Computer chess - Knowledge

2320:). Later he advised the team that created the chess program Kaissa at Moscow’s Institute of Control Sciences. Botvinnik had his own ideas to model a Chess Master's Mind. After publishing and discussing his early ideas on attack maps and trajectories at Moscow Central Chess Clubin 1966, he found Vladimir Butenko as supporter and collaborator. Butenko first implemented the 15x15 vector attacks board representation on a M-20 computer, determining trajectories. After Botvinnik introduced the concept of Zones in 1970, Butenko refused further cooperation and began to write his own program, dubbed Eureka. In the 70s and 80s, leading a team around Boris Stilman, Alexander Yudin, Alexander Reznitskiy, Michael Tsfasman and Mikhail Chudakov, Botvinnik worked on his own project 'Pioneer' - which was an Artificial Intelligence based chess project. In the 90s, Botvinnik already in his 80s, he worked on the new project 'CC Sapiens'. 3622: 1468:

the game is represented by a "tree", or digital data structure of choices (branches) corresponding to moves. The nodes of the tree were positions on the board resulting from the choices of move. The impossibility of representing an entire game of chess by constructing a tree from first move to last was immediately apparent: there are an average of 36 moves per position in chess and an average game lasts about 35 moves to resignation (60-80 moves if played to checkmate, stalemate, or other draw). There are 400 positions possible after the first move by each player, about 200,000 after two moves each, and nearly 120 million after just 3 moves each.

1262:, tried a piece sacrifice to achieve a strong tactical attack, a strategy known to be highly risky against computers who are at their strongest defending against such attacks. True to form, Fritz found a watertight defense and Kramnik's attack petered out leaving him in a bad position. Kramnik resigned the game, believing the position lost. However, post-game human and computer analysis has shown that the Fritz program was unlikely to have been able to force a win and Kramnik effectively sacrificed a drawn position. The final two games were draws. Given the circumstances, most commentators still rate Kramnik the stronger player in the match. 3651: 2086:

be drawn because of the fifty-move rule. One reason for this is that if the rules of chess were to be changed once more, giving more time to win such positions, it will not be necessary to regenerate all the tablebases. It is also very easy for the program using the tablebases to notice and take account of this 'feature' and in any case if using an endgame tablebase will choose the move that leads to the quickest win (even if it would fall foul of the fifty-move rule with perfect play). If playing an opponent not using a tablebase, such a choice will give good chances of winning within fifty moves.

1528:, which corresponds to building experience in human players. This allows modern programs to examine some lines in much greater depth than others by using forwards pruning and other selective heuristics to simply not consider moves the program assume to be poor through their evaluation function, in the same way that human players do. The only fundamental difference between a computer program and a human in this sense is that a computer program can search much deeper than a human player could, allowing it to search more nodes and bypass the 3630: 6317: 3659: 579: 2043:. After forty-five moves, Browne agreed to a draw, being unable to force checkmate or win the rook within the next five moves. In the final position, Browne was still seventeen moves away from checkmate, but not quite that far away from winning the rook. Browne studied the endgame, and played the computer again a week later in a different position in which the queen can win in thirty moves. This time, he captured the rook on the fiftieth move, giving him a winning position ( 2159:

today. The opening books stored in computer databases are most likely far more extensive than even the best prepared humans, and playing an early out-of-book move may result in the computer finding the unusual move in its book and saddling the opponent with a sharp disadvantage. Even if it does not, playing out-of-book may be much better for tactically sharp chess programs than for humans who have to discover strong moves in an unfamiliar variation over the board.

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the neural network. The evaluation putatively represents or approximates the value of the subtree below the evaluated node as if it had been searched to termination, i.e. the end of the game. During the search, an evaluation is compared against evaluations of other leaves, eliminating nodes that represent bad or poor moves for either side, to yield a node which by convergence, represents the value of the position with best play by both sides.

42: 2347:, before winning the ACM Championship again in 1975, 1976 and 1977. The type A implementation turned out to be just as fast: in the time it used to take to decide which moves were worthy of being searched, it was possible just to search all of them. In fact, Chess 4.0 set the paradigm that was and still is followed essentially by all modern Chess programs today, and that had been successfully started by the Russian ITEP in 1965. 699: 1472:

badness of the moves chosen. Searching and comparing operations on the tree were well suited to computer calculation; the representation of subtle chess knowledge in the evaluation function was not. The early chess programs suffered in both areas: searching the vast tree required computational resources far beyond those available, and what chess knowledge was useful and how it was to be encoded would take decades to discover.

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seen in Greenblatt's program. It was thus the first program with an integrated modern structure and became the model for all future development. Chess 4.5 played strong B-class and won the 3rd World Computer Chess Championship the next year. Northwestern University Chess and its descendants dominated computer chess until the era of hardware chess machines in the early 1980s.

1464:) when necessary is required to play well. Normal tournament rules give each player an average of three minutes per move. On average there are more than 30 legal moves per chess position, so a computer must examine a quadrillion possibilities to look ahead ten plies (five full moves); one that could examine a million positions a second would require more than 30 years. 2078:. Tablebases for all positions with six pieces are available. Some seven-piece endgames have been analyzed by Marc Bourzutschky and Yakov Konoval. Programmers using the Lomonosov supercomputers in Moscow have completed a chess tablebase for all endgames with seven pieces or fewer (trivial endgame positions are excluded, such as six white pieces versus a lone black 591:

everything from super-computers to smartphones. Hardware requirements for programs are minimal; the apps are no larger than a few megabytes on disk, use a few megabytes of memory (but can use much more, if it is available), and any processor 300Mhz or faster is sufficient. Performance will vary modestly with processor speed, but sufficient memory to hold a large

1844:, another kind of type B selective search. In 2007, an adaption of Monte Carlo tree search called Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees or UCT for short was created by Levente Kocsis and Csaba Szepesvári. In 2011, Chris Rosin developed a variation of UCT called Predictor + Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees, or PUCT for short. PUCT was then used in 1931::45). In addition to points for pieces, most handcrafted evaluation functions take many factors into account, such as pawn structure, the fact that a pair of bishops are usually worth more, centralized pieces are worth more, and so on. The protection of kings is usually considered, as well as the phase of the game (opening, middle or endgame). 611:. Playing strength, time controls, and other performance-related settings are adjustable from the GUI. Most GUIs also allow the player to set up and to edit positions, to reverse moves, to offer and to accept draws (and resign), to request and to receive move recommendations, and to show the engine's analysis as the game progresses. 2031:). This was despite not following the usual strategy to delay defeat by keeping the defending king and rook close together for as long as possible. Asked to explain the reasons behind some of the program's moves, Thompson was unable to do so beyond saying the program's database simply returned the best moves. 1816:

This would enable them to look further ahead ('deeper') at the most significant lines in a reasonable time. However, early attempts at selective search often resulted in the best move or moves being pruned away. As a result, little or no progress was made for the next 25 years dominated by this first

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record key moves that "refute" what appears to be a good move; these are typically tried first in variant positions (since a move that refutes one position is likely to refute another). The drawback is that transposition tables at deep ply depths can get quite large – tens to hundreds of millions of

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search algorithms, where at each ply the "best" move by the player is selected; one player is trying to maximize the score, the other to minimize it. By this alternating process, one particular terminal node whose evaluation represents the searched value of the position will be arrived at. Its value

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Chess machines/programs are available in several different forms: stand-alone chess machines (usually a microprocessor running a software chess program, but sometimes as a specialized hardware machine), software programs running on standard PCs, web sites, and apps for mobile devices. Programs run on

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running on present-day computing hardware could not solve the initial position in an acceptable amount of time. The difficulty in proving the latter lies in the fact that, while the number of board positions that could happen in the course of a chess game is huge (on the order of at least 10 to 10),

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chess are generally considered to be rather remote. It is widely conjectured that no computationally inexpensive method to solve chess exists even in the weak sense of determining with certainty the value of the initial position, and hence the idea of solving chess in the stronger sense of obtaining

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stored in a disk database. Opening books cover the opening moves of a game to variable depth, depending on opening and variation, but usually to the first 10-12 moves (20-24 ply). Since the openings have been studied in depth by the masters for centuries, and some are known to well into the middle

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as a substrate for their search algorithm, these additional selective search heuristics used in modern programs means that the program no longer does a "brute force" search. Instead they heavily rely on these selective search heuristics to extend lines the program considers good and prune and reduce

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Meanwhile, hardware continued to improve, and in 1974, brute force searching was implemented for the first time in the Northwestern University Chess 4.0 program. In this approach, all alternative moves at a node are searched, and none are pruned away. They discovered that the time required to simply

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search algorithm as calculations on the GPU are inherently parallel. The minimax and alpha-beta pruning algorithms used in computer chess are inherently serial algorithms, so would not work well with batching on the GPU. On the other hand, MCTS is a good alternative, because the random sampling used

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The earliest attempts at procedural representations of playing chess predated the digital electronic age, but it was the stored program digital computer that gave scope to calculating such complexity. Claude Shannon, in 1949, laid out the principles of algorithmic solution of chess. In that paper,

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while the best humans only gained roughly 2 points per year. The highest rating obtained by a computer in human competition was Deep Thought's USCF rating of 2551 in 1988 and FIDE no longer accepts human–computer results in their rating lists. Specialized machine-only Elo pools have been created for

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The first number refers to the number of moves which must be made by each engine, the second number refers to the number of minutes allocated to make all of these moves. The repeating time control means that the time is reset after each multiple of this number of moves is reached. For example, in a

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Many tablebases do not consider the fifty-move rule, under which a game where fifty moves pass without a capture or pawn move can be claimed to be a draw by either player. This results in the tablebase returning results such as "Forced mate in sixty-six moves" in some positions which would actually

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In the 1970s, most chess programs ran on super computers like Control Data Cyber 176s or Cray-1s, indicative that during that developmental period for computer chess, processing power was the limiting factor in performance. Most chess programs struggled to search to a depth greater than 3 ply. It

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This led naturally to what is referred to as "selective search" or "type B search", using chess knowledge (heuristics) to select a few presumably good moves from each position to search, and prune away the others without searching. Instead of wasting processing power examining bad or trivial moves,

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of pieces or other important sequence of moves ('lines'). He expected that adapting minimax to cope with this would greatly increase the number of positions needing to be looked at and slow the program down still further. He expected that adapting type A to cope with this would greatly increase the

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Of course, faster hardware and additional memory can improve chess program playing strength. Hyperthreaded architectures can improve performance modestly if the program is running on a single core or a small number of cores. Most modern programs are designed to take advantage of multiple cores to

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for each move); these Rebel won 3–1. Two were semi-blitz games (fifteen minutes for each side) that Rebel won as well (1½–½). Finally, two games were played as regular tournament games (forty moves in two hours, one hour sudden death); here it was Anand who won ½–1½. In fast games, computers played

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representing sequences of moves from the current position and attempt to execute the best such sequence during play. Such trees are typically quite large, thousands to millions of nodes. The computational speed of modern computers, capable of processing tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of

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Silver, David; Hubert, Thomas; Schrittwieser, Julian; Antonoglou, Ioannis; Lai, Matthew; Guez, Arthur; Lanctot, Marc; Sifre, Laurent; Kumaran, Dharshan; Graepel, Thore; Lillicrap, Timothy; Simonyan, Karen; Hassabis, Demis (2017). "Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement

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1975 – After nearly a decade of only marginal progress since the high-water mark of Greenblatt's MacHack VI in 1967, Northwestern University Chess 4.5 is introduced featuring full-width search, and innovations of bitboards and iterative deepening. It also reinstated a transposition table as first

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The output of the evaluation function is a single scalar, quantized in centipawns or other units, which is, in the case of handcrafted evaluation functions, a weighted summation of the various factors described, or in the case of neural network based evaluation functions, the output of the head of

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is a form of chess developed in 1998 by Kasparov where a human plays against another human, and both have access to computers to enhance their strength. The resulting "advanced" player was argued by Kasparov to be stronger than a human or computer alone. This has been proven in numerous occasions,

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In November–December 2006, World Champion Vladimir Kramnik played Deep Fritz. This time the computer won; the match ended 2–4. Kramnik was able to view the computer's opening book. In the first five games Kramnik steered the game into a typical "anti-computer" positional contest. He lost one game

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Other positions, long believed to be won, turned out to take more moves against perfect play to actually win than were allowed by chess's fifty-move rule. As a consequence, for some years the official FIDE rules of chess were changed to extend the number of moves allowed in these endings. After a

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chess ... clumsy, inefficient, diffuse, and just plain ugly", but humans lost to them by making "horrible blunders, astonishing lapses, incomprehensible oversights, gross miscalculations, and the like" much more often than they realized; "in short, computers win primarily through their ability to

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While at one time, playing an out-of-book move in order to put the chess program onto its own resources might have been an effective strategy because chess opening books were selective to the program's playing style, and programs had notable weaknesses relative to humans, that is no longer true

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skills built from experience. This enables them to examine some lines in much greater depth than others by simply not considering moves they can assume to be poor. More evidence for this being the case is the way that good human players find it much easier to recall positions from genuine chess

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in the early 1960s, Botvinnik had no choice but to investigate software move selection techniques; at the time only the most powerful computers could achieve much beyond a three-ply full-width search, and Botvinnik had no such machines. In 1965 Botvinnik was a consultant to the ITEP team in a

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So a limited lookahead (search) to some depth, followed by using domain-specific knowledge to evaluate the resulting terminal positions was proposed. A kind of middle-ground position, given good moves by both sides, would result, and its evaluation would inform the player about the goodness or

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of artificial intelligence (AI)". The procedural resolution of complexity became synonymous with thinking, and early computers, even before the chess automaton era, were popularly referred to as "electronic brains". Several different schema were devised starting in the latter half of the 20th

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By 1982, microcomputer chess programs could evaluate up to 1,500 moves a second and were as strong as mainframe chess programs of five years earlier, able to defeat a majority of amateur players. While only able to look ahead one or two plies more than at their debut in the mid-1970s, doing so

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Technological advances by orders of magnitude in processing power have made the brute force approach far more incisive than was the case in the early years. The result is that a very solid, tactical AI player aided by some limited positional knowledge built in by the evaluation function and

2311:, who wrote several works on the subject. Botvinnik’s interest in Computer Chess started in the 50s, favouring chess algorithms based on Shannon's selective type B strategy, as discussed along with Max Euwe 1958 in Dutch Television. Working with relatively primitive hardware available in the 1890:

and compare the possible positions, known as leaves. The algorithm that evaluates leaves is termed the "evaluation function", and these algorithms are often vastly different between different chess programs. Evaluation functions typically evaluate positions in hundredths of a pawn (called a

1789:, a system of defining upper and lower bounds on possible search results and searching until the bounds coincided, reduced the branching factor of the game tree logarithmically, but it still was not feasible for chess programs at the time to exploit the exponential explosion of the tree. 3639: 1828:, null move pruning, and other modern selective search heuristics. These heuristics had far fewer mistakes than earlier heuristics did, and was found to be worth the extra time it saved because it could search deeper and widely adopted by many engines. While many modern programs do use 1743:

entries. IBM's Deep Blue transposition table in 1996, for example was 500 million entries. Transposition tables that are too small can result in spending more time searching for non-existent entries due to threshing than the time saved by entries found. Many chess engines use

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pruning/extension rules began to match the best players in the world. It turned out to produce excellent results, at least in the field of chess, to let computers do what they do best (calculate) rather than coax them into imitating human thought processes and knowledge. In 1997

3642: 3638: 1958:. Piece-square tables are a set of 64 values corresponding to the squares of the chessboard, and there typically exists a piece-square table for every piece and colour, resulting in 12 piece-square tables and thus 768 inputs into the neural network. In addition, some engines use 5204:

Schrittwieser, Julian; Antonoglou, Ioannis; Hubert, Thomas; Simonyan, Karen; Sifre, Laurent; Schmitt, Simon; Guez, Arthur; Lockhart, Edward; Hassabis, Demis; Graepel, Thore; Lillicrap, Timothy (2020). "Mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi by planning with a learned model".

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Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm which expands the search tree based on random sampling of the search space. A version of Monte Carlo tree search commonly used in computer chess is PUCT, Predictor and Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees.

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in Hong Kong. This marks the first time a chess program running on commodity hardware defeats specialized chess machines and massive super-computers, indicating a shift in emphasis from brute computational power to algorithmic improvements in the evolution of chess

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dedicated chess computer. The USCF prohibits computers from competing in human tournaments except when represented by the chess systems' creators. The Fredkin Prize, offering $ 100,000 to the creator of the first chess machine to defeat the world chess champion, is

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in 2018 by Yu Nasu, and had to be first ported to a derivative of Stockfish called Stockfish NNUE on 31 May 2020, and integrated into the official Stockfish engine on 6 August 2020, before other chess programmers began to adopt neural networks into their engines.

1675:, forward pruning, search extensions and search reductions, are also used as well. These heuristics are triggered based on certain conditions in an attempt to weed out obviously bad moves (history moves) or to investigate interesting nodes (e.g. check extensions, 3471:. 4 running on a smartphone, wins Copa Mercosur, an International Master level tournament, scoring 9½/10 and earning a performance rating of 2900. A group of pseudonymous Russian programmers release the source code of Ippolit, an engine seemingly stronger than 3640: 866:

The sudden improvement without a theoretical breakthrough was unexpected, as many did not expect that Belle's ability to examine 100,000 positions a second—about eight plies—would be sufficient. The Spracklens, creators of the successful microcomputer program

671:, while GUIs may offer a variety of piece sets, board styles, or even 3D or animated pieces. Because recent engines are so capable, engines or GUIs may offer some way of handicapping the engine's ability, to improve the odds for a win by the human player. 3954:, meaning that determining the winning side in an arbitrary position of generalized chess provably takes exponential time in the worst case; however, this theoretical result gives no lower bound on the amount of work required to solve ordinary 8x8 chess. 3937:

a practically usable description of a strategy for perfect play for either side seems unrealistic today. However, it has not been proven that no computationally cheap way of determining the best move in a chess position exists, nor even that a traditional

6539:, American Mathematical Society's Proceeding of Symposia in Applied Mathematics: Mathematical Aspects of Artificial Intelligence, v. 55, pp 175–205, 1998. Based on paper presented at the 1996 Winter Meeting of the AMS, Orlando, Florida, Jan 9–11, 1996. 1821:

search all the moves was much less than the time required to apply knowledge-intensive heuristics to select just a few of them, and the benefit of not prematurely or inadvertently pruning away good moves resulted in substantially stronger performance.

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of IBM stated that "Computers don't have any sense of aesthetics... They play what they think is the objectively best move in any position, even if it looks absurd, and they can play any move no matter how ugly it is." Grandmasters Andrew Soltis and

1683:, etc.). These selective search heuristics have to be used very carefully however. Over extend and the program wastes too much time looking at uninteresting positions. If too much is pruned or reduced, there is a risk cutting out interesting nodes. 1387:

in the early years of the 20th century, scientists and theoreticians have sought to develop a procedural representation of how humans learn, remember, think and apply knowledge, and the game of chess, because of its daunting complexity, became the

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In the late 1970s to early 1990s, there was a competitive market for dedicated chess computers. This market changed in the mid-1990s when computers with dedicated processors could no longer compete with the fast processors in personal computers.

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wins the Mississippi State Championship with a perfect 5–0 score and a performance rating of 2258. In round 4 it defeats Joe Sentef (2262) to become the first computer to beat a master in tournament play and the first computer to gain a master

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Using "ends-and-means" heuristics a human chess player can intuitively determine optimal outcomes and how to achieve them regardless of the number of moves necessary, but a computer must be systematic in its analysis. Most players agree that

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iteration of the selective search paradigm. The best program produced in this early period was Mac Hack VI in 1967; it played at the about the same level as the average amateur (C class on the United States Chess Federation rating scale).

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while, the rule reverted to fifty moves in all positions – more such positions were discovered, complicating the rule still further, and it made no difference in human play, as they could not play the positions perfectly.

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Endgame play had long been one of the great weaknesses of chess programs because of the depth of search needed. Some otherwise master-level programs were unable to win in positions where even intermediate human players could force a win.

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wrote that "the only way a current computer program could ever win a single game against a master player would be for the master, perhaps in a drunken stupor while playing 50 games simultaneously, to commit some once-in-a-year blunder".

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Perhaps the most common type of chess software are programs that simply play chess. A human player makes a move on the board, the AI calculates and plays a subsequent move, and the human and AI alternate turns until the game ends. The

484:. Computer chess provides opportunities for players to practice even in the absence of human opponents, and also provides opportunities for analysis, entertainment and training. Computer chess applications that play at the level of a 3964:, played on a 5×5 board with approximately 10 possible board positions, has been solved; its game-theoretic value is 1/2 (i.e. a draw can be forced by either side), and the forcing strategy to achieve that result has been described. 2292:, which played a king and rook versus king ending, were too complex and limited to be useful for playing full games of chess. The field of mechanical chess research languished until the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s. 1357:, Argentina with 9 wins and 1 draw on August 4–14, 2009. Pocket Fritz 4 searches fewer than 20,000 positions per second. This is in contrast to supercomputers such as Deep Blue that searched 200 million positions per second. 1309:

Human–computer chess matches showed the best computer systems overtaking human chess champions in the late 1990s. For the 40 years prior to that, the trend had been that the best machines gained about 40 points per year in the

2372:, a brute-force machine capable of examining 500 million nodes per second, defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov, marking the first time a computer has defeated a reigning world chess champion in standard time control. 3343:. Chess programs running on personal computers surpass Mephisto's dedicated chess computers to win the Microcomputer Championship, marking a shift from dedicated chess hardware to software on multipurpose personal computers. 6696: 2038:

accepted the challenge. A queen versus rook position was set up in which the queen can win in thirty moves, with perfect play. Browne was allowed 2½ hours to play fifty moves, otherwise a draw would be claimed under the

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Historically, handcrafted evaluation functions consider material value along with other factors affecting the strength of each side. When counting up the material for each side, typical values for pieces are 1 point for a

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predicted that a computer would defeat the world human champion by 1967. It did not anticipate the difficulty of determining the right order to evaluate moves. Researchers worked to improve programs' ability to identify

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rating of 2681. Fabien Letouzey releases the source code for Fruit 2.1, an engine quite competitive with the top closed-source engines of the time. This leads many authors to revise their code, incorporating the new

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A "chess engine" is software that calculates and orders which moves are the strongest to play in a given position. Engine authors focus on improving the play of their engines, often just importing the engine into a

6676: 2343:(1970–72), abandoned type B searching in 1973. The resulting program, Chess 4.0, won that year's championship and its successors went on to come in second in both the 1974 ACM Championship and that year's inaugural 3621: 598:

Most available commercial chess programs and machines can play at super-grandmaster strength (Elo 2700 or more), and take advantage of multi-core and hyperthreaded computer CPU architectures. Top programs such as

1577:(GUI) which provides the player with a chessboard they can see, and pieces that can be moved. Engines communicate their moves to the GUI using a protocol such as the Chess Engine Communication Protocol (CECP) or 888:

improved their play more than experts expected; seemingly minor improvements "appear to have allowed the crossing of a psychological threshold, after which a rich harvest of human error becomes accessible",

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What this means is that chess, like the common fruit fly, is a simple and more accessible and familiar paradigm to experiment with technology that can be used to produce knowledge about other, more complex

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games, breaking them down into a small number of recognizable sub-positions, rather than completely random arrangements of the same pieces. In contrast, poor players have the same level of recall for both.

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lead to the widespread adoption of neural networks in chess engines. However, AlphaZero influenced very few engines to begin using neural networks, and those tended to be new experimental engines such as

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have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. One of the few chess grandmasters to devote himself seriously to computer chess was former

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do parallel search. Other programs are designed to run on a general purpose computer and allocate move generation, parallel search, or evaluation to dedicated processors or specialized co-processors.

3134: 2012:, starting with positions where the final result is known (e.g., where one side has been mated) and seeing which other positions are one move away from them, then which are one move from those, etc. 1891:

centipawn), where by convention, a positive evaluation favors White, and a negative evaluation favors Black. However, some evaluation function output win/draw/loss percentages instead of centipawns.

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were ported to computer chess in 2020, which did not require either the use of GPUs or libraries like CUDA at all. Even then, the neural networks used in computer chess are fairly shallow, and the

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First, with approximately thirty moves possible in a typical real-life position, he expected that searching the approximately 10 positions involved in looking three moves ahead for both sides (six

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For a current state-of-the art chess engine like Stockfish, a table base only provides a very minor increase in playing strength (approximately 3 Elo points for syzygy 6men as of Stockfish 15).

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There was speculation that interest in human–computer chess competition would plummet as a result of the 2006 Kramnik-Deep Fritz match. According to Newborn, for example, "the science is done".

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A naive implementation of the minimax algorithm can only search to a small depth in a practical amount of time, so various methods have been devised to greatly speed the search for good moves.

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is founded by chess programmers to organize computer chess championships and report on research and advancements on computer chess in their journal. Also that year, Applied Concepts released

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predicted more than 20; and others predicted that it would never happen. The most widely held opinion, however, stated that it would occur around the year 2000. In 1989, Levy was defeated by

1581:(UCI). By dividing chess programs into these two pieces, developers can write only the user interface, or only the engine, without needing to write both parts of the program. (See also 1258:

search. Fritz, however, won game 5 after a severe blunder by Kramnik. Game 6 was described by the tournament commentators as "spectacular". Kramnik, in a better position in the early

3482:, Topalov prepares by sparring against the supercomputer Blue Gene with 8,192 processors capable of 500 trillion (5 × 10) floating-point operations per second. Rybka developer, 5626: 6693: 2162:

In modern engine tournaments, opening books are used to force the engines to play intentionally unbalanced openings to reduce the draw rate and to add more variety to the games.

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in 1950. He predicted the two main possible search strategies which would be used, which he labeled "Type A" and "Type B", before anyone had programmed a computer to play chess.

812:, unusually high-scoring moves to reexamine when evaluating other branches, but into the 1970s most top chess players believed that computers would not soon be able to play at a 6663: 1668:, a system of defining upper and lower bounds on possible search results and searching until the bounds coincided, is typically used to reduce the search space of the program. 667:(GUI) are sometimes separate programs. Different engines can be connected to the GUI, permitting play against different styles of opponent. Engines often have a simple text 6653: 6683: 6643: 1211:

With increasing processing power and improved evaluation functions, chess programs running on commercially available workstations began to rival top-flight players. In 1998,

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and employs dozens of carefully tuned move selection heuristics; it becomes the first program to defeat a person in tournament play. Mac Hack VI played about C class level.

1634:. In theory, they examine all moves, then all counter-moves to those moves, then all moves countering them, and so on, where each individual move by one player is called a " 1219:, who at the time was ranked second in the world, by a score of 5–3. However, most of those games were not played at normal time controls. Out of the eight games, four were 6673: 3946:

after relatively few moves, in which case the search tree might encompass only a very small subset of the set of possible positions. It has been mathematically proven that

4668: 3641: 1520:

for leaf evaluation, which correspond to the human players' pattern recognition skills, and the use of machine learning techniques in training them, such as Texel tuning,

3078:, an American Computer scientist at Bell Labs and creator of the Unix operating system, writes his first chess-playing program called "chess" for the earliest version of 3124:

Released in 1977, Boris was one of the first chess computers to be widely marketed. It ran on a Fairchild F8 8-bit microprocessor with only 2.5 KiB ROM and 256 byte RAM.

1726:

in Monte Carlo tree search lends itself well to parallel computing, and is why nearly all engines which support calculations on the GPU use MCTS instead of alpha-beta.

1861:

was not until the hardware chess machines of the 1980s, that a relationship between processor speed and knowledge encoded in the evaluation function became apparent.

948:. This game was, in fact, the first time a reigning world champion had lost to a computer using regular time controls. However, Kasparov regrouped to win three and 778:

for children. Convekta provides a large number of training apps such as CT-ART and its Chess King line based on tutorials by GM Alexander Kalinin and Maxim Blokh.

3192:

line of dedicated chess computers begins a long streak of victories (1984–1990) in the World Microcomputer Championship using dedicated computers running programs

3167:, which is broadcast on German television. Levy and Chess 4.8, running on a CDC Cyber 176, the most powerful computer in the world, fought a grueling 89 move draw. 3138: 1614:. Methods include pieces stored in an array ("mailbox" and "0x88"), piece positions stored in a list ("piece list"), collections of bit-sets for piece locations (" 3045: 955:

In May 1997, an updated version of Deep Blue defeated Kasparov 3½–2½ in a return match. A documentary mainly about the confrontation was made in 2003, titled

1638:". This evaluation continues until a certain maximum search depth or the program determines that a final "leaf" position has been reached (e.g. checkmate). 5729: 5452: 3170:

1980 – Fidelity computers win the World Microcomputer Championships each year from 1980 through 1984. In Germany, Hegener & Glaser release their first

4029:

released its first Java client for playing chess online against other people inside one's webbrowser. This was probably one of the first chess web apps.

2536:

programming formalism. Because of the circumstances of the Second World War, however, they were not published, and did not come to light, until the 1970s.

3450: 1284: 1833:

lines the program considers bad, to the point where most of the nodes on the search tree are pruned away, enabling modern programs to search very deep.

713:

Chess databases allow users to search through a large library of historical games, analyze them, check statistics, and formulate an opening repertoire.

524:

nodes or more per second, along with extension and reduction heuristics that narrow the tree to mostly relevant nodes, make such an approach effective.

7097: 3130: 3015: 1482:(GUI) – how moves are entered and communicated to the user, how the game is recorded, how the time controls are set, and other interface considerations 460: 4052:

Another popular web app is tactics training. The now defunct Chess Tactics Server opened its site in 2006, followed by Chesstempo the next year, and

5381: 4695: 2214:

by playing the programs against each other. CCRL was founded in 2006 to promote computer-computer competition and tabulate results on a rating list.

1508:

and beginners look at around forty to fifty positions before deciding which move to play. What makes the former much better players is that they use

515:

Computer chess applications, whether implemented in hardware or software, utilize different strategies than humans to choose their moves: they use

3967:

Progress has also been made from the other side: as of 2012, all 7 and fewer pieces (2 kings and up to 5 other pieces) endgames have been solved.

2019:

The results of the computer analysis sometimes surprised people. In 1977 Thompson's Belle chess machine used the endgame tablebase for a king and

6523: 3350:, running on a 90Mhz Pentium PC, beats Deep Thought-2 dedicated chess machine, and programs running on several super-computers, to win the 8th 2522: 2217:

The organisation runs three different lists: 40/40 (40 minutes for every 40 moves played), 40/4 (4 minutes for every 40 moves played), and 40/4

910:

as a "state-of-the-art chess program" for the IBM PC with a "surprisingly high" level of play, and estimated its USCF rating as 1700 (Class B).

1375:

won't play computer chess because "he just loses all the time and there's nothing more depressing than losing without even being in the game."

527:

The first chess machines capable of playing chess or reduced chess-like games were software programs running on digital computers early in the

152: 5267: 4643: 2150:

Chess engines, like human beings, may save processing time as well as select strong variations as expounded by the masters, by referencing an

5534: 4804: 4034: 859:, but it achieved the first computer victory against a Master-class player at the tournament level by winning one of the six games. In 1980, 4172:

would have 4 minutes to make 40 moves, then a new 4 minutes would be allocated for the next 40 moves and so on, until the game was complete.

5634: 4443: 2316:

US-Soviet computer chess match which won a correspondence chess match against the Kotok-McCarthy-Program led by John McCarthy in 1967.(see

6763: 2124:

helped by generating the six piece ending tablebase where both sides had two Queens which was used heavily to aid analysis by both sides.

1661:

is backed up to the root, and that evaluation becomes the valuation of the position on the board. This search process is called minimax.

6479: 5430: 5405:

Chess, a subsection of chapter 25, Digital Computers Applied to Games, of Faster than Thought, ed. B. V. Bowden, Pitman, London (1953).

8331: 5997: 3764:

to run the chess programs created for Fidelity or Hegener & Glaser's Mephisto computers on modern 64-bit operating systems such as

3068: 914: 933:

in an exhibition match. Deep Thought, however, was still considerably below World Championship level, as the reigning world champion,

5673: 3942:

it is hard to rule out with mathematical certainty the possibility that the initial position allows either side to force a mate or a

3152:

in a six-game match by a score of 4½–1½. The computer's victory in game four is the first defeat of a human master in a tournament.

691:

have a Handicap and Fun mode for limiting the current engine or changing the percentage of mistakes it makes or changing its style.

7883: 6569: 111: 6518:, Stanford University Department of Computer Science, Technical Report CS 106, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Project Memo AI-65 8346: 8306: 6236: 5793: 3291:

1989 – Deep Thought demolishes David Levy in a 4-game match 0–4, bringing to an end his famous series of wagers starting in 1968.

965: 945: 1228:

better than humans, but at classical time controls – at which a player's rating is determined – the advantage was not so clear.

8326: 3733: 3690: 3214:

based on an engine by David Kittinger, the first edition of what was to become the world's best selling line of chess programs.

1475:

The developers of a chess-playing computer system must decide on a number of fundamental implementation issues. These include:

453: 2155:

game, the valuations of specific variations by the masters will usually be superior to the general heuristics of the program.

8591: 8321: 6134: 4606: 4416: 4330: 3986:(GUI) developed by someone else. Engines communicate with the GUI by standardized protocols such as the nowadays ubiquitous 3547:

These chess playing systems include custom hardware with approx. dates of introduction (excluding dedicated microcomputers):

2994: 718: 603:

have surpassed even world champion caliber players. Most chess programs comprise a chess engine connected to a GUI, such as

75: 6409:(This book actually covers computer chess from the early days through the first match between Deep Blue and Garry Kasparov.) 5117: 3689:

Chess Challenger, a line of chess computers sold by Fidelity Electronics from 1977 to 1992. These models won the first four

1383:

Since the era of mechanical machines that played rook and king endings and electrical machines that played other games like

7873: 3504: 2558:

publishes "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", one of the first papers on the algorithmic methods of computer chess.

2479: 2418: 1951: 1886:

For most chess positions, computers cannot look ahead to all possible final positions. Instead, they must look ahead a few

921:

predicted that a chess program could become world champion within five years; tournament director and International Master

782: 122: 6029: 127: 8266: 8129: 8114: 7878: 6186: 5406: 4066:

took their chess game database online in 1998. Another early chess game databases was Chess Lab, which started in 1999.

3064: 2340: 2337: 957: 6321: 4894: 839:

In the late 1970s chess programs suddenly began defeating highly skilled human players. The year of Hearst's statement,

8404: 7869: 7864: 5922: 5896:

Aviezri Fraenkel; D. Lichtenstein (1981), "Computing a perfect strategy for n×n chess requires time exponential in n",

5390: 4954: 3049: 2965: 2180: 2013: 1316: 7192: 5337: 2359:, entered and won the North American Computer Chess Championship over the dominant Northwestern University Chess 4.7. 1393:

century to represent knowledge and thinking, as applied to playing the game of chess (and other games like checkers):

570:. The field is now considered a scientifically completed paradigm, and playing chess is a mundane computing activity. 8341: 8241: 8134: 8099: 6429: 6403: 6376: 6355: 3718: 3351: 3317: 3094: 2344: 2108:

Endgame databases featured prominently in 1999, when Kasparov played an exhibition match on the Internet against the

1611: 446: 6728: 6211: 5286:"Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network-based Evaluation Function for computer Shogi (Unofficial English Translation)" 3756:

sells mid-range units of intermediate strength. They bought out Hegener & Glaser and its Mephisto brand in 1994.

1924: 1760: 531:

age (1950s). The early programs played so poorly that even a beginner could defeat them. Within 40 years, in 1997,

8311: 8301: 8219: 8104: 6854: 6849: 4821: 3686:

Boris in 1977 and Boris Diplomat in 1979, chess computers including pieces and board, sold by Applied Concepts Inc.

2264:

The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates back to the eighteenth century. Around 1769, the chess playing

794: 540: 1747:, searching to deeper levels on the opponent's time, similar to human beings, to increase their playing strength. 1491:

Search techniques – how to identify the possible moves and select the most promising ones for further examination;

1299:), and drew the next four. In the final game, in an attempt to draw the match, Kramnik played the more aggressive 873:, estimated that 90% of the improvement came from faster evaluation speed and only 10% from improved evaluations. 8296: 8286: 6802: 3739:

Novag sold a line of tactically strong computers, including the Constellation, Sapphire, and Star Diamond brands.

3610:

2019 (similar hardware to its predecessor AlphaZero, non-specific to Chess or e.g. Go), learns the rules of Chess

3277: 3164: 3149: 3030: 2333: 938: 717:(for PC) is a common program for these purposes amongst professional players, but there are alternatives such as 536: 5090: 8291: 8281: 8276: 6939: 6901: 6297: 4900: 4270: 4078:, but eventually, decided to give up on software, and instead focus on their online database starting in 2002. 2176: 1291:

5½–½ in a six-game match (though Adams' preparation was far less thorough than Kramnik's for the 2002 series).

906:'s statement that "tactically they are freer from error than the average human player". The magazine described 17: 6152: 5355: 5309: 2503:. Presented as a chess-playing automaton, it is secretly operated by a human player hidden inside the machine. 8426: 8336: 8271: 7847: 7609: 7160: 3772:, Ed Schröder has also adapted three of the Hegener & Glaser Mephisto's he wrote to work as UCI engines. 3576: 3523: 3479: 3257: 2975:

1957 – The first programs that can play a full game of chess are developed, one by Alex Bernstein and one by

2187:, FGRL, and IPON maintain rating lists allowing fans to compare the strength of engines. Various versions of 2097:

of hard disk space for all five-piece endings. To cover all the six-piece endings requires approximately 1.2

1367:

Players today are inclined to treat chess engines as analysis tools rather than opponents. Chess grandmaster

930: 247: 4470: 3475:. This becomes the basis for the engines Robbolito and Ivanhoe, and many engine authors adopt ideas from it. 2565:

is first to publish a program, developed on paper, that was capable of playing a full game of chess (dubbed

2237:

are used (as opposed to the engine's own book) up to a limit of 12 moves into the game alongside 4 or 5 man

2139:. It is also significantly smaller in size than other formats, with 7-piece tablebases taking only 18.4 TB. 1824:

In the 1980s and 1990s, progress was finally made in the selective search paradigm, with the development of

7685: 7165: 5976: 4925: 1601: 1549: 1485: 1288: 863:

began often defeating Masters. By 1982 two programs played at Master level and three were slightly weaker.

516: 117: 6113: 6011: 5730:"The 7th World Computer-Chess Championship: Report on the tournament, Madrid, Spain, November 23-27, 1992" 3994:

and Franz Huber. There are others, like the Chess Engine Communication Protocol developed by Tim Mann for

3388:, a protocol for GUIs to talk to engines that would gradually become the main form new engines would take. 1792:

Second, it ignored the problem of quiescence, trying to only evaluate a position that is at the end of an

8440: 8389: 8094: 5041: 4779:

Lomonosov website allowing registered user to access 7-piece tablebase, and a forum with positions found.

3847:, American computer scientist and world correspondence chess champion, design supervisor of HiTech (1988) 3761: 2483: 1936: 1521: 1338: 903: 703: 142: 5693: 5503: 4587: 1315:

rating machines, but such numbers, while similar in appearance, are not directly compared. In 2016, the

1283:, a dedicated chess computer with custom hardware and sixty-four processors and also winner of the 14th 8513: 8491: 8399: 8384: 8043: 7995: 7990: 7980: 7648: 7326: 7170: 6347: 5951: 5073: 4550: 4537: 4096:

offered the content of the training program, Chess Mentor, to their customers online. Top GMs such as

4030: 3869: 3370: 3359: 2028: 1916: 804: 242: 192: 6617: 6153:"Chessbase Online, Searching a high quality database of Chessgames. Free Chess Games.ChessBase-Online" 6059: 4788: 3288:

for performance in this tournament of 2745 (USCF scale) was the highest obtained by a computer player.

1497:– how to evaluate the value of a board position, if no further search will be done from that position. 8586: 8445: 8379: 8229: 8124: 8119: 7968: 6364: 3987: 3729: 3385: 3188: 3171: 3160: 3145: 3086: 3041: 3005: 2514: 2454:, which were not compatible with existing chess engines. The vast majority of chess engines only use 2451: 2402: 2109: 1947: 1714: 1578: 1457: 1420: 672: 583: 262: 6088: 4010:. Engines designed for one operating system and protocol may be ported to other OS's or protocols. 3892:, American Professor or Computer Science and International Chess Master, developed Kopec-Bratko test 2409:

of chess engines since the late 1980s, with programs such as NeuroChess, Morph, Blondie25, Giraffe,

1239:

were able to draw matches against former world champion Garry Kasparov and classical world champion

8421: 8394: 8236: 7953: 7346: 7341: 7298: 7197: 4118: 3983: 3234: 2455: 1573: 1557: 1553: 1479: 902:

wrote that "Computers—mainframes, minis, and micros—tend to play ugly, inelegant chess", but noted

767: 756: 664: 7032: 6560: 5431:"Chessville – Early Computer Chess Programs – by Bill Wall – Bill Wall's Wonderful World of Chess" 4801: 8581: 8530: 8055: 7720: 6599: 3650: 2329: 2289: 1841: 1738:

are used to record positions that have been previously evaluated, to save recalculation of them.

1692: 1444: 1409: 840: 202: 7066: 6325: 6316: 4006:

has its own proprietary protocol, and at one time Millennium 2000 had another protocol used for

3950:(chess played with an arbitrarily large number of pieces on an arbitrarily large chessboard) is 725:

for PC, Gerhard Kalab's Chess PGN Master for Android or Giordano Vicoli's Chess-Studio for iOS.

8109: 8038: 7336: 7182: 7087: 6932: 6864: 6760: 4113: 3780:

These programs can be run on MS-DOS, and can be run on 64-bit Windows 10 via emulators such as

3601: 3418: 3403: 2969: 2957:

is the first program to play a chess-like game, developed by Paul Stein and Mark Wells for the

1963: 1940: 1786: 1665: 1647: 1568: 1545: 1525: 1436: 1405: 1296: 1266: 1232: 800: 668: 377: 352: 312: 137: 6498: 4846: 4575: 4384: 2547:

describes how a chess program could be developed using a depth-limited minimax search with an

2127:

The most popular endgame tablebase is syzygy which is used by most top computer programs like

2034:

Most grandmasters declined to play against the computer in the queen versus rook endgame, but

595:(up to several gigabytes or more) is more important to playing strength than processor speed. 8246: 8169: 8050: 7750: 7745: 7432: 7155: 7114: 6896: 6504: 6438: 4631: 3938: 3838: 3551: 2496: 2356: 2277: 1971: 1774:" approach, examining every possible position for a fixed number of moves using a pure naive 1251: 860: 824: 813: 567: 520: 222: 157: 31: 6604: 6491: 5681: 1864:

It has been estimated that doubling the computer speed gains approximately fifty to seventy

7958: 7895: 7854: 7815: 7597: 7587: 7517: 7331: 7262: 7187: 7072: 6871: 6609: 6550: 5560: 5520: 5224: 3943: 3808: 3141:, a dedicated chess computer in a wooden box with plastic chess pieces and a folding board. 2470:, which none of the engines had access to. Thus the vast majority of chess engines such as 2305: 1959: 1734:

Many other optimizations can be used to make chess-playing programs stronger. For example,

817: 635: 528: 422: 2421:

in the summer of 2020. Efficiently updatable neural networks were originally developed in

2062:

formats have been released including the Edward Tablebase, the De Koning Database and the

1588:

Developers have to decide whether to connect the engine to an opening book and/or endgame

8: 8411: 8191: 7938: 7825: 7795: 7765: 7737: 7710: 7653: 7554: 7522: 7482: 7437: 7150: 7092: 6967: 6915: 6910: 6837: 6795: 6421: 5627:"Rybka disqualified and banned from World Computer Chess Championships | ChessVibes" 5521:"Oral History of Peter Jennings | Mastering the Game | Computer History Museum" 4870: 4026: 3991: 3558: 3381: 3034: 3019: 2548: 2459: 2447: 2406: 2009: 1967: 1881: 1735: 1718: 1517: 1509: 1494: 1330: 748: 592: 402: 147: 107: 100: 7948: 5772: 5285: 5228: 3732:, a line of chess computers sold by Hegener & Glaser. The units won six consecutive 2082:). In all of these endgame databases it is assumed that castling is no longer possible. 1329:

continue to improve. In 2009, chess engines running on slower hardware have reached the

695:

also has a Friend Mode where during the game it tries to match the level of the player.

8518: 8416: 8159: 7963: 7604: 7492: 7455: 7104: 6972: 6771: 6770:– a full lecture featuring Murray Campbell (IBM Deep Blue Project), Edward Feigenbaum, 5818: 5678:ƎUИИ Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network based Evaluation Functions for Computer Shogi 5600: 5481: 5465: 5418: 5376: 5248: 5214: 5184: 5163: 5103: 4240: 4014: 3321: 3204: 2434: 2273: 2234: 2151: 1955: 1771: 1722: 1610:

used to represent each chess position is key to the performance of move generation and

1448: 1254:– play conservatively for a long-term advantage the computer is not able to see in its 832: 820: 775: 744: 187: 132: 6232: 5797: 5649: 5612: 4975: 4517: 4213:"Is chess the drosophila of artificial intelligence? A social history of an algorithm" 3905:, chairman of the computer chess committee for the Association for Computing Machinery 2893: 2872: 2643: 2622: 2417:, neural networks did not become widely adopted by chess engines until the arrival of 855:

level became the first to win a human tournament. Levy won his bet in 1978 by beating

755:

Chess Tutor based on the Step coursebooks of Rob Brunia and Cor Van Wijgerden. Former

687:

of the engine (via UCI's uci_limitstrength and uci_elo parameters). Some versions of

8501: 8374: 8186: 8144: 8070: 8022: 8005: 7985: 7837: 7775: 7715: 7690: 7537: 7502: 7497: 7477: 7465: 7308: 7276: 7242: 7222: 7059: 7053: 7014: 6881: 6425: 6399: 6372: 6351: 5991: 5909: 5446: 5386: 5252: 5240: 4735: 4232: 4123: 3908: 3895: 3850: 3671: 3530: 3519: 3497: 3438: 3430: 3285: 3109: 2879: 2629: 2475: 2308: 2301: 2281: 2211: 2188: 2128: 1987: 1887: 1865: 1829: 1825: 1806: 1797:

number of positions needing to be looked at and slow the program down still further.

1782: 1672: 1635: 1461: 1428: 1247: 1216: 763: 627: 600: 548: 497: 417: 197: 6711: 5874:

Shannon gave estimates of 10 and 10 respectively, smaller than the estimates in the

2900: 2886: 2865: 2850: 2843: 2836: 2829: 2822: 2815: 2700: 2693: 2686: 2679: 2672: 2665: 2650: 2636: 2615: 1504:

interviewed a number of chess players of varying strengths, and concluded that both

8496: 8369: 8211: 8154: 8060: 8010: 7859: 7805: 7800: 7790: 7705: 7626: 7616: 7592: 7559: 7131: 7045: 6819: 5905: 5268:"Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network-based Evaluation Function for computer Shogi" 5232: 4345: 4224: 4133: 4082: 3951: 3859: 3792: 3700: 3515: 3457: 3392: 3298:

lost in a simul to Hegener & Glaser's Mephisto Portorose M68030 chess computer.

3269: 3218: 3156: 2954: 2939: 2443: 2196: 2171: 2132: 2090: 2071: 2059: 1932: 1849: 1793: 1739: 1710: 1706: 1501: 1432: 1424: 1416: 1384: 1300: 1259: 1240: 809: 752: 639: 509: 501: 367: 327: 6138: 4997: 4756: 4610: 4244: 3654:

Milton Bradley Grandmaster (1983), the first commercial self-moving chess computer

3629: 2986:

1958 – NSS becomes the first chess program to use the alpha–beta search algorithm.

8461: 8435: 8256: 8251: 8201: 8139: 7943: 7918: 7903: 7700: 7658: 7641: 7542: 7460: 7422: 7400: 7385: 7316: 7293: 7252: 7247: 7126: 7109: 6949: 6767: 6700: 6690: 6680: 6670: 6660: 6650: 6637: 6621: 6546:, Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence, v. 28, pp. 27–30, 2000. 6339: 5875: 5077: 4808: 3865: 3434: 3426: 3026: 3001: 2500: 2385: 2269: 2230: 2222: 2040: 2027:

and was able to draw that theoretically lost ending against several masters (see

1224: 722: 556: 342: 170: 7725: 7636: 6552:

Theo and Octopus at the 2006 World Championship for Automated Reasoning Programs

4644:"World chess champion Magnus Carlsen: 'The computer never has been an opponent'" 852: 8560: 8476: 8224: 8065: 7928: 7923: 7760: 7755: 7621: 7579: 7549: 7378: 7321: 7209: 7177: 7143: 7136: 7121: 7082: 7077: 7004: 6999: 6788: 6725: 6627: 6511: 6037: 5883: 5840: 5477: 5236: 4138: 3957: 3902: 3818: 3797: 3658: 3508: 3374: 3363: 3295: 2990: 2573: 2555: 2540: 2518: 2471: 2422: 2317: 2285: 2258: 2192: 2136: 2121: 2063: 2008:

against king. Such endgame tablebases are generated in advance using a form of

1904: 1900: 1764: 1619: 1607: 1529: 1372: 1360: 1320: 944:

that Kasparov lost his first game to a computer at tournament time controls in

934: 918: 869: 823:

that no chess computer would be able to beat him within ten years, and in 1976

759: 619: 578: 512:, and other free open source applications are available for various platforms. 362: 347: 215: 174: 87: 6748: 6344:

Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion

6182: 3862:, Russian computer scientist, first elaborated the alphabeta pruning algorithm 2510:

automaton – which also has a human chess player hidden inside.

2225:) is switched off and timing is adjusted to the AMD64 X2 4600+ (2.4 GHz) 1837: 1371:

stated in 2016 "The computers are just much too good" and that world champion

937:, demonstrated in two strong wins in 1989. It was not until a 1996 match with 8575: 8535: 8525: 8508: 8181: 8164: 8086: 7975: 7933: 7913: 7695: 7677: 7668: 7631: 7564: 7487: 7472: 7427: 7410: 7405: 7395: 7227: 6989: 6927: 6732: 6590: 5091:

http://kirill-kryukov.com/chess/discussion-board/viewtopic.php?f=7&t=2808

4904: 4591: 4228: 4101: 4097: 3927: 3844: 3813: 3802: 3769: 3714: 3591: 3585: 3483: 3422: 3414: 3347: 3306: 3273: 3253: 3245: 3197: 3090: 3060: 3056:

that no computer program would win a chess match against him within 10 years.

3053: 2430: 2369: 2200: 2184: 2113: 2075: 2035: 2024: 1997: 1962:

in their evaluation function. Neural networks are usually trained using some

1912: 1812:

Employ forward pruning; i.e. only look at a few good moves for each position.

1368: 1280: 1236: 1212: 941: 922: 875: 740: 692: 688: 676: 552: 544: 489: 432: 407: 392: 322: 257: 6631: 5926: 5838:

The size of the state space and game tree for chess were first estimated in

5751: 4212: 4193: 2533: 1246:

In October 2002, Vladimir Kramnik and Deep Fritz competed in the eight-game

8555: 8481: 8466: 8196: 8017: 8000: 7908: 7842: 7785: 7780: 7512: 7507: 7447: 7390: 7281: 7237: 7009: 6994: 6984: 6920: 6886: 6859: 6827: 6705: 6528: 6492:

New Architectures in Computer Chess – Thesis on How to Build A Chess Engine

5879: 5244: 4317: 4236: 4169: 4067: 3976: 3876: 3696: 3675: 3468: 3373:, a highly modified version of the original, wins a six-game match against 3333: 3313: 3302: 3249: 3230: 3075: 2486:

methods pioneered by AlphaZero are still extremely rare in computer chess.

2390: 2384:

asked experts to characterize the playing style of computer chess engines.

2312: 2207: 2206:

CCRL (Computer Chess Rating Lists) is an organisation that tests computer

2117: 2101:. It is estimated that a seven-piece tablebase requires between 50 and 200 2079: 2020: 2005: 2001: 1920: 1908: 1896: 1680: 1582: 1544:

standards. Nearly all of today's programs can read and write game moves as

1505: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1334: 1326: 949: 926: 828: 660: 615: 532: 387: 280: 227: 35: 4776: 4049:

has long had a downloadable client, and added a web-based client in 2013.

2280:, became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Before the development of 1250:

match, which ended in a draw. Kramnik won games 2 and 3 by "conventional"

7830: 7820: 7569: 7532: 7415: 7026: 7021: 6979: 6832: 6207: 4128: 4089:

added a play Fritz web app, as well as My Games for storing one's games.

4075: 4007: 3933: 3914: 3889: 3823: 3707: 3604:

for neural networks, but the hardware is not specific to Chess or games)

3518:(LCZero v0.21.1-nT40.T8.610), a chess engine based on AlphaZero, defeats 3340: 3281: 3265: 3209: 3193: 2562: 2529: 1676: 1269:, another chess computer program, in New York City. The match ended 3–3. 1220: 848: 736: 485: 302: 292: 6595: 6470: 5707: 3662:

Novag Super Constellation (1984), known for its human-like playing style

3633:

Fidelity Voice Chess Challenger (1979), the first talking chess computer

3225:, releasing the first chess database program. Stuart Cracraft releases 952:

two of the remaining five games of the match, for a convincing victory.

8471: 7527: 7363: 7353: 7286: 7270: 6962: 6743: 4669:"20 Years Later, Humans Still No Match For Computers On The Chessboard" 4349: 3880: 3765: 3461: 3396: 3264:

in the Software Toolworks Championship, ahead of former world champion

3261: 3179: 3113: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2779: 2772: 2765: 2750: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2715: 2458:, and computing and processing information on the GPUs require special 2254: 2238: 1389: 1311: 684: 563: 493: 372: 307: 237: 7033: 3522:

19050918 in a 100-game match with the final score 53.5 to 46.5 to win

8486: 7810: 7770: 7373: 7368: 7257: 7232: 6957: 6413: 5694:

https://cd.tcecbeta.club/archive.html?season=15&div=sf&game=1

5203: 5168: 4093: 4086: 4071: 4063: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4003: 3995: 3961: 3743: 3597: 3493: 3407: 3325: 3226: 3222: 3011:

1966–67 – The first chess match between computer programs is played.

2566: 2438: 2410: 2355:

In 1978, an early rendition of Ken Thompson's hardware chess machine

2295: 2265: 1845: 1744: 1702: 1631: 1589: 1273: 1255: 856: 844: 771: 729: 714: 646:

which can be downloaded (or source code otherwise obtained) from the

643: 608: 505: 427: 412: 357: 332: 317: 287: 8364: 6293: 4331:"Heuristic problem solving: The next advance in operations research" 4278: 4013:

Chess engines are regularly matched against each other at dedicated

3453:

tournament and very quickly afterwards becomes the strongest engine.

2120:

endgame was reached with the World Team fighting to salvage a draw.

1563:

Starting in the late 1990s, programmers began to develop separately

65: 41: 8174: 7217: 6160: 5219: 5189: 5181: 4791:

An example chess position found from the Lomonosov chess tablebase.

3999: 3570: 2958: 2944: 2218: 2102: 2098: 2094: 1801:

Shannon suggested that type B programs would use two improvements:

1656:

One particular type of search algorithm used in computer chess are

1615: 698: 647: 604: 535:

running on super-computers or specialized hardware were capable of

477: 232: 6775: 6738: 6474: 5045: 2393:

stated that computers are more likely to retreat than humans are.

582:

Computer chess IC bearing the name of developer Frans Morsch (see

6891: 6642:

GameDev.net – Chess Programming by François-Dominic Laramée Part

4948: 3284:, making it the first computer to beat a GM in a tournament. Its 2446:, which began specifically to replicate the AlphaZero paper. The 1923:

is sometimes given an arbitrarily high value such as 200 points (

1775: 1657: 1651: 1401: 623: 182: 6275: 5972: 4496: 3750:

processors running modern engines and emulating classic engines.

3666: 1996:

To solve this problem, computers have been used to analyze some

7358: 6109: 6015: 5895: 5613:"Challenger uses supercomputer at the world chess championship" 5360: 5293: 4802:

http://rybkaforum.net/cgi-bin/rybkaforum/topic_show.pl?tid=9380

4257: 3884: 3781: 3753: 3747: 3742:

Phoenix Chess Systems makes limited edition units based around

3607: 3564: 3241: 3098: 3012: 2976: 2463: 2414: 1943:

are usually used to optimise handcrafted evaluation functions.

1571:

which calculates which moves are strongest in a position) or a

1556:, but today users expect chess programs to understand standard 1342: 631: 382: 337: 297: 267: 252: 6257: 5332: 5330: 4632:

Pocket Fritz 4 searches less than 20,000 positions per second.

4441: 4304: 3726:

Excalibur Electronics sells a line of beginner strength units.

1778:. Shannon believed this would be impractical for two reasons. 1532:

to a much greater extent than is possible with human players.

6811: 5650:"A Gross Miscarriage of Justice in Computer Chess (part one)" 3853:, Soviet electrical engineer and world chess champion, wrote 3472: 3446: 3120: 2943:. This simplified version of chess was played in 1956 by the 2507: 2067: 732:

allow players to play against one another over the internet.

707: 680: 481: 397: 6524:

Brute force or intelligence? The slow rise of computer chess

5947: 5708:"Fidelity Chess Challenger 1 – World's First Chess Computer" 5070: 4037:

opened up a web server to replace their email-based system.

1855: 1231:

In the early 2000s, commercially available programs such as

6876: 6735:– for playing chess against Ken Thompson's endgame database 6063: 5327: 4291: 3841:, a Soviet and Israeli mathematician and computer scientist 3785: 3079: 2980: 2467: 2450:

used in AlphaZero's evaluation function required expensive

1540:

Computer chess programs usually support a number of common

898: 82: 6614: 6084: 3332:, the first book based on endgame tablebases developed by 1950:. The most common evaluation function in use today is the 1927:) to ensure that a checkmate outweighs all other factors ( 1671:

In addition, various selective search heuristics, such as

1488:– how a single position is represented in data structures; 1341:

6 tournament with a performance rating 2898: chess engine

799:

After discovering refutation screening—the application of

555:

is not currently possible for modern computers due to the

6591:

List of chess engine ratings and game files in PGN format

3710:

engine, was also used in the TASC R30 dedicated computer.

2381: 2226: 8550: 6780: 6624:– blog following the creation of a computer chess engine 5601:

International Paderborn Computer Chess Championship 2005

5433:. Archive.is. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012 5160:

Giraffe: Using Deep Reinforcement Learning to Play Chess

3703:-based dedicated computer, which could run two engines: 2478:

continued to use handcrafted evaluation functions until

2328:

One developmental milestone occurred when the team from

2323: 884:

find and exploit miscalculations in human initiatives".

496:. Standalone chess-playing machines are also available. 6110:"Chess Puzzles - Improve Your Chess by Solving Tactics" 5727: 2528:

1941 – Predating comparable work by at least a decade,

2066:

Tablebase which is used by many chess programs such as

653: 551:, declared: "the science has been done". Nevertheless, 27:

Computer hardware and software capable of playing chess

6396:

Kasparov versus Deep Blue: Computer Chess Comes of Age

3339:

1993 – Deep Thought-2 loses a four-game match against

3133:, the first dedicated chess computer to be sold. The 1548:(PGN), and can read and write individual positions as 5923:"CoffeeHouse: The Internet Chess Club Java Interface" 5385:(Kindle ed.). Penguin Press. 2019. p. 174. 5349: 5347: 4800:

The Rybka Lounge / Computer Chess / Tablebase sizes,

4033:

followed soon after with a similar client. In 2004,

3670:

DGT Centaur (2019), a modern chess computer based on

1954:, which is a shallow neural network whose inputs are 1721:

and policy (move selection), and therefore require a

45:

1990s pressure-sensory chess computer with LCD screen

5104:

http://adamsccpages.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/ccrl.html

4518:"Chess News – Adams vs Hydra: Man 0.5 – Machine 5.5" 4378: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4200:. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 3717:, in 1992 became the first microcomputer to win the 573: 557:

game's extremely large number of possible variations

6324: by Chess Programming Wiki available under the 5019: 4551:"Once Again, Machine Beats Human Champion at Chess" 3425:) wins 8½–3½ against a strong human team formed by 2089:The Nalimov tablebases, which use state-of-the-art 6572:, Games of No Chance, MSRI Publications, Volume 29 5353: 5344: 4693: 3186:1984 – The German Company Hegener & Glaser's 3016:Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics 2296:Early software age: selective search and Botvinnik 1630:Computer chess programs consider chess moves as a 1552:(FEN). Older chess programs often only understood 925:predicted ten years; the Spracklens predicted 15; 6510: 5773:"Dedicated as UCI | Home of the Dutch Rebel" 5382:Possible Minds: Twenty-five Ways of Looking at AI 4538:Once Again, Machine Beats Human Champion at Chess 4471:"Chess Championship: Machines Play, People Watch" 4363: 3616: 803:to optimizing move evaluation—in 1957, a team at 476:includes both hardware (dedicated computers) and 8573: 6761:The History of Computer Chess: An AI Perspective 5466:David Bronstein v M-20, replay at Chessgames.com 5451:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 4410: 4408: 4406: 3489:2011 – The ICGA strips Rybka of its WCCC titles. 2581: 2221:(same time control but Chess960). Pondering (or 970: 6596:Mastering the Game: A History of Computer Chess 6471:Mastering the Game: A History of Computer Chess 5728:van den Herik, H.J.; Herschberg, I. S. (1992). 5145:A Self-Learning, Pattern-Oriented Chess Program 5044:. Ingo Bauer. November 16, 2016. Archived from 4663: 4661: 4442:Flock, Emil; Silverman, Jonathan (March 1984). 3911:, American computer scientist and mathematician 3533:evaluation, noticeably increasing its strength. 3402:2003 – Kasparov draws a six-game match against 3309:wins the World Microcomputer Chess Championship 3129:1977 – In March, Fidelity Electronics releases 3116:, the first game for microcomputers to be sold. 1709:uses MCTS instead of minimax. Such engines use 1397:search based (brute force vs selective search) 683:may have a built in mechanism for reducing the 6749:The Strongest Computer Chess Engines Over Time 5839: 5476: 4468: 3917:, English computer scientist and mathematician 3496:, a neural net-based digital automaton, beats 3148:wins the bet made 10 years earlier, defeating 2576:develops a program that solves chess problems. 2203:dominate the rating lists in the early 2020s. 2165: 6796: 6183:"Java chess games: Database search, analysis" 4687: 4462: 4403: 4382: 4035:International Correspondence Chess Federation 3898:, Soviet computer scientist and mathematician 3834:Well-known computer chess theorists include: 3760:Recently, some hobbyists have been using the 1946:Most modern evaluation functions make use of 1516:The equivalent of this in computer chess are 454: 5356:"official-stockfish / Stockfish, NNUE merge" 4658: 4588:Deep Thought wins Fredkin Intermediate Prize 4414: 3486:, accuses Ippolit of being a clone of Rybka. 2396: 6480:Bill Wall's Computer Chess History Timeline 6363: 6294:"Chess Lessons - Learn with Online Courses" 5832: 5000:. Home of the Dutch Rebel. January 30, 2021 4328: 3625:Boris Diplomat (1979) travel chess computer 3069:North American Computer Chess Championships 2989:1962 – The first program to play credibly, 2362: 2336:series of programs and won the first three 2284:, serious trials based on automata such as 2044: 1928: 1869: 1535: 543:had attained the same capability. In 2006, 6803: 6789: 6443:"Programming a Computer for Playing Chess" 5845:"Programming a Computer for Playing Chess" 5641: 5527: 4930:, Computerschach und Spiele, 18 March 2007 4927:Computerschach und Spiele – Eternal Rating 4733: 4435: 4271:"Chess Assistant Chess Website:: About Us" 3294:1990 – On April 25, former world champion 2532:develops computer chess algorithms in his 1686: 915:North American Computer Chess Championship 788: 461: 447: 34:. For chess played over the Internet, see 5752:"Download | Home of the Dutch Rebel" 5504:"Appendix CHESS 4.5: Competition in 1976" 5470: 5419:A game played by Turing's chess algorithm 5379:: Will Computers Become Our Overlords?". 5218: 5188: 5167: 4977:BayesianElo Ratinglist of WBEC Ridderkerk 4210: 4060:added a tactics trainer web app in 2015. 3646:Speech output from Voice Chess Challenger 3582:Deep Thought 2 (Deep Blue prototype)~1994 3500:28–0, with 72 draws, in a 100-game match. 3221:and physicist Matthias Wüllenweber found 2350: 1856:Knowledge versus search (processor speed) 1622:positions for compact long-term storage. 488:or higher are available on hardware from 6712:""How REBEL Plays Chess" by Ed Schröder" 6706:Colin Frayn's Computer Chess Theory Page 6615:Computer Chess Information and Resources 6570:Mathematical Sciences Research Institute 5142: 4822:"7-piece Syzygy tablebases are complete" 4630:Stanislav Tsukrov, Pocket Fritz author. 4601: 4599: 4318:https://www.facebook.com/chessstudioapp/ 4191: 3665: 3657: 3649: 3636: 3628: 3620: 3135:International Computer Chess Association 3119: 3108:1976 – In December, Canadian programmer 2253: 1595: 697: 577: 562:Computer chess was once considered the " 40: 6774:, John McCarthy, and Monty Newborn. at 6558: 6437: 6393: 6384: 5283: 5265: 5151: 5065: 5063: 4721: 4714: 3734:World Microcomputer Chess Championships 3691:World Microcomputer Chess Championships 1092: 1043: 946:Deep Blue versus Kasparov, 1996, game 1 14: 8574: 6562:Multilinear Algebra and Chess Endgames 6555:, Seattle, Washington, August 18, 2006 6497:Coles, L. Stephen (October 30, 2002), 6452:, Ser.7, Vol. 41 (314), archived from 5996:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5197: 4624: 4385:"Computer chess bad-human chess worse" 3320:, the first time a microcomputer beat 1729: 1223:games (five minutes plus five seconds 1036: 1022: 663:, which calculates the moves, and the 6784: 6496: 5277: 5115: 4596: 4383:Hapgood, Fred (23–30 December 1982). 4161: 4041:started offering Live Chess in 2007. 3542: 2480:efficiently updatable neural networks 2419:efficiently updatable neural networks 2324:Later software age: full-width search 1981: 1106: 1099: 1085: 1078: 1071: 1064: 1057: 1050: 1029: 1015: 1006: 735:Chess training programs teach chess. 537:defeating even the best human players 123:Efficiently updatable neural networks 52:This article is part of the series on 6500:Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI 6412: 6233:"Play Chess Online - Shredder Chess" 5647: 5354:Joost VandeVondele (July 25, 2020). 5307: 5259: 5060: 4789:"Who wins from this? (chess puzzle)" 4576:Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI 4070:had initially tried to compete with 3829: 3594:, predecessor was called Brutus 2002 3505:Efficiently updatable neural network 3406:and draws a four-game match against 3097:which is won by the Russian program 2375: 2048: 2000:positions completely, starting with 1952:efficiently updatable neural network 1625: 1415:Evaluations in search based schema ( 1353:won the Copa Mercosur tournament in 966:Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, 1996, game 1 879:stated in 1982 that computers "play 783:software for handling chess problems 654:Types and features of chess software 6338: 6012:"Play Daily (Correspondence) Chess" 5948:"FICS - Free Internet Chess Server" 5310:"Release stockfish-nnue-2020-05-30" 5157: 4694:Wheland, Norman D. (October 1978). 4607:"Pocket Fritz 4 wins Copa Mercosur" 4074:by releasing a NICBase program for 4056:added its Tactics Trainer in 2008. 3706:"The King", which later became the 3268:and several grandmasters including 3252:, wins a match against grandmaster 3065:Association for Computing Machinery 2506:1868 – Charles Hooper presents the 2288:of 1912, built by Spanish engineer 2249: 2029:Philidor position#Queen versus rook 1378: 1364:such as at Freestyle Chess events. 958:Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine 721:(Scid) for Windows, Mac or Linux, 547:, Professor of Computer Science at 24: 6485: 5648:Riis, Dr. Søren (2 January 2012). 5119:Learning to Play the Game of Chess 4955:Swedish Chess Computer Association 4081:One could play against the engine 3537: 3507:(NNUE) evaluation is invented for 3395:draws an eight-game match against 3352:World Computer Chess Championships 2523:King and Rook versus King endgames 2300:Since then, chess enthusiasts and 1935:techniques such as Texel turning, 1875: 1317:Swedish Chess Computer Association 1272:In November 2003, Kasparov played 719:Shane's Chess Information Database 25: 8603: 6634:about "anti-computer style" chess 6610:"Computer Chess" by Edward Winter 6584: 6516:A program to play chess end games 5705: 5158:Lai, Matthew (4 September 2015), 4903:, 12 October 2008, archived from 4020: 3719:World Computer Chess Championship 3318:World Computer Chess Championship 3095:World Computer Chess Championship 3018:(ITEP) defeats Kotok-McCarthy at 2345:World Computer Chess Championship 2233:as a benchmark. Generic, neutral 1641: 1458:looking at least five moves ahead 1287:in 2005, defeated seventh-ranked 1265:In January 2003, Kasparov played 574:Availability and playing strength 8549: 8220:List of strong chess tournaments 6320: This article incorporates 6315: 5684:(Japanese with English abstract) 5680:. Ziosoft Computer Shogi Club, 4540:New York Times, December 5, 2006 4329:Simon, H.A.; Newell, A. (1958). 3970: 3921: 3233:' to be bundled with a separate 2899: 2892: 2885: 2878: 2871: 2864: 2849: 2842: 2835: 2828: 2821: 2814: 2799: 2792: 2785: 2778: 2771: 2764: 2749: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2699: 2692: 2685: 2678: 2671: 2664: 2649: 2642: 2635: 2628: 2621: 2614: 2332:, which was responsible for the 1105: 1098: 1091: 1084: 1077: 1070: 1063: 1056: 1049: 1042: 1035: 1028: 1021: 1014: 1008: 739:had playthrough tutorials by IM 128:Handcrafted evaluation functions 64: 7193:Gökyay Association Chess Museum 6605:ACM Computer Chess by Bill Wall 6512:Huberman (Liskov), Barbara Jane 6300:from the original on 2007-12-14 6286: 6268: 6250: 6239:from the original on 2006-12-05 6225: 6214:from the original on 2002-10-08 6200: 6189:from the original on 1999-02-19 6175: 6145: 6127: 6116:from the original on 2008-02-18 6102: 6091:from the original on 2007-06-13 6077: 6052: 6022: 6004: 5979:from the original on 2004-08-31 5965: 5954:from the original on 1998-12-12 5940: 5915: 5889: 5811: 5786: 5765: 5744: 5721: 5699: 5687: 5667: 5619: 5605: 5594: 5585: 5576: 5567: 5553: 5513: 5496: 5459: 5423: 5412: 5399: 5368: 5301: 5175: 5136: 5109: 5096: 5083: 5034: 5012: 4990: 4968: 4941: 4918: 4887: 4863: 4839: 4814: 4794: 4782: 4770: 4749: 4727: 4646:. Deutsche Welle. 16 April 2016 4636: 4581: 4569: 4543: 4531: 4510: 4489: 4192:Sreedhar, Suhas (2 July 2007). 4151: 3775: 3362:loses a six-game match against 3040:1968 – Scottish chess champion 3008:running an early chess program. 2145: 1966:algorithm, in conjunction with 1400:Search in search based schema ( 541:programs running on desktop PCs 6544:Deep Blue's contribution to AI 5819:"Dr. Robert Hyatt's home page" 5561:"GNU's Bulletin, vol. 1 no. 2" 5308:Noda, Hisayori (30 May 2020). 4901:Chess Engines Grand Tournament 4415:Douglas, J R (December 1978). 4322: 4311: 4297: 4285: 4263: 4251: 4204: 4185: 3617:Commercial dedicated computers 3280:. It also defeats grandmaster 3022:by telegraph over nine months. 851:American Chess Championship's 519:to build, search and evaluate 13: 1: 8318:Computer chess championships 6638:A guide to Endgame Tablebases 5338:"Introducing NNUE Evaluation" 5102:Adam's Computer Chess Pages, 4609:. Chess.co.uk. Archived from 4520:. ChessBase.com. 28 June 2005 4417:"Chess 4.7 versus David Levy" 4179: 3480:World Chess Championship 2010 3203:1986 – Software Country (see 3159:organizes a match between IM 1770:Type A programs would use a " 8592:Game artificial intelligence 6030:"Play Chess Online for Free" 5910:10.1016/0097-3165(81)90016-9 5147:, vol. 12, ICCA Journal 4085:online from 2006. In 2015, 3932:The prospects of completely 3413:2004 – a team of computers ( 2521:, a machine that could play 2341:Computer Chess Championships 2244: 2016:was a pioneer in this area. 1868:points in playing strength ( 1717:in order to calculate their 1602:Board representation (chess) 827:and professor of psychology 821:David Levy made a famous bet 795:Human–computer chess matches 7: 8095:Bishop and knight checkmate 6418:Secrets of Pawnless Endings 5591:Selective Search. June 1990 5541:. January 1981. p. 292 4736:"Endgame Tablebases Online" 4696:"A Computer Chess Tutorial" 4469:Stinson, Craig (Jan 1982). 4258:http://scid.sourceforge.net 4107: 3762:Multi Emulator Super System 3456:2006 – The world champion, 3384:and Rudolf Huber draft the 2489: 2484:deep reinforcement learning 2172:Chess engine § Ratings 2166:Computer chess rating lists 1937:stochastic gradient descent 1522:stochastic gradient descent 143:Stochastic gradient descent 10: 8608: 8263:Other world championships 6744:Computer Chess Club Forums 6628:Defending Humanity's Honor 6389:, Academic Press, New York 6371:, Computer Science Press, 6348:Princeton University Press 6332: 5284:Yu Nasu (April 28, 2018). 5266:Yu Nasu (April 28, 2018). 5237:10.1038/s41586-020-03051-4 4757:"Open chess diary 301–320" 4104:have contributed lessons. 4031:Free Internet Chess Server 3974: 3925: 2169: 1985: 1917:Chess piece relative value 1879: 1754: 1690: 1645: 1599: 1592:or leave this to the GUI. 805:Carnegie Mellon University 792: 193:Principal variation search 29: 8544: 8454: 8357: 8210: 8105:Opposite-coloured bishops 8085: 8031: 7894: 7736: 7676: 7667: 7578: 7446: 7307: 7208: 7044: 6948: 6818: 6810: 6367:; Newborn, Monty (1991), 5821:. Cis.uab.edu. 2004-02-01 5615:. Chessbase. 25 May 2010. 5143:Levinson, Robert (1989), 5116:Thurn, Sebastian (1995), 5071:http://ccrl.chessdom.com/ 4444:"SPOC / The Chess Master" 4217:Social Studies of Science 3988:Universal Chess Interface 3386:Universal Chess Interface 2515:Leonardo Torres y Quevedo 2452:graphics processing units 2429:Some people, such as the 2397:Neural network revolution 2093:techniques, require 7.05 1715:graphics processing units 1579:Universal Chess Interface 1297:overlooking a mate in one 673:Universal Chess Interface 8237:World Chess Championship 7198:World Chess Hall of Fame 6754: 6568:, Berkeley, California: 6369:How Computers Play Chess 6157:www.chessbase-online.com 5898:J. Combin. Theory Ser. A 4229:10.1177/0306312711424596 4168:40/4 time control, each 4144: 4119:History of chess engines 4015:chess engine tournaments 3984:graphical user interface 3868:, the lead developer of 3529:2020 - NNUE is added to 3260:shares first place with 3235:graphical user interface 2456:central processing units 2363:Microcomputer revolution 1574:graphical user interface 1558:algebraic chess notation 1550:Forsyth–Edwards Notation 1536:Graphical user interface 1480:Graphical user interface 1276:. The match ended 2–2. 665:graphical user interface 8531:Simultaneous exhibition 8441:Chess newspaper columns 8130:Rook and bishop vs rook 8115:Queen and pawn vs queen 6776:Computer History Museum 6600:Computer History Museum 6559:Stiller, Lewis (1996), 6549:Newborn, Monty (2006). 6542:Newborn, Monty (2000). 6535:Newborn, Monty (1996). 6522:Lasar, Matthew (2011). 6475:Computer History Museum 6394:Newborn, Monty (1997), 6385:Newborn, Monty (1975), 5089:CCRL Discussion Board, 4292:http://www.exachess.com 3602:Tensor Processing Units 3330:Secrets of Rook Endings 3305:based on Ed Schröder's 2462:in the backend such as 2330:Northwestern University 2290:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 2045:Levy & Newborn 1991 1929:Levy & Newborn 1991 1870:Levy & Newborn 1991 1842:Monte Carlo tree search 1763:on chess search was by 1693:Monte Carlo tree search 1687:Monte Carlo tree search 1554:long algebraic notation 1410:Monte Carlo tree search 1319:rated computer program 892:wrote. While reviewing 841:Northwestern University 789:Computers versus humans 614:There are thousands of 203:Monte Carlo tree search 30:For the 2013 film, see 7981:Richter–Veresov Attack 7969:Queen's Indian Defence 6739:Chess programming wiki 6450:Philosophical Magazine 6135:"Chess Tactics Online" 6060:"Chess Tactics Server" 5878:table, which are from 5852:Philosophical Magazine 5022:. FastGM's Rating List 4777:http://tb7.chessok.com 4211:Ensmenger, N. (2012). 4114:List of chess software 3678: 3663: 3655: 3647: 3634: 3626: 3125: 2405:have been used in the 2351:Rise of chess machines 2261: 2058:Over the years, other 1964:reinforcement learning 1941:reinforcement learning 1848:in 2017, and later in 1569:command-line interface 1546:Portable Game Notation 1526:reinforcement learning 1437:reinforcement learning 1349:4 on the mobile phone 710: 669:command-line interface 587: 313:Dragon by Komodo Chess 138:Reinforcement learning 46: 8247:Candidates Tournament 8135:Rook and pawn vs rook 8100:King and pawn vs king 8051:List of chess gambits 7954:King's Indian Defence 7632:Isolated Queen's Pawn 7156:List of chess players 7098:Top player comparison 6897:Internet chess server 6726:"Play chess with God" 6537:Outsearching Kasparov 6280:mygames.chessbase.com 5858:(314), archived from 5582:Newborn (1997) p. 159 5482:"Ken, Unix and Games" 5183:Learning Algorithm". 3839:Georgy Adelson-Velsky 3713:Gideon, a version of 3669: 3661: 3653: 3645: 3632: 3624: 3460:, is defeated 4–2 by 3437:, who had an average 3123: 3048:bet with AI pioneers 2497:Wolfgang von Kempelen 2257: 1972:unsupervised learning 1911:, and 9 points for a 1691:Further information: 1646:Further information: 1596:Board representations 1252:anti-computer tactics 770:for Android and iOS. 701: 581: 568:knowledge engineering 158:Unsupervised learning 76:Board representations 44: 32:Computer Chess (film) 7959:Nimzo-Indian Defence 7855:Scandinavian Defense 7816:Semi-Italian Opening 7721:King's Indian Attack 7610:first-move advantage 7263:Threefold repetition 7188:Bobby Fischer Center 7073:Charlemagne chessmen 7067:Göttingen manuscript 7031: 6872:Correspondence chess 4998:"Gambit Rating List" 4950:The SSDF Rating List 4738:. Kirill-kryukov.com 3944:threefold repetition 3600:2017 (used Google's 3229:, one of the first ' 3035:transposition tables 2979:programmers using a 2448:deep neural networks 2407:evaluation functions 2306:World Chess Champion 1960:deep neural networks 1736:transposition tables 1719:evaluation functions 1518:evaluation functions 1486:Board representation 818:International Master 566:of AI", the edge of 529:vacuum-tube computer 108:Deep neural networks 101:Evaluation functions 8192:Two knights endgame 7939:Bogo-Indian Defence 7826:Two Knights Defense 7766:Nimzowitsch Defence 7456:Artificial castling 7093:Soviet chess school 6968:Dubrovnik chess set 6422:Gambit Publications 6262:fritz.chessbase.com 6040:on 17 December 2013 5229:2020Natur.588..604S 5048:on January 25, 2019 4957:, 26 September 2008 4871:"TCEC Openings FAQ" 4338:Operations Research 4281:on August 20, 2008. 4194:"Checkers, Solved!" 4027:Internet Chess Club 3992:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 3939:alpha–beta searcher 3559:bit-slice processor 3382:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 3093:organize the first 3067:organize the first 3020:Stanford University 3000:1963 – Grandmaster 2549:evaluation function 2010:retrograde analysis 1968:supervised learning 1956:piece-square tables 1882:Evaluation function 1730:Other optimizations 1612:position evaluation 1510:pattern recognition 764:Play Magnus company 749:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 675:(UCI) engines such 593:transposition table 480:capable of playing 148:Supervised learning 133:Piece-square tables 8422:endgame literature 7964:Old Indian Defense 7874:Accelerated Dragon 7746:Alekhine's Defence 7478:Checkmate patterns 7347:symbols in Unicode 7342:annotation symbols 7105:Geography of chess 6973:Staunton chess set 6766:2006-06-14 at the 6699:2011-08-07 at the 6689:2011-09-20 at the 6679:2011-09-19 at the 6669:2011-09-19 at the 6659:2011-09-27 at the 6649:2011-09-18 at the 6620:2019-01-18 at the 6505:Dr. Dobb's Journal 6439:Shannon, Claude E. 6034:play.chessbase.com 5631:www.chessvibes.com 5535:"New Restrictions" 5377:Venki Ramakrishnan 5080:, 14 November 2021 5076:2022-01-21 at the 4807:2017-06-27 at the 4555:The New York Times 4450:. pp. 288–294 4391:. pp. 827–830 4350:10.1287/opre.6.1.1 4305:"Chess PGN Master" 4092:Starting in 2007, 3679: 3664: 3656: 3648: 3635: 3627: 3543:Dedicated hardware 3478:2010 – Before the 3205:Software Toolworks 3126: 3089:, Ben Mittman and 3033:et al. introduces 3031:Richard Greenblatt 2993:, is published at 2435:Venki Ramakrishnan 2302:computer engineers 2262: 2105:of storage space. 1982:Endgame tablebases 1787:alpha–beta pruning 1666:Alpha–beta pruning 1648:Alpha–beta pruning 1449:endgame tablebases 1429:genetic algorithms 1345:13 running inside 833:Indiana University 801:alpha–beta pruning 776:Fritz and Chesster 768:Magnus Trainer app 745:Larry Christiansen 711: 588: 188:Alpha-beta pruning 47: 8569: 8568: 8446:Chess periodicals 8375:Chess in the arts 8307:Chess composition 8145:Philidor position 8081: 8080: 8023:Trompowsky Attack 8006:Semi-Slav Defence 7896:Queen's Pawn Game 7776:Four Knights Game 7751:Caro–Kann Defence 7716:Zukertort Opening 7503:Discovered attack 7223:Cheating in chess 7060:Versus de scachis 5794:"More DOS oldies" 5637:on 30 March 2014. 5573:Hsu (2002) p. 292 5213:(7839): 604–609. 4557:. 5 December 2006 4124:Computer checkers 3948:generalized chess 3909:Claude E. Shannon 3896:Alexander Kronrod 3851:Mikhail Botvinnik 3830:Notable theorists 3809:Kasparov's Gambit 3768:. The author of 3643: 3431:Ruslan Ponomariov 3237:(GUI), chesstool. 3110:Peter R. Jennings 2972:search algorithm. 2936: 2935: 2376:Super-human chess 2309:Mikhail Botvinnik 2282:digital computing 2110:rest of the world 2023:against king and 1988:Endgame tablebase 1907:, 5 points for a 1899:, 3 points for a 1830:alpha-beta search 1826:quiescence search 1807:quiescence search 1776:minimax algorithm 1740:Refutation tables 1673:quiescence search 1626:Search techniques 1303:and was crushed. 1248:Brains in Bahrain 1217:Viswanathan Anand 1204: 1203: 810:killer heuristics 728:Programs such as 706:, a component of 549:McGill University 517:heuristic methods 486:chess grandmaster 471: 470: 198:Quiescence search 177:search algorithms 58:Chess programming 16:(Redirected from 8599: 8587:Electronic games 8556:Chess portal 8554: 8553: 8497:Leela Chess Zero 8428:Oxford Companion 8380:early literature 8370:Chess aesthetics 8110:Pawnless endgame 8061:Bongcloud Attack 8039:List of openings 8011:Chigorin Defense 7949:Grünfeld Defence 7860:Sicilian Defence 7806:Ponziani Opening 7801:Philidor Defence 7796:Petrov's Defence 7738:King's Pawn Game 7711:Larsen's Opening 7674: 7673: 7035: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6782: 6781: 6722: 6718: 6716: 6630:, an article by 6580: 6579: 6577: 6567: 6519: 6507: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6458: 6447: 6434: 6408: 6390: 6381: 6360: 6340:Hsu, Feng-hsiung 6319: 6309: 6308: 6306: 6305: 6290: 6284: 6283: 6272: 6266: 6265: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6208:"NICBase Online" 6204: 6198: 6197: 6195: 6194: 6179: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6168: 6159:. Archived from 6149: 6143: 6142: 6137:. Archived from 6131: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6096: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6062:. Archived from 6056: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6036:. Archived from 6026: 6020: 6019: 6014:. Archived from 6008: 6002: 6001: 5995: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5969: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5959: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5934: 5925:. Archived from 5919: 5913: 5912: 5893: 5887: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5864: 5849: 5836: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5805: 5796:. Archived from 5790: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5780: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5759: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5706:Sousa, Ismenio. 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5660: 5645: 5639: 5638: 5633:. Archived from 5623: 5617: 5616: 5609: 5603: 5598: 5592: 5589: 5583: 5580: 5574: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5474: 5468: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5450: 5442: 5440: 5438: 5427: 5421: 5416: 5410: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5351: 5342: 5341: 5340:. 6 August 2020. 5334: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5290: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5222: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5124: 5113: 5107: 5100: 5094: 5087: 5081: 5067: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4843: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4833: 4828:. 19 August 2018 4818: 4812: 4811:, 19th June 2012 4798: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4734:Kirill Kryukov. 4731: 4725: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4680: 4665: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4618: 4603: 4594: 4585: 4579: 4578:October 30, 2002 4573: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4525: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4497:"Rebel vs Anand" 4493: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4412: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4380: 4361: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4335: 4326: 4320: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4301: 4295: 4294:ExaChess for Mac 4289: 4283: 4282: 4277:. Archived from 4275:www.convekta.com 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4189: 4173: 4165: 4159: 4155: 4134:Computer Othello 3952:EXPTIME-complete 3860:Alexander Brudno 3793:Chessmaster 2000 3644: 3516:Leela Chess Zero 3458:Vladimir Kramnik 3393:Vladimir Kramnik 3278:Mikhail Gurevich 3270:Samuel Reshevsky 3219:Frederic Friedel 3157:Frederic Friedel 3131:Chess Challenger 2955:Los Alamos chess 2940:Los Alamos chess 2903: 2896: 2889: 2882: 2875: 2868: 2853: 2846: 2839: 2832: 2825: 2818: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2782: 2775: 2768: 2753: 2746: 2739: 2732: 2725: 2718: 2703: 2696: 2689: 2682: 2675: 2668: 2653: 2646: 2639: 2632: 2625: 2618: 2582: 2444:Leela Chess Zero 2250:Pre-computer age 2197:Leela Chess Zero 2133:Leela Chess Zero 2112:. A seven piece 2060:endgame database 1933:Machine learning 1850:Leela Chess Zero 1707:Leela Chess Zero 1502:Adriaan de Groot 1433:gradient descent 1417:machine learning 1379:Computer methods 1301:Sicilian Defence 1241:Vladimir Kramnik 1109: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1081: 1080: 1074: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1053: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1039: 1038: 1032: 1031: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1011: 971: 816:level. In 1968, 650:free of charge. 640:Leela Chess Zero 502:Leela Chess Zero 463: 456: 449: 368:Leela Chess Zero 68: 49: 48: 21: 8607: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8600: 8598: 8597: 8596: 8572: 8571: 8570: 8565: 8548: 8540: 8450: 8436:Chess libraries 8353: 8257:FIDE Grand Prix 8252:Chess World Cup 8206: 8202:Wrong rook pawn 8140:Lucena position 8077: 8027: 7944:Catalan Opening 7919:English Defence 7904:Budapest Gambit 7890: 7848:Austrian Attack 7732: 7701:English Opening 7663: 7659:School of chess 7642:Minority attack 7574: 7543:Queen sacrifice 7442: 7303: 7299:White and Black 7294:Touch-move rule 7253:Perpetual check 7248:Fifty-move rule 7204: 7040: 7037: 6944: 6814: 6809: 6768:Wayback Machine 6757: 6720: 6714: 6710: 6701:Wayback Machine 6691:Wayback Machine 6681:Wayback Machine 6671:Wayback Machine 6661:Wayback Machine 6651:Wayback Machine 6622:Wayback Machine 6587: 6575: 6573: 6565: 6488: 6486:Further reading 6462: 6460: 6456: 6445: 6432: 6406: 6379: 6358: 6335: 6312: 6303: 6301: 6292: 6291: 6287: 6274: 6273: 6269: 6256: 6255: 6251: 6242: 6240: 6231: 6230: 6226: 6217: 6215: 6206: 6205: 6201: 6192: 6190: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6166: 6164: 6151: 6150: 6146: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6119: 6117: 6108: 6107: 6103: 6094: 6092: 6085:"Chess Tactics" 6083: 6082: 6078: 6069: 6067: 6058: 6057: 6053: 6043: 6041: 6028: 6027: 6023: 6010: 6009: 6005: 5989: 5988: 5982: 5980: 5973:"Archived copy" 5971: 5970: 5966: 5957: 5955: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5932: 5930: 5921: 5920: 5916: 5894: 5890: 5882:'s thesis. See 5876:Game complexity 5868: 5866: 5862: 5847: 5837: 5833: 5824: 5822: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5803: 5801: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5778: 5776: 5771: 5770: 5766: 5757: 5755: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5726: 5722: 5712: 5710: 5704: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5672: 5668: 5658: 5656: 5646: 5642: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5611: 5610: 5606: 5599: 5595: 5590: 5586: 5581: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5559: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5542: 5533: 5532: 5528: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5497: 5475: 5471: 5464: 5460: 5444: 5443: 5436: 5434: 5429: 5428: 5424: 5417: 5413: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5374: 5373: 5369: 5352: 5345: 5336: 5335: 5328: 5318: 5316: 5306: 5302: 5288: 5282: 5278: 5270: 5264: 5260: 5202: 5198: 5180: 5176: 5156: 5152: 5141: 5137: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5101: 5097: 5088: 5084: 5078:Wayback Machine 5068: 5061: 5051: 5049: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5025: 5023: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5003: 5001: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4982: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4960: 4958: 4947: 4946: 4942: 4933: 4931: 4924: 4923: 4919: 4910: 4908: 4907:on 1 March 2012 4893: 4892: 4888: 4879: 4877: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4855: 4853: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4831: 4829: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4809:Wayback Machine 4799: 4795: 4787: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4760: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4741: 4739: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4715: 4705: 4703: 4692: 4688: 4678: 4676: 4667: 4666: 4659: 4649: 4647: 4642: 4641: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4616: 4614: 4605: 4604: 4597: 4586: 4582: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4523: 4521: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4502: 4500: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4480: 4478: 4467: 4463: 4453: 4451: 4440: 4436: 4426: 4424: 4413: 4404: 4394: 4392: 4381: 4364: 4354: 4352: 4333: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4312: 4303: 4302: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4209: 4205: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4177: 4176: 4166: 4162: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4110: 4023: 3979: 3973: 3930: 3924: 3866:Feng-hsiung Hsu 3832: 3778: 3637: 3619: 3557:Bebe, a strong 3545: 3540: 3538:Categorizations 3435:Sergey Karjakin 3427:Veselin Topalov 3244:, developed by 3002:David Bronstein 2950: 2949: 2948: 2492: 2437:, believe that 2403:neural networks 2399: 2386:Murray Campbell 2378: 2365: 2353: 2326: 2298: 2278:Farkas Kempelen 2252: 2247: 2231:Crafty 19.17 BH 2223:permanent brain 2174: 2168: 2148: 2041:fifty-move rule 1990: 1984: 1948:neural networks 1925:Shannon's paper 1884: 1878: 1876:Leaf evaluation 1858: 1757: 1732: 1695: 1689: 1654: 1644: 1628: 1604: 1598: 1538: 1495:Leaf evaluation 1445:knowledge based 1421:neural networks 1381: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1206:Final position 1111: 1110: 1103: 1096: 1089: 1082: 1075: 1068: 1061: 1054: 1047: 1040: 1033: 1026: 1019: 1009: 968: 797: 791: 723:Chess Assistant 656: 576: 467: 438: 437: 283: 273: 272: 218: 216:Chess computers 208: 207: 178: 163: 162: 103: 93: 92: 78: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8605: 8595: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8582:Computer chess 8567: 8566: 8564: 8563: 8558: 8545: 8542: 8541: 8539: 8538: 8533: 8528: 8523: 8522: 8521: 8516: 8506: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8479: 8477:Chess composer 8474: 8469: 8464: 8458: 8456: 8452: 8451: 8449: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8432: 8431: 8424: 8419: 8409: 8408: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8372: 8367: 8361: 8359: 8355: 8354: 8352: 8351: 8350: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8332:North American 8329: 8324: 8316: 8315: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8261: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8234: 8233: 8232: 8225:Chess Olympiad 8222: 8216: 8214: 8208: 8207: 8205: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8178: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8149: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8091: 8089: 8083: 8082: 8079: 8078: 8076: 8075: 8074: 8073: 8071:Scholar's mate 8068: 8063: 8053: 8048: 8047: 8046: 8035: 8033: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7986:Queen's Gambit 7983: 7978: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7929:Benoni Defence 7924:Indian Defence 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7900: 7898: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7867: 7857: 7852: 7851: 7850: 7840: 7838:Owen's Defence 7835: 7834: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7768: 7763: 7761:Modern Defence 7758: 7756:French Defence 7753: 7748: 7742: 7740: 7734: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7729: 7728: 7723: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7691:Bird's Opening 7688: 7682: 7680: 7671: 7665: 7664: 7662: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7622:Pawn structure 7619: 7614: 7613: 7612: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7590: 7584: 7582: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7466:Alekhine's gun 7458: 7452: 7450: 7444: 7443: 7441: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7388: 7383: 7382: 7381: 7379:Half-open file 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7322:Chess notation 7319: 7313: 7311: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7290: 7289: 7279: 7277:Pawn promotion 7274: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7214: 7212: 7206: 7205: 7203: 7202: 7201: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7180: 7178:Women in chess 7175: 7174: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7153: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7141: 7140: 7139: 7134: 7124: 7119: 7118: 7117: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7088:Hypermodernism 7085: 7083:Romantic chess 7080: 7078:Lewis chessmen 7075: 7070: 7063: 7050: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6977: 6976: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6954: 6952: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6942: 6937: 6936: 6935: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6916:world rankings 6908: 6907: 6906: 6905: 6904: 6894: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6868: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6845:Computer chess 6842: 6841: 6840: 6830: 6824: 6822: 6816: 6815: 6808: 6807: 6800: 6793: 6785: 6779: 6778: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731:2012-11-29 at 6723: 6708: 6703: 6640: 6635: 6625: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6593: 6586: 6585:External links 6583: 6582: 6581: 6556: 6547: 6540: 6533: 6520: 6508: 6494: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6468: 6459:on 6 July 2010 6435: 6430: 6410: 6404: 6391: 6387:Computer Chess 6382: 6377: 6361: 6356: 6334: 6331: 6311: 6310: 6285: 6267: 6249: 6224: 6199: 6174: 6163:on 11 May 2000 6144: 6141:on 2015-05-04. 6126: 6101: 6076: 6051: 6021: 6018:on 2007-10-06. 6003: 5964: 5939: 5914: 5904:(2): 199–214, 5888: 5884:Shannon number 5865:on 6 July 2010 5841:Claude Shannon 5831: 5810: 5785: 5764: 5743: 5720: 5698: 5696:TCEC season 15 5686: 5666: 5654:Chessbase News 5640: 5618: 5604: 5593: 5584: 5575: 5566: 5552: 5526: 5512: 5495: 5478:Dennis Ritchie 5469: 5458: 5422: 5411: 5398: 5392:978-0525557999 5391: 5367: 5343: 5326: 5300: 5276: 5273:(in Japanese). 5258: 5196: 5174: 5150: 5135: 5108: 5106:, 19 June 2012 5095: 5093:, 19 June 2012 5082: 5059: 5033: 5011: 4989: 4967: 4940: 4917: 4886: 4875:tcec-chess.com 4862: 4838: 4813: 4793: 4781: 4769: 4748: 4726: 4713: 4686: 4657: 4635: 4623: 4595: 4580: 4568: 4542: 4530: 4509: 4488: 4461: 4434: 4402: 4362: 4321: 4310: 4296: 4284: 4262: 4250: 4203: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4160: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4142: 4141: 4139:Computer shogi 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4109: 4106: 4022: 4021:Chess web apps 4019: 3975:Main article: 3972: 3969: 3958:Martin Gardner 3926:Main article: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3903:Monroe Newborn 3899: 3893: 3887: 3873: 3863: 3857: 3848: 3842: 3831: 3828: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3800: 3798:Colossus Chess 3795: 3777: 3774: 3758: 3757: 3751: 3740: 3737: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3711: 3694: 3687: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3611: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3555: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3527: 3512: 3509:computer shogi 3501: 3490: 3487: 3476: 3465: 3454: 3443: 3411: 3400: 3389: 3378: 3375:Garry Kasparov 3367: 3364:Garry Kasparov 3356: 3344: 3337: 3310: 3299: 3296:Anatoly Karpov 3292: 3289: 3238: 3215: 3201: 3184: 3176: 3168: 3153: 3142: 3118: 3117: 3106: 3102: 3083: 3072: 3057: 3038: 3023: 3009: 2998: 2991:Kotok-McCarthy 2987: 2984: 2973: 2962: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2904: 2897: 2890: 2883: 2876: 2869: 2862: 2858: 2857: 2854: 2847: 2840: 2833: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2804: 2797: 2790: 2783: 2776: 2769: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2754: 2747: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2719: 2712: 2708: 2707: 2704: 2697: 2690: 2683: 2676: 2669: 2662: 2658: 2657: 2654: 2647: 2640: 2633: 2626: 2619: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2580: 2579: 2578: 2577: 2574:Dietrich Prinz 2570: 2559: 2556:Claude Shannon 2552: 2541:Norbert Wiener 2537: 2526: 2519:El Ajedrecista 2511: 2504: 2491: 2488: 2423:computer shogi 2398: 2395: 2377: 2374: 2364: 2361: 2352: 2349: 2325: 2322: 2318:Kotok-McCarthy 2297: 2294: 2286:El Ajedrecista 2259:El Ajedrecista 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2167: 2164: 2147: 2144: 2122:Eugene Nalimov 1986:Main article: 1983: 1980: 1880:Main article: 1877: 1874: 1857: 1854: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1765:Claude Shannon 1756: 1753: 1731: 1728: 1688: 1685: 1643: 1642:Minimax search 1640: 1627: 1624: 1608:data structure 1600:Main article: 1597: 1594: 1537: 1534: 1530:horizon effect 1499: 1498: 1492: 1489: 1483: 1453: 1452: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1413: 1380: 1377: 1373:Magnus Carlsen 1361:Advanced Chess 1205: 1202: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1104: 1097: 1090: 1083: 1076: 1069: 1062: 1055: 1048: 1041: 1034: 1027: 1020: 1013: 1007: 1005: 1001: 1000: 998: 995: 992: 989: 986: 983: 980: 977: 974: 969: 964: 963: 935:Garry Kasparov 919:Monroe Newborn 793:Main article: 790: 787: 781:There is also 760:Magnus Carlsen 757:World Champion 702:Screenshot of 655: 652: 575: 572: 490:supercomputers 474:Computer chess 469: 468: 466: 465: 458: 451: 443: 440: 439: 436: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 284: 279: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 219: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 179: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 104: 99: 98: 95: 94: 91: 90: 85: 79: 74: 73: 70: 69: 61: 60: 54: 53: 26: 18:Chess computer 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8604: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8579: 8577: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8546: 8543: 8537: 8536:Solving chess 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8526:Chess prodigy 8524: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8510: 8509:Chess problem 8507: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8484: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8453: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8430: 8429: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8417:opening books 8415: 8414: 8413: 8410: 8406: 8405:short stories 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8377: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8360: 8358:Art and media 8356: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8239: 8238: 8235: 8231: 8228: 8227: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8217: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8170:triangulation 8168: 8166: 8165:Tarrasch rule 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8125:Queen vs rook 8123: 8121: 8120:Queen vs pawn 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8092: 8090: 8088: 8084: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8058: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8045: 8042: 8041: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8030: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7988: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7976:London System 7974: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7934:Modern Benoni 7932: 7930: 7927: 7926: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7914:Dutch Defence 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7897: 7893: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7791:King's Gambit 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7773: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7743: 7741: 7739: 7735: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7706:Grob's Attack 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7696:Dunst Opening 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7686:Benko Opening 7684: 7683: 7681: 7679: 7678:Flank opening 7675: 7672: 7670: 7666: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7603: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7577: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7449: 7445: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7433:Transposition 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7380: 7377: 7376: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7288: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7240: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7215: 7213: 7211: 7207: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7183:Chess museums 7181: 7179: 7176: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7151:Notable games 7149: 7145: 7142: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7116: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7068: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7052: 7051: 7049: 7047: 7043: 7036: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6982: 6981: 6978: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6955: 6953: 6951: 6947: 6941: 6940:World records 6938: 6934: 6931: 6930: 6929: 6926: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6911:Rating system 6909: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6846: 6843: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6825: 6823: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6806: 6801: 6799: 6794: 6792: 6787: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6762: 6759: 6758: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6734: 6733:archive.today 6730: 6727: 6724: 6721:(268 KB) 6713: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6698: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6662: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6648: 6645: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6633: 6629: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6571: 6564: 6563: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6502: 6501: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6455: 6451: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6433: 6431:1-901983-65-X 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6405:0-387-94820-1 6401: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6383: 6380: 6378:0-7167-8121-2 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6359: 6357:0-691-09065-3 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6336: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6318: 6299: 6295: 6289: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6263: 6259: 6253: 6238: 6234: 6228: 6213: 6209: 6203: 6188: 6184: 6178: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6148: 6140: 6136: 6130: 6115: 6111: 6105: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6066:on 2006-04-08 6065: 6061: 6055: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6007: 5999: 5993: 5978: 5974: 5968: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5929:on 1997-06-20 5928: 5924: 5918: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5892: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5820: 5814: 5800:on 2018-12-03 5799: 5795: 5789: 5774: 5768: 5753: 5747: 5740:(4): 208–209. 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5709: 5702: 5695: 5690: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5670: 5655: 5651: 5644: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5597: 5588: 5579: 5570: 5562: 5556: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5522: 5516: 5505: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5480:(June 2001). 5479: 5473: 5467: 5462: 5454: 5448: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5415: 5408: 5402: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5371: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5350: 5348: 5339: 5333: 5331: 5315: 5311: 5304: 5296: 5295: 5287: 5280: 5269: 5262: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5200: 5191: 5186: 5178: 5170: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5146: 5139: 5121: 5120: 5112: 5105: 5099: 5092: 5086: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5066: 5064: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5021: 5015: 4999: 4993: 4979: 4978: 4971: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4944: 4929: 4928: 4921: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4890: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4852: 4848: 4847:"Useful data" 4842: 4827: 4823: 4817: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4797: 4790: 4785: 4778: 4773: 4758: 4752: 4737: 4730: 4723: 4717: 4702:. p. 168 4701: 4697: 4690: 4674: 4670: 4664: 4662: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4613:on 2011-09-30 4612: 4608: 4602: 4600: 4593: 4592:Hans Berliner 4589: 4584: 4577: 4572: 4556: 4552: 4546: 4539: 4534: 4519: 4513: 4498: 4492: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4449: 4445: 4438: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4390: 4389:New Scientist 4386: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4332: 4325: 4319: 4314: 4306: 4300: 4293: 4288: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4266: 4259: 4254: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4199: 4198:IEEE Spectrum 4195: 4188: 4184: 4171: 4164: 4154: 4150: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4111: 4105: 4103: 4102:Walter Browne 4099: 4098:Sam Shankland 4095: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4025:In 1997, the 4018: 4016: 4011: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3990:developed by 3989: 3985: 3978: 3971:Chess engines 3968: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3928:Solving chess 3922:Solving chess 3916: 3913: 3910: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3897: 3894: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3845:Hans Berliner 3843: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3835: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3709: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3695: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3683: 3677: 3674:running on a 3673: 3668: 3660: 3652: 3631: 3623: 3609: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3587: 3584: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3563: 3560: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3548: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3484:Vasik Rajlich 3481: 3477: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3372: 3371:Deep(er) Blue 3368: 3365: 3361: 3358:1996 – IBM's 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3316:wins the 7th 3315: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3274:Walter Browne 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3254:Arnold Denker 3251: 3247: 3246:Hans Berliner 3243: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3231:chess engines 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3091:Monty Newborn 3088: 3084: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3061:Monty Newborn 3058: 3055: 3054:Donald Michie 3051: 3050:John McCarthy 3047: 3043: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3021: 3017: 3014: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2966:John McCarthy 2963: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2895: 2891: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2877: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2855: 2852: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2838: 2834: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2791: 2788: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2755: 2752: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2710: 2709: 2705: 2702: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2631: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2617: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2505: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2431:Royal Society 2427: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2373: 2371: 2360: 2358: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2293: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2272:, created by 2271: 2267: 2260: 2256: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2235:opening books 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2208:chess engines 2204: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2036:Walter Browne 2032: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1998:chess endgame 1994: 1989: 1979: 1975: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1892: 1889: 1883: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1811: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1798: 1795: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1752: 1748: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1662: 1659: 1653: 1649: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1623: 1621: 1620:huffman coded 1617: 1613: 1609: 1603: 1593: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1575: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1398: 1396: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1386: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1369:Andrew Soltis 1365: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1327:Chess engines 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1292: 1290: 1289:Michael Adams 1286: 1282: 1277: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1226: 1225:Fischer delay 1222: 1218: 1214: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1113: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 990: 987: 984: 981: 978: 975: 973: 972: 967: 962: 960: 959: 953: 951: 947: 943: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 923:Michael Valvo 920: 916: 911: 909: 905: 901: 900: 895: 891: 890:New Scientist 885: 882: 878: 877: 876:New Scientist 872: 871: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 834: 830: 826: 825:Senior Master 822: 819: 815: 811: 806: 802: 796: 786: 784: 779: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 741:Josh Waitzkin 738: 733: 731: 726: 724: 720: 716: 709: 705: 700: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 651: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616:chess engines 612: 610: 606: 602: 596: 594: 585: 580: 571: 569: 565: 560: 558: 554: 553:solving chess 550: 546: 545:Monty Newborn 542: 538: 534: 533:chess engines 530: 525: 522: 518: 513: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 464: 459: 457: 452: 450: 445: 444: 442: 441: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 285: 282: 281:Chess engines 277: 276: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 217: 212: 211: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 180: 176: 172: 167: 166: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 113: 109: 106: 105: 102: 97: 96: 89: 86: 84: 81: 80: 77: 72: 71: 67: 63: 62: 59: 56: 55: 51: 50: 43: 37: 33: 19: 8482:Chess engine 8467:Chess boxing 8427: 8197:Wrong bishop 8044:theory table 8018:Torre Attack 8001:Slav Defence 7909:Colle System 7884:Scheveningen 7843:Pirc Defence 7786:Italian Game 7781:Giuoco Piano 7726:Réti Opening 7649:Piece values 7637:Maróczy Bind 7598:the exchange 7588:Compensation 7518:Interference 7508:Double check 7282:Time control 7269: 7243:by agreement 7171:grandmasters 7115:South Africa 7065: 7058: 7034:Score sheets 6980:Chess pieces 6887:Online chess 6844: 6833:Chess titles 6828:Chess theory 6574:, retrieved 6561: 6551: 6543: 6536: 6529:Ars Technica 6527: 6515: 6499: 6461:, retrieved 6454:the original 6449: 6417: 6398:, Springer, 6395: 6386: 6368: 6343: 6326:CC BY-SA 3.0 6314: 6313: 6302:. Retrieved 6288: 6279: 6270: 6261: 6252: 6241:. Retrieved 6227: 6216:. Retrieved 6202: 6191:. Retrieved 6177: 6165:. Retrieved 6161:the original 6156: 6147: 6139:the original 6129: 6118:. Retrieved 6104: 6093:. Retrieved 6079: 6068:. Retrieved 6064:the original 6054: 6042:. Retrieved 6038:the original 6033: 6024: 6016:the original 6006: 5981:. Retrieved 5967: 5956:. Retrieved 5942: 5931:. Retrieved 5927:the original 5917: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5886:for details. 5880:Victor Allis 5867:, retrieved 5860:the original 5855: 5851: 5834: 5823:. Retrieved 5813: 5802:. Retrieved 5798:the original 5788: 5777:. Retrieved 5775:. Rebel13.nl 5767: 5756:. Retrieved 5754:. Rebel13.nl 5746: 5737: 5734:ICCA Journal 5733: 5723: 5713:25 September 5711:. Retrieved 5701: 5689: 5677: 5669: 5657:. Retrieved 5653: 5643: 5635:the original 5630: 5621: 5607: 5596: 5587: 5578: 5569: 5555: 5543:. Retrieved 5538: 5529: 5515: 5498: 5489: 5486:ICGA Journal 5485: 5472: 5461: 5435:. Retrieved 5425: 5414: 5401: 5380: 5370: 5359: 5317:. Retrieved 5313: 5303: 5292: 5279: 5261: 5210: 5206: 5199: 5177: 5169:1509.01549v1 5159: 5153: 5144: 5138: 5127:, retrieved 5118: 5111: 5098: 5085: 5050:. Retrieved 5046:the original 5036: 5026:December 12, 5024:. Retrieved 5014: 5004:December 12, 5002:. Retrieved 4992: 4981:, retrieved 4976: 4970: 4959:, retrieved 4949: 4943: 4932:, retrieved 4926: 4920: 4909:, retrieved 4905:the original 4895: 4889: 4878:. Retrieved 4874: 4865: 4854:. Retrieved 4850: 4841: 4830:. Retrieved 4825: 4816: 4796: 4784: 4772: 4761:. Retrieved 4751: 4740:. Retrieved 4729: 4722:Shannon 1950 4716: 4704:. Retrieved 4699: 4689: 4677:. Retrieved 4672: 4648:. Retrieved 4638: 4626: 4615:. Retrieved 4611:the original 4583: 4571: 4559:. Retrieved 4554: 4545: 4533: 4522:. Retrieved 4512: 4501:. Retrieved 4491: 4479:. Retrieved 4474: 4464: 4452:. Retrieved 4447: 4437: 4425:. Retrieved 4423:. p. 84 4420: 4393:. Retrieved 4388: 4353:. Retrieved 4341: 4337: 4324: 4313: 4299: 4287: 4279:the original 4274: 4265: 4253: 4220: 4216: 4206: 4197: 4187: 4163: 4153: 4091: 4080: 4068:New In Chess 4062: 4051: 4024: 4012: 3980: 3977:Chess engine 3966: 3956: 3947: 3931: 3877:Robert Hyatt 3854: 3833: 3779: 3776:DOS programs 3759: 3697:ChessMachine 3680: 3676:Raspberry Pi 3577:Deep Thought 3546: 3469:Pocket Fritz 3334:Ken Thompson 3329: 3314:ChessMachine 3303:ChessMachine 3258:Deep Thought 3250:Carl Ebeling 3208: 3187: 3175:established. 3076:Ken Thompson 3071:in New York. 3044:makes a 500 2968:invents the 2938: 2544: 2428: 2400: 2391:Susan Polgar 2379: 2366: 2354: 2327: 2313:Soviet Union 2299: 2263: 2216: 2205: 2175: 2161: 2157: 2152:opening book 2149: 2146:Opening book 2141: 2126: 2107: 2088: 2084: 2057: 2053: 2033: 2018: 2014:Ken Thompson 1995: 1991: 1976: 1945: 1893: 1885: 1863: 1859: 1835: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1799: 1791: 1780: 1769: 1758: 1749: 1733: 1700: 1696: 1677:passed pawns 1670: 1663: 1655: 1629: 1605: 1587: 1583:chess engine 1572: 1564: 1562: 1541: 1539: 1515: 1500: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1454: 1382: 1366: 1359: 1355:Buenos Aires 1351:HTC Touch HD 1347:Pocket Fritz 1335:mobile phone 1325: 1308: 1305: 1293: 1278: 1271: 1264: 1245: 1230: 1210: 956: 954: 931:Deep Thought 927:Ken Thompson 913:At the 1982 912: 907: 904:Robert Byrne 897: 893: 889: 886: 880: 874: 868: 865: 838: 829:Eliot Hearst 798: 780: 734: 727: 712: 661:chess engine 657: 613: 597: 589: 561: 526: 514: 494:smart phones 473: 472: 248:Deep Thought 228:ChessMachine 153:Texel tuning 112:Transformers 57: 36:Online chess 8412:Chess books 8212:Tournaments 8066:Fool's mate 7831:Vienna Game 7821:Scotch Game 7654:Prophylaxis 7570:Zwischenzug 7555:Undermining 7523:Overloading 7483:Combination 7332:descriptive 7027:Chess table 7022:Chess clock 6838:Grandmaster 6365:Levy, David 5869:30 December 5659:19 February 5319:12 December 5129:12 December 5125:, MIT Press 5052:February 3, 4826:lichess.org 4759:. Xs4all.nl 4477:. p. 6 4454:8 September 4355:10 February 4223:(1): 5–30. 4129:Computer Go 4076:Windows 3.x 4008:ChessGenius 3915:Alan Turing 3890:Danny Kopec 3824:Socrates II 3708:Chessmaster 3419:Deep Junior 3404:Deep Junior 3341:Bent Larsen 3301:1991 – The 3282:Bent Larsen 3266:Mikhail Tal 3210:Chessmaster 3207:) released 3194:ChessGenius 3027:Mac Hack VI 3004:defeats an 2563:Alan Turing 2545:Cybernetics 2530:Konrad Zuse 2091:compression 2047::144–48), ( 1838:Rémi Coulom 1772:brute force 1761:first paper 1701:DeepMind's 1679:on seventh 1447:(PARADISE, 1331:grandmaster 849:Paul Masson 766:released a 737:Chessmaster 539:. By 2006, 303:CuckooChess 293:Chess Tiger 8576:Categories 8519:joke chess 8472:Chess club 8160:opposition 7617:Middlegame 7605:Initiative 7528:Pawn storm 7493:Deflection 7364:Key square 7354:Fianchetto 7287:Fast chess 7271:En passant 6963:chessboard 6772:David Levy 6632:Tim Krabbé 6414:Nunn, John 6304:2007-12-14 6243:2006-12-05 6218:2002-10-08 6193:2019-07-08 6167:11 January 6120:2008-02-18 6095:2007-06-13 6070:2006-04-08 6044:11 January 5983:2004-08-31 5958:2019-07-08 5933:2019-07-08 5825:2010-04-03 5804:2018-12-02 5779:2022-08-31 5758:2022-08-31 5545:18 October 5437:1 December 5220:1911.08265 5190:1712.01815 4961:20 October 4911:21 October 4896:CEGT 40/20 4880:2023-10-12 4856:2023-10-12 4832:2023-10-02 4763:2010-04-03 4742:2010-04-03 4706:17 October 4617:2010-04-03 4524:2010-04-03 4503:2010-04-03 4499:. Rebel.nl 4427:17 October 4395:22 January 4180:References 3901:Professor 3881:Cray Blitz 3879:developed 3875:Professor 3766:Windows 10 3588:1996, 1997 3526:season 15. 3462:Deep Fritz 3397:Deep Fritz 3377:, 3.5-2.5. 3322:mainframes 3262:Tony Miles 3180:Cray Blitz 3161:David Levy 3146:David Levy 3114:Microchess 3087:David Levy 3042:David Levy 2970:alpha–beta 2947:computer. 2534:Plankalkül 2239:tablebases 2170:See also: 1590:tablebases 1406:alpha-beta 1390:Drosophila 1312:Elo rating 1260:middlegame 685:Elo rating 564:Drosophila 373:MChess Pro 308:Deep Fritz 238:Cray Blitz 8502:Stockfish 8492:Deep Blue 8487:AlphaZero 8395:paintings 8187:Tablebase 8151:Strategy 8056:Irregular 7811:Ruy Lopez 7771:Open Game 7538:Sacrifice 7498:Desperado 7401:connected 7374:Open file 7369:King walk 7327:algebraic 7258:Stalemate 7233:Checkmate 6958:Chess set 6950:Equipment 5253:208158225 4650:26 August 4094:Chess.com 4087:Chessbase 4072:Chessbase 4064:Chessbase 4058:Chessbase 4054:Chess.com 4047:Playchess 4043:Chessbase 4039:Chess.com 4004:Chessbase 3996:GNU Chess 3962:Minichess 3872:(1986–97) 3870:Deep Blue 3744:StrongARM 3672:Stockfish 3598:AlphaZero 3586:Deep Blue 3531:Stockfish 3520:Stockfish 3498:Stockfish 3494:AlphaZero 3449:wins the 3408:X3D Fritz 3360:Deep Blue 3328:releases 3326:John Nunn 3227:GNU Chess 3223:Chessbase 3165:Chess 4.8 3150:Chess 4.7 3112:releases 2961:computer. 2567:Turochamp 2476:Stockfish 2460:libraries 2439:AlphaZero 2411:AlphaZero 2380:In 2016, 2370:Deep Blue 2276:inventor 2274:Hungarian 2266:automaton 2229:by using 2201:Fat Fritz 2189:Stockfish 2129:Stockfish 2049:Nunn 2002 1852:in 2018. 1846:AlphaZero 1836:In 2006, 1805:Employ a 1745:pondering 1703:AlphaZero 1632:game tree 1616:bitboards 1333:level. 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