academy) texts 1195: 1154: 1142: 1134: 1038:– based originally in 1027: 1013: 897:. The headquarters of 421:Perum Cheral Irumporai 225:• Disestablished 32:Chera (disambiguation) 6529:History of Tamil Nadu 6062:Western Ganga Dynasty 5929: 1st century BCE 5917:Early Pandyan kingdom 5882: 2nd century BCE 5842:(ca. 200 BC - 300 CE) 5836:Preclassical Hinduism 5817:Early Pandyan kingdom 5789: 3rd century BCE 5734: 4th century BCE 5701: 5th century BCE 5611: 6th century BCE 5536:Lower Gangetic Plain 5524:Upper Gangetic Plain 5165:"Digging up the Past" 4842:Encyclopedic articles 4785:. London: Continuum. 4342:Sri Lanka Archaeology 4198:The Book of the Sword 2475:historyunravelled.com 2176: 2116: 2065: 1968: 1961:by the Pandya forces. 1909: 1811:After the 5th century 1806: 1657: 2nd century CE 1180: 1148: 1140: 1129: 1019: 1007: 839:Chera Perumal kingdom 697:Indian Ocean networks 293:Kingdom of Travancore 134:Common languages 6412:Michaels (2004) p.41 6403:Michaels (2004) p.40 6385:Michaels (2004) p.39 6367:Michaels (2004) p.39 6304:Kamboja-Pala dynasty 5936: 1st century CE 5264:Tamil Coins: A Study 4963:The Indian Antiquary 4760:Keay, John (2001) . 3277:. Ennes. p. 42. 3032:Champakalakshmi 2003 2864:C.A., Innes (1908). 2253:wootz crucible steel 1938:) along with Kudal ( 1367:Uthiyan Cheral Athan 1034:, the Chera and the 577:Indu/Indesvaran Goda 58:c. 200s BCE–1100s CE 6263:Rashtrakuta dynasty 5715:Shaishunaga dynasty 5665:Second Urbanisation 5510:Indo-Gangetic Plain 4536:Rothermund, Dietmar 4508:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4486:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4462:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4348:(4). February 2012. 4144:(4). Archived from 3927:, pp. 143–144. 3796:, pp. 121–122. 3646:, pp. 409–421. 2639:, pp. 138–150. 2622:KA Nilakanta Sastri 2533:Edward Balfour 1871 2431:, pp. 143–145. 2323:Society and culture 1799:Kongu Chera dynasty 1728:Kadungo Valia Athan 1695:Perunkundur Kizhar 1440: 1109:Kautilya (Chanakya) 1050:, in Tamilnadu and 883:Malappuram district 807:early Sangham texts 678:Three Crowned Kings 484:Kongu Chera dynasty 417:Kanaikkal Irumporai 215:• Established 6514:Kingdoms of Kerala 6504:Dynasties of India 6394:Hiltebeitel (2002) 6376:Hiltebeitel (2002) 6074:Hephthalite Empire 5910:(300 BCE – 200 CE) 5901:Satavahana dynasty 5887:Indo-Greek Kingdom 5810:(300 BCE – 200 CE) 5801:Satavahana dynasty 5774:Spread of Buddhism 5496:Northwestern India 5171:. The Hindu. 2012. 4694:Tamil: A Biography 4541:A History of India 4118:. pp. 99–100. 4116:Pitt Rivers Museum 3915:, pp. 364–65. 3873:, pp. 382–83. 3832:, pp. 143–44. 3772:, pp. 100–01. 2182: 2082:and Nayanar saint 2068: 2043:E. P. N. K. Pillai 2010:Chola king Sundara 1984:E. P. N. K. Pillai 1971: 1916: 1834:An inscription of 1809: 1758:Perum Cheral Athan 1702:Nedum Cheral Athan 1433: 1412:Pathitrupattu (II) 1342:) for the goddess 1317:A method known as 1155: 1143: 1135: 1028: 1014: 967:respectively, the 924:, a corruption of 871:Zamorin of Calicut 772:Thiruvananthapuram 654:[t͡ʃeːɾɐr] 439:Kadummipudha Chera 396:Nedum Cheral Athan 279:Zamorin of Calicut 6544:History of Kerala 6481: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6313:Eastern Chalukyas 6309:Kalyani Chalukyas 6267:Eastern Chalukyas 6256:Gurjara-Pratihara 6249: 9th century 6234:Eastern Chalukyas 6217: 8th century 6202:Eastern Chalukyas 6188:Mlechchha dynasty 6167: 7th century 6149:(ca. CE 650-1100) 6096: 6th century 6069: 5th century 6029: 4th century 5975: 3rd century 5963: 2nd century 5873:Mahayana Buddhism 5840:"Hindu Synthesis" 5707:Persian conquests 5592:Shramanic culture 5528:Ganga-Yamuna doab 5441: 5440: 5419: 5418: 5344: 5343: 5145:Magazine articles 4876:"Silappathikaram" 4752:978-81-206-0150-5 4704:978-0-674-97465-4 4668:Narayanan, M.G.S. 4659:978-81-206-0117-8 4617:978-90-04-03591-1 4596:978-90-04-04190-5 4560:Karashima, Noboru 4523:978-81-264-3782-5 4426:, pp. 79–80. 4289:. The Hindu Group 4253:978-0-543-92943-3 4226:978-0-52107-060-7 4178:978-0-85115-716-0 4063:978-0-19531-391-8 3990:, pp. 21–26. 3978:, pp. 75–76. 3820:, pp. 84–85. 3686:, pp. 93–95. 3617:, pp. 60–61. 3590:, pp. 34–36. 3578:, pp. 44–45. 3551:, pp. 41–43. 3536:, pp. 38–41. 3524:, pp. 38–40. 3507:, pp. 27–32. 3488:, pp. 21–23. 3473:, pp. 52–53. 3452:, pp. 17–21. 3437:, pp. 15–17. 3418:, pp. 36–38. 3403:, pp. 67–68. 3384:, pp. 10–13. 3361:, pp. 01–05. 3316:, pp. 05–10. 3143:Kanakasabhai 1997 3022:, pp. 26–29. 2995:, pp. 50–51. 2968:Ramachandran 1991 2792:, pp. 80–81. 2677:, pp. 13–31. 2580:, pp. 26–27. 2460:, pp. 52–53. 2364:. Populations of 2112:Nambudiri-Brahmin 1709: 1708: 717:Muchiri (Muziris) 635: 634: 548:Kulasekhara Alvar 376: 375: 351: 350: 347: 346: 307:Kingdom of Cochin 271: 270: 16:(Redirected from 6566: 6463: 6454: 6445: 6436:Hiltebeitel, Alf 6431: 6413: 6410: 6404: 6401: 6395: 6392: 6386: 6383: 6377: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6359: 6356: 6350: 6347: 6198:Badami Chalukyas 6193:Adivasi (tribes) 6183:Empire of Harsha 6179:Vakataka dynasty 6132:Kalabhra dynasty 6128:Badami Chalukyas 6119:Adivasi (tribes) 6088:Kalabhra dynasty 6054:Kalabhra dynasty 6050:Andhra Ikshvakus 6017:(ca. CE 320-650) 6001:Adivasi (tribes) 5869:Smarta Tradition 5722:Adivasi (tribes) 5637:Adivasi (tribes) 5493:cultural period 5488: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5468: 5461: 5454: 5445: 5444: 5362: 5361: 5352: 5314: 5313: 5295: 5288: 5281: 5272: 5271: 5252: 5239: 5226: 5213: 5200: 5172: 5160: 5140: 5115: 5078: 5049: 5016: 4987: 4970: 4955:Journal articles 4950: 4927: 4914: 4895:. pp. 1–3. 4889:"Pandyan Empire" 4883: 4870: 4857: 4837: 4826: 4817: 4796: 4775: 4762:India: A History 4756: 4737: 4728: 4717: 4708: 4687: 4663: 4642: 4621: 4600: 4586:Tamil Literature 4579: 4555: 4527: 4510:(4 March 2011). 4503: 4481: 4457: 4427: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4403: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4350: 4349: 4339: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4305: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4294: 4276: 4270: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4215:(1 April 1971). 4209: 4203: 4202: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4162: 4153: 4152: 4151:on 24 July 2015. 4150: 4135: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4114:(2nd ed.). 4107: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4049: 4043: 4037: 4031: 4030:, pp. 105–. 4025: 4019: 4011: 4005: 3997: 3991: 3988:Subbarayalu 2015 3985: 3979: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3910: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3888:, pp. 3–21. 3883: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3815: 3809: 3803: 3797: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3717: 3711: 3702: 3696: 3687: 3681: 3672: 3666: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3600: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3508: 3502: 3489: 3483: 3474: 3468: 3453: 3447: 3438: 3432: 3419: 3413: 3404: 3398: 3385: 3379: 3362: 3356: 3317: 3311: 3296: 3295: 3285: 3279: 3278: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3211: 3205: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3104: 3096: 3090: 3082: 3069: 3061: 3052: 3044: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2944: 2938: 2929: 2907: 2901: 2891: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2861: 2850: 2849: 2831: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2776: 2770: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2722: 2716: 2705: 2699: 2678: 2672: 2659: 2653: 2640: 2634: 2623: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2515: 2486: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2432: 2426: 2317:classical period 2208:Claudius Ptolemy 2127: 1814: 1658: 1655: 1550:"Vanavaramban". 1441: 1432: 1327: 1324: 1284: 1281: 1270:A large body of 1252: 1249: 1167: 1164: 1117: 1114: 1094:Claudius Ptolemy 1026:(1st century CE) 957:Claudius Ptolemy 901:was the town of 891:Malabar District 795:Old Tamil Brahmi 757: 754: 739:in the south to 656: 651: 627: 620: 613: 599:Rama Kulasekhara 554:Rama Rajasekhara 378: 377: 343: 342: 335:Mannanar dynasty 329: 328: 315: 314: 301: 300: 287: 286: 275: 274: 262: 261: 255: 254: 239: 238: 83: 69: 43: 42: 21: 6574: 6573: 6569: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6563: 6509:Hindu dynasties 6484: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6380: 6375: 6371: 6366: 6362: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6334: 6323: 6319: 6317:Medieval Cholas 6315: 6311: 6302: 6277: 6275:Medieval Cholas 6273: 6271:Pandyan kingdom 6269: 6265: 6240: 6238:Pandyan kingdom 6236: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6181: 6158: 6152:Advaita Vedanta 6150: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6103: 6090: 6086: 6060: 6058:Kadamba Dynasty 6056: 6052: 6043: 6022: 6018: 5990:Western Satraps 5952:Kuninda Kingdom 5944: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5909: 5903: 5894: 5871: 5843: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5809: 5803: 5740:Greek conquests 5673: 5669: 5595: 5589: 5577: 5571: 5525: 5497: 5492: 5477: 5472: 5442: 5437: 5415: 5397: 5374: 5353: 5340: 5337:Thondi (Tyndis) 5305: 5299: 5259: 5179: 5147: 4957: 4947: 4939:. 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A. N. Sastri 1993: 1980:K. A. N. Sastri 1904: 1812: 1801: 1795: 1790: 1744:Ko Kodai Marban 1675:Arichil Kizhar 1656: 1586:Chilapathikaram 1395:Kurukshetra War 1335:Chilapathikaram 1325: 1282: 1268: 1250: 1224: 1196: 1189:Perum Kadungon 1179: 1165: 1124: 1115: 1084:Pliny the Elder 1056:Tiruchirappalli 1042:in Tamil Nadu, 1002: 953:Pliny the Elder 915: 755: 721:Thondi (Tyndis) 649: 631: 372: 340: 326: 312: 298: 284: 259: 226: 216: 74: 73: 70: 53: 48: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6572: 6562: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6519:Tamil monarchs 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6479: 6478: 6474: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6465: 6464: 6455: 6446: 6432: 6422: 6415: 6414: 6405: 6396: 6387: 6378: 6369: 6360: 6351: 6341: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6306: 6297: 6295: 6293: 6288: 6282: 6281: 6260: 6258: 6253: 6251: 6245: 6244: 6231: 6226: 6224: 6219: 6213: 6212: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6176: 6174: 6172:Indo-Sassanids 6169: 6163: 6162: 6144: 6136: 6135: 6121: 6116: 6114: 6109: 6107: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6065: 6064: 6047: 6045:Varman dynasty 6036: 6031: 6025: 6024: 6012: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5971: 5970: 5965: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5949: 5946:Indo-Parthians 5942:Indo-Scythians 5938: 5932: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5898: 5889: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5833: 5825: 5824: 5798: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5777: 5770: 5762: 5761: 5758:HISTORICAL AGE 5753: 5752: 5750: 5743: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5717: 5712: 5710: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5689: 5660: 5653: 5645: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5632: 5627: 5618: 5613: 5607: 5606: 5599: 5581: 5563: 5555: 5547: 5546: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5531: 5521: 5520: 5518:Southern India 5515: 5514:Central India 5512: 5507: 5494: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5471: 5470: 5463: 5456: 5448: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5396: 5395: 5390: 5384: 5382: 5380:Chera Perumals 5376: 5375: 5370: 5368: 5359: 5355: 5354: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5338: 5335: 5328: 5320: 5318: 5311: 5307: 5306: 5298: 5297: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5258: 5257:External links 5255: 5254: 5253: 5240: 5227: 5214: 5201: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5173: 5161: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5116: 5079: 5050: 5017: 5005:10.2307/597717 4999:(3): 230–248. 4988: 4971: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4945: 4928: 4915: 4909: 4884: 4871: 4863:"Cera Dynasty" 4858: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4827: 4818: 4812: 4797: 4791: 4776: 4770: 4757: 4751: 4738: 4729: 4718: 4709: 4703: 4688: 4682: 4664: 4658: 4643: 4637: 4622: 4616: 4601: 4595: 4580: 4574: 4556: 4550: 4532:Kulke, Hermann 4528: 4522: 4504: 4482: 4477:978-8126415786 4476: 4458: 4452: 4435: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4416: 4404: 4402:, p. 285. 4392: 4380: 4368: 4351: 4326: 4300: 4271: 4259: 4252: 4232: 4225: 4204: 4184: 4177: 4154: 4121: 4102: 4096:10.5334/pia.60 4069: 4062: 4044: 4032: 4020: 4006: 3992: 3980: 3968: 3956: 3941: 3929: 3925:Karashima 2014 3917: 3902: 3890: 3875: 3863: 3851: 3834: 3830:Karashima 2014 3822: 3818:Narayanan 2013 3810: 3806:Narayanan 2013 3798: 3794:Narayanan 2013 3786: 3782:Narayanan 2013 3774: 3770:Narayanan 2013 3762: 3758:Narayanan 2013 3747: 3745:, pp. 97. 3743:Narayanan 2013 3735: 3731:Narayanan 2013 3718: 3714:Narayanan 2013 3703: 3688: 3684:Narayanan 2013 3673: 3669:Narayanan 2013 3648: 3636: 3632:Narayanan 2013 3619: 3607: 3592: 3580: 3565: 3553: 3538: 3526: 3509: 3490: 3475: 3454: 3439: 3420: 3405: 3386: 3363: 3318: 3297: 3280: 3263: 3246: 3229: 3212: 3195: 3183: 3171: 3159: 3147: 3132: 3130:, p. 105. 3120: 3105: 3091: 3070: 3053: 3036: 3024: 3009: 2997: 2993:Karashima 2014 2972: 2960: 2945: 2930: 2902: 2881: 2851: 2844: 2819: 2817:, p. 368. 2807: 2794: 2790:Narayanan 2013 2777: 2773:Narayanan 2013 2754: 2750:Narayanan 2013 2742: 2740:, p. 118. 2723: 2719:Narayanan 2013 2706: 2679: 2660: 2641: 2624: 2615: 2582: 2537: 2535:, p. 584. 2522: 2487: 2462: 2433: 2429:Karashima 2014 2413: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2405: 2400: 2398:Pandya dynasty 2395: 2388: 2385: 2334:southern India 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2244: 2241: 2170: 2167: 2161: 2158: 2144: 2141: 2120: 2056:Main article: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2027: 2013: 2001: 1998:Aditya I Chola 1992: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1975: 1963: 1962: 1955:Ghat Mountains 1947: 1932: 1903: 1900: 1899: 1898: 1895:Chera Perumals 1884: 1877: 1866:Kirttivarman I 1858: 1843: 1797:Main article: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1770: 1767: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1751:Kuttuvan Kodai 1748: 1745: 1742: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1722: 1707: 1706: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1684: 1683: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1661: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1620: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1551: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1529: 1523: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1267: 1264: 1244:Kuttuvan Kotai 1223: 1220: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1175: 1174: 1151:Kuttuvan Kotai 1123: 1120: 1064:Kaveripattinam 1046:, present day 1001: 998: 983:northern India 914: 911: 899:Cheranad Taluk 855:Kattan dynasty 849:The rulers of 820:Cilappatikaram 784:Pandya dynasty 705:Middle Eastern 684:alongside the 674:southern India 633: 632: 630: 629: 622: 615: 607: 604: 603: 602: 601: 596: 593: 590: 587: 584: 581: 578: 575: 570: 567: 564: 561: 551: 544: 536: 535: 524: 523: 522: 521: 518: 515: 510: 507: 504: 501: 498: 492: 491: 480: 479: 478: 477: 474: 471: 468: 466:Kuttuvan Kotai 463: 457: 456: 452: 451: 450: 449: 446: 443: 440: 434: 433: 429: 428: 427: 426: 423: 418: 415: 412: 409: 404: 401: 398: 390: 389: 385: 384: 374: 373: 371: 370: 365: 363:Kerala (India) 359: 357: 353: 352: 349: 348: 345: 344: 337: 331: 330: 323: 321:Kattan dynasty 317: 316: 309: 303: 302: 295: 289: 288: 281: 272: 269: 268: 263: 251: 250: 245: 235: 234: 231: 230: 227: 224: 221: 220: 217: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 203: 199: 198: 193: 189: 188: 185: 179: 178: 177: 176: 171: 166: 159: 155: 154: 153: 152: 147: 142: 135: 131: 130: 129: 128: 120:Chera Perumals 117: 116: 105: 104: 99: 89: 85: 84: 76: 75: 71: 64: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 49: 46: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6571: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6539:Tamil history 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6499:Chera Kingdom 6497: 6495: 6494:Chera dynasty 6492: 6491: 6489: 6461: 6456: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6424: 6423: 6421: 6420: 6409: 6400: 6391: 6382: 6373: 6364: 6355: 6346: 6342: 6340: 6339: 6329: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6283: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6225: 6223: 6218: 6215: 6214: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6173: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6142: 6138: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6124:Vishnukundina 6122: 6120: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6084:Vishnukundina 6082: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6067: 6066: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6010: 6006: 6005: 6002: 5999: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5985:Kushan Empire 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5968:Kushan Empire 5964: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5947: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5906:Sangam period 5902: 5897: 5893: 5892:Shunga Empire 5888: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5865:Brahma Sutras 5862: 5861:Bhagavad Gita 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5832: 5831: 5827: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5806:Sangam period 5802: 5799: 5797: 5796: 5795:Maurya Empire 5790: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5775: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5748: 5741: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5666: 5659: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5647: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5587: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5562: 5561: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5532: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5511: 5505: 5501: 5489: 5486: 5485: 5480: 5476: 5469: 5464: 5462: 5457: 5455: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5351: 5336: 5333: 5329: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5302:Chera dynasty 5296: 5291: 5289: 5284: 5282: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5266: 5265: 5261: 5260: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5181: 5180: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5149: 5148: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4958: 4948: 4946:9780802824172 4942: 4938: 4934: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4910:9781118455074 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4845: 4835: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4813:965-278-179-7 4809: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4792:9781441162236 4788: 4784: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4771:0-8021-3797-0 4767: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4695: 4689: 4685: 4683:9788188765072 4679: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4655: 4651: 4650: 4644: 4640: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4577: 4575:9780198099772 4571: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4551:9780415329200 4547: 4543: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4516:. D C Books. 4515: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4453:9780520242258 4449: 4445: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4425: 4420: 4414:, p. 78. 4413: 4408: 4401: 4396: 4390:, p. 78. 4389: 4384: 4378:, p. 89. 4377: 4372: 4366:, p. 83. 4365: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4330: 4315: 4311: 4304: 4288: 4287: 4282: 4275: 4268: 4263: 4255: 4249: 4245: 4244: 4236: 4228: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4188: 4180: 4174: 4170: 4169: 4161: 4159: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4117: 4113: 4106: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4059: 4055: 4048: 4041: 4036: 4029: 4024: 4018: 4016: 4010: 4004: 4002: 3996: 3989: 3984: 3977: 3972: 3966:, p. 67. 3965: 3960: 3954:, p. 77. 3953: 3948: 3946: 3939:, p. 75. 3938: 3933: 3926: 3921: 3914: 3909: 3907: 3899: 3894: 3887: 3882: 3880: 3872: 3867: 3860: 3855: 3847: 3846: 3838: 3831: 3826: 3819: 3814: 3807: 3802: 3795: 3790: 3783: 3778: 3771: 3766: 3759: 3754: 3752: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3715: 3710: 3708: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3685: 3680: 3678: 3670: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3645: 3640: 3633: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3616: 3611: 3605:, p. 72. 3604: 3599: 3597: 3589: 3584: 3577: 3572: 3570: 3563:, p. 71. 3562: 3557: 3550: 3545: 3543: 3535: 3530: 3523: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3487: 3482: 3480: 3472: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3436: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3402: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3383: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3360: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3293: 3292: 3284: 3276: 3275: 3267: 3259: 3258: 3250: 3242: 3241: 3233: 3226: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3210:, p. 70. 3209: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3192: 3191:Tikkanen 2018 3187: 3181:, p. 38. 3180: 3179:Zvelebil 1973 3175: 3168: 3163: 3156: 3155:Zvelebil 1973 3151: 3144: 3139: 3137: 3129: 3124: 3118:, p. 12. 3117: 3116:Zvelebil 1992 3112: 3110: 3103: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3087: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3068: 3066: 3060: 3058: 3051: 3049: 3043: 3041: 3033: 3028: 3021: 3016: 3014: 3007:, p. 33. 3006: 3001: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2969: 2964: 2958:, p. 92. 2957: 2956:Caldwell 1998 2952: 2950: 2942: 2937: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2847: 2845:9788120604476 2841: 2837: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2816: 2811: 2804: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2751: 2746: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2720: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2703: 2702:Majumdar 2016 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2676: 2675:Veluthat 2018 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2657: 2656:Pletcher 2018 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2638: 2637:Gurukkal 2002 2633: 2631: 2629: 2619: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2586: 2579: 2578:Gurukkal 2015 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2519: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2459: 2458:Zvelebil 1973 2454: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2393:Chola dynasty 2391: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2305:Tissamaharama 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2240: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2175: 2166: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2126: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2064: 2059: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2011: 2006: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1945: 1942:) and Kozhi ( 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1913: 1908: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1860:The earliest 1859: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1805: 1800: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1715: 1705: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1583:According to 1581: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1449: 1448: 1447:Pathitrupattu 1442: 1439: 1438: 1437:Pathitrupattu 1431: 1429: 1428:Pathitrupattu 1424: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1375: 1374: 1373:Pathitrupattu 1369: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1346:(Kannaki) at 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1331: 1330:Ilango Adigal 1320: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1305:Pathitrupattu 1302: 1301: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1289: 1288:Pathitrupattu 1277: 1273: 1263: 1259: 1257: 1245: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1222:Chera coinage 1219: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1206: 1201: 1192:Ilam Kadungo 1191: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1170:Perum Kadungo 1160: 1152: 1147: 1139: 1132: 1128: 1119: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1011: 1006: 997: 995: 991: 986: 984: 980: 976: 975: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 918: 910: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 847: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 822: 821: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:Perum Kadungo 796: 791: 789: 785: 781: 777: 774:and southern 773: 769: 765: 764:Malabar Coast 761: 750: 749:Sangam period 746: 742: 738: 734: 733:Malabar Coast 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 670:western ghats 667: 666:western coast 663: 660: 655: 647: 644: 640: 639:Chera dynasty 628: 623: 621: 616: 614: 609: 608: 606: 605: 600: 597: 594: 591: 588: 585: 582: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569:Kerala Kesari 568: 565: 562: 559: 555: 552: 549: 546:Kulasekhara ( 545: 543: 540: 539: 538: 537: 533: 529: 526: 525: 519: 516: 514: 511: 508: 506:Vira Narayana 505: 502: 499: 496: 495: 494: 493: 489: 485: 482: 481: 475: 473:Kol-Irumporai 472: 469: 467: 464: 461: 460: 459: 458: 454: 453: 447: 444: 441: 438: 437: 436: 435: 431: 430: 424: 422: 419: 416: 413: 410: 408: 405: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 392: 391: 387: 386: 383: 382:Chera dynasty 380: 379: 369: 366: 364: 361: 360: 358: 356:Today part of 354: 338: 336: 333: 332: 324: 322: 319: 318: 310: 308: 305: 304: 296: 294: 291: 290: 282: 280: 277: 276: 273: 267: 264: 257: 256: 253: 252: 249: 246: 244: 241: 240: 236: 232: 228: 222: 218: 212: 208: 204: 200: 197: 194: 190: 186: 184: 180: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 161: 160: 156: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 136: 132: 127: 126:Mahodayapuram 124: 123: 122: 121: 115: 112: 111: 110: 109: 103: 100: 98: 95: 94: 93: 90: 86: 82: 77: 68: 61: 56: 52: 47:Chera dynasty 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Chera Kingdom 6459: 6450: 6440: 6427: 6418: 6417: 6408: 6399: 6390: 6381: 6372: 6363: 6354: 6345: 6337: 6336: 6320: 6300:Pala dynasty 6286:10th century 6285: 6248: 6216: 6166: 6146: 6140: 6139: 6095: 6068: 6040:Gupta Empire 6038: 6028: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5974: 5962: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5913:Early Cholas 5904: 5881: 5839: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5813:Early Cholas 5804: 5793: 5788: 5779: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5756: 5747:Nanda empire 5745: 5733: 5700: 5691: 5662: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5610: 5601: 5586:Vedic Period 5583: 5568:Vedic Period 5565: 5560:Vedic Period 5557: 5551: 5550: 5541: 5504:Sapta Sindhu 5491:Timeline and 5366:Kongu Cheras 5301: 5263: 5248: 5235: 5222: 5209: 5188: 5168: 5159:. The Hindu. 5156: 5128: 5124: 5090:(1): 13–31. 5087: 5083: 5061:(1): 21–26. 5058: 5054: 5029: 5025: 4996: 4992: 4983: 4979: 4966: 4962: 4936: 4923: 4892: 4879: 4866: 4853: 4832: 4822: 4802: 4781: 4761: 4742: 4733: 4723: 4713: 4693: 4672: 4648: 4627: 4606: 4585: 4564: 4540: 4512: 4490: 4466: 4442: 4419: 4407: 4395: 4383: 4371: 4345: 4341: 4329: 4317:. Retrieved 4313: 4303: 4291:. Retrieved 4284: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4242: 4235: 4216: 4207: 4197: 4187: 4167: 4146:the original 4141: 4137: 4124: 4111: 4105: 4086: 4082: 4072: 4053: 4047: 4035: 4023: 4014: 4009: 4000: 3995: 3983: 3971: 3959: 3932: 3920: 3893: 3866: 3854: 3844: 3837: 3825: 3813: 3801: 3789: 3777: 3765: 3738: 3699:Dalziel 2016 3644:Fawcett 1901 3639: 3610: 3583: 3556: 3529: 3290: 3283: 3273: 3266: 3256: 3249: 3239: 3232: 3186: 3174: 3162: 3150: 3123: 3099: 3094: 3085: 3064: 3047: 3027: 3000: 2963: 2905: 2897: 2874:30 September 2872:. Retrieved 2866: 2835: 2810: 2802: 2797: 2745: 2618: 2606:. Retrieved 2595: 2585: 2478:. Retrieved 2474: 2465: 2381: 2376: 2374: 2331: 2328:Early Cheras 2309:Samanalawewa 2301:Anuradhapura 2293:wrought iron 2286: 2246: 2233:black pepper 2230: 2225: 2217: 2211: 2201: 2194: 2190:Roman Empire 2183: 2163: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2130: 2117: 2088: 2069: 1927: 1917: 1914:on the east. 1912:Chola Empire 1890: 1879:A number of 1869: 1817: 1810: 1774: 1741:territories. 1718: 1712: 1710: 1699: 1651: 1648: 1637: 1617: 1584: 1582: 1574: 1570: 1526: 1521:Kauthamanar 1520: 1503: 1496: 1485: 1481: 1446: 1436: 1427: 1426:As the name 1425: 1417: 1410: 1405: 1398: 1389: 1377: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1343: 1339: 1333: 1316: 1308: 1304: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1269: 1260: 1241: 1225: 1209: 1197: 1181: 1176: 1156: 1098: 1088: 1071: 1069: 1029: 1021: 989: 987: 978: 972: 969:Graeco-Roman 964: 960: 940: 938: 925: 921: 919: 916: 898: 879:Tirur Taluks 866: 848: 825: 818: 792: 778:) was under 760:Palakkad Gap 709:Graeco-Roman 701:black pepper 694: 645: 638: 636: 500:Kanthan Ravi 476:Sa Irumporai 388:Early Cheras 381: 248:Succeeded by 247: 242: 145:Middle Tamil 119: 118: 108:Kongu Cheras 107: 106: 92:Early Cheras 91: 50: 40: 6444:, Routledge 6325:Rashtrakuta 6229:Pala Empire 6222:Kabul Shahi 6105:Kabul Shahi 6079:Alchon Huns 5857:Mahabharata 5780:Pre-history 5693:Pre-history 5603:Pre-history 5433:Spice trade 5131:: 198–150. 5032:(1): 3–21. 4434:Books cited 4388:Slapak 2003 3913:Thapar 2004 3898:Thapar 2004 3886:Ganesh 2009 3871:Thapar 2004 3859:Thapar 2004 3167:Pillai 1956 3128:Sastri 1955 2926:Kanyakumari 2914:Parashurama 2815:Thapar 2004 2518:Thapar 2018 2282:Middle East 2247:The famous 2243:Wootz steel 2220:in detail. 2218:Keprobotras 2169:Spice trade 2080:Kulasekhara 2031:Rajadhiraja 2029:Chola king 1959:Palghat Gap 1897:of Kerala). 1887:Rashtrakuta 1874:Vinayaditya 1577:Nalam Killi 1205:Palghat Gap 1161:) dated to 979:Keprobotras 965:Kerobottros 961:Kaelobotros 903:Tirurangadi 895:British Raj 875:Tirurangadi 843:Kongu Chera 811:Cenguttuvan 542:Sthanu Ravi 513:Vira Kerala 470:Kollippurai 243:Preceded by 219:c. 200s BCE 51:Cēra vamcam 6488:Categories 6338:References 6291:Ghaznavids 6101:Nezak Huns 4969:: 409–421. 4638:9004093656 4424:Menon 2007 4412:Menon 2007 4376:Menon 2007 4364:Menon 2007 4319:31 October 4293:31 October 3976:Menon 2007 3964:Menon 2007 3952:Menon 2007 3937:Menon 2007 3615:Aiyar 1937 3603:Menon 2007 3588:Aiyar 1937 3576:Aiyar 1937 3561:Menon 2007 3549:Aiyar 1937 3534:Aiyar 1937 3522:Aiyar 1937 3505:Aiyar 1937 3486:Aiyar 1937 3471:Aiyar 1937 3450:Aiyar 1937 3435:Aiyar 1937 3416:Aiyar 1937 3401:Menon 2007 3382:Aiyar 1937 3359:Aiyar 1937 3314:Aiyar 1937 3225:Menon 1967 3208:Menon 2007 3020:Menon 2007 3005:Menon 2007 2910:Menon 2011 2894:Menon 2007 2738:Menon 2007 2608:28 October 2409:References 2370:Christians 2362:Brahmanism 2262:Tamil Nadu 2143:Government 2091:Nambutiris 2072:Tamil Nadu 1951:Dharmapuri 1714:Purananuru 1547:Satyaputra 1444:Decade of 1400:Purananuru 1379:Purananuru 1354:, king of 1340:virakkallu 1326: 1st 1310:Ettuthokai 1300:Purananuru 1297:, and the 1251: 1st 1166: 1st 1072:Kedalaputo 971:trade map 941:Kedalaputo 851:Puralimala 835:Tamil Nadu 780:Ay dynasty 768:Tamil Nadu 756: 1st 745:Coimbatore 659:Sangam age 563:Vijayaraga 509:Vira Chola 192:Government 183:Demonym(s) 150:Karintamil 6242:Kalachuri 6034:Kidarites 5330:Muchiri ( 5249:The Hindu 5236:The Hindu 5223:The Hindu 5210:The Hindu 5197:0971-751X 5189:The Hindu 5169:Frontline 5157:Frontline 5112:166060066 5104:2348-4489 5075:133144002 5046:145359607 4933:"Muziris" 4920:"Muziris" 4670:(2013) . 4589:. 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The 1291:, the 1233:Maurya 1216:Cochin 1214:(near 1131:Brahmi 1076:Ashoka 1060:Korkai 1044:Vanchi 1032:Pandya 945:Ashoka 934:Kerala 926:Charal 922:Cheral 907:Eranad 863:Kollam 831:Kerala 803:Brahmi 727:) and 725:Kerala 690:Pandya 532:Kerala 205: 187:Cheran 97:Vanchi 5845:Epics 5584:Late 5566:Late 5558:Late 5372:Karur 5325:Karur 5133:JSTOR 5108:S2CID 5071:S2CID 5042:S2CID 5009:JSTOR 4338:(PDF) 4149:(PDF) 4134:(PDF) 2900:pp. 7 2350:Durga 2346:toddy 2108:Tamil 1936:Karur 1891:E. 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