1237:(1) Translated from: "Despues estros mismos Zacatecas, dende a pocos dias, hicieron otro salto en unas recuas de Cristobal de Onate y de Diego de Ybarra, una legua antes Zenagulla del Monte y tres de Zacatecas, en que hicieron muncho dano." (2) Translated from: "Es que se haga alguna cantidad de soldados, a los quales se les pague sueldo, en virtue de una Real cedula de V.M. en que V.M. manda se pague, la tercia parte, de la Real hazienda, y las otras does, por los mineros y personas interesads" (3) Translated from: "ninguno puede sustentar la Guerra con dos ni tres cauallos, y la costa es muy grande, asi de las armas como de los cauallo y nunguno puede sustentar la Guerra con dos nit res cauallos, y la costa es muy grande, asi de las armas como de los cauallos y comida, que cada dia se les mueren y se los matan, y es el trabajo grandisimo . . . sienten tanto todos la paga de lo que les toca, que, si yo lo puediese remidar con uender quanto tengo, lo haria, por euitar el descontento de la gente, que a todos les parece que se a de pagar de la Real caja" (4) Translated from: "Ya he dado quenta particular a V.M. de lo que toca a la Guerra de los chichimecas, y del incombiniente que se sigue a todas las minas de aquel districto, en que aquellos indos anden tan lebantados y con tanto numero y desberguanca; y demas, desto, soy informado que en Zacatecas ay munchas minas ceradas"
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were softened by preliminary and apparently systematic killing and stealing of horses and other livestock, this being an attempt, sometimes successful, to change his intended victim from horseman to foot soldier" (Powell 46). When they attacked they used a very good tactic that terrified the animals and scared the
Spanish. The Guachichil especially would disguise themselves as grotesque animals using animal heads and paint then yelled like crazed beasts making the Spanish lose control of horses and livestock. The Spanish started to set up many forts, bought mercenaries, and tried to use as many slaves as they could.
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was tied to domesticated livestock, agriculture, and imported supplies. The
Chichimeca could and did cut off these supplies, destroy the livestock, and thus paralyze the economic and military vitality of the invaders; this was seldom possible in reverse" (Powell 44). They attacked in small groups ranging from five to two hundred warriors. In one account, with only fifty Zacateco warriors, the Chichimeca killed two hundred Spanish soldiers in one battle. They had no shortage of raiding parties because of the highly valued supplies attracting warriors from far off allowing for the highest quality of trade goods.
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450:, and Nieves were established. The Chichimeca nations resented the intrusions by the Spanish on their sovereign ancestral lands. Spanish soldiers soon began raiding native territory trying to acquire slaves for the mines. To supply and communicate with the mines in and near Zacatecas, new roads were built from Querétaro and Jalisco across Chichimeca lands. The caravans full of goods along the roads were economic targets for Chichimecan warriors.
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the
Chichimeca War and about how dire the situation is that all the mines in those districts where the Natives are engaging in battle, and with such a great number and that many mines in Zacatecas are closed" (Hernandez 340 (4)). The Spanish did not attain more success even when they tried other tactics of trickery and deceit. The royal road was destroyed and there was no Spanish fort that was not also destroyed within the Guachihile territory.
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goods taken or destroyed. (By comparison, the annual salary of a
Spanish soldier was only 300 pesos.) By the end of 1561 it was estimated that more than 4,000 Spaniards and their native allies had been killed by the Chichimecas. Prices for imported food and other commodities in Zacetacas had doubled or tripled due to the dangers of transporting the goods to the city. In the 1570s the rebellion spread as Pames began raiding near Querétaro.
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703:"No one can sustain the war, the cost is too big, neither in arms nor in squadrons can we sustain war. The situation is very crucial, we don't have weapons, squadrons, food because every day our livestock gets stolen or killed of which sustaining the cattle has been very difficult. We don't have enough funds to keep the people happy. Everyone agrees that we need support from the royal box" (Hernandez 326 (3)).
761:, followed this idea in 1586 with a policy of removing many Spanish soldiers from the frontier as they were considered more a provocation than a remedy. The Viceroy opened negotiations with Chichimeca leaders and negotiated tools, food, clothing, and land to encourage them through "gentle persuasion". He forbade further failing military operations. One of the key people behind these negotiations was
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another assault against Onate and Ybara, one legue from
Zenaguilla del Monte and three from the mining town of Zacatecas, of which they did a lot of damage" (Santa 220 (1)). After 1560, and especially in the decade of the 1570s, the Chichimecas turned to the raiding of several towns. In a letter written October 31, 1576, the viceroy of New Spain informed King Felipe II of Spain that:
765:, a captain who was of both Spanish and Guachichile descent. Beginning in 1590 and continuing for several decades the Spanish implemented the "Purchase for Peace" program by sending large quantities of goods northward to be distributed to the Chichimecas. In 1590 the Viceroy declared the program a success and the roads to Zacatecas safe for the first time in 40 years.
514:. They seem to have been the most numerous of the four ethnic groups and the de facto leaders of the Chichimecas. Their name meant "Red Colored Hair" from a pigment that they also applied to their skin and clothing. Living in close proximity to the silver road between Querétaro and Zacatecas, they were the most feared of the native raiders.
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Spanish was that both women and men wore little clothing, grew their hair long, and painted and tattooed their bodies. They were often accused of cannibalism, although this accusation has been disputed, due to the
Spanish attempt to smear natives as savages in order to justify forced conversion to Catholicism by Spain during the
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and tools to potentially hostile natives. This established the pattern of
Spanish policy for assimilating natives on their northern frontier. The principal components of the policy of purchase for peace would continue for nearly three centuries and would not be as successful, as later threats from hostile natives such as
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On one occasion I saw them throw an orange into the air, and they shot into it so many arrows that, having held it in the air for much time, it finally fell in minute pieces" (Powell 48). "One of don Alonso de
Castilla's soldiers had an arrow pass through the head of his horse, including a crownpiece
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in 1562 and Nombre de Dios in 1563. Yet even then the
Chichimeca managed to achieve successes. By 1571, most of the Chichimeca nations were raiding towns and crucial economic routes. A letter from fray Guillermo de Santa María to fray Alonso de Alvarado stated that: "Later those same Zacatecos, made
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of crude shelters or natural shelters such as caves, frequently moving from one area to another to take advantage of seasonal foods and hunting. The
Chichimeca referred to themselves as "Children of the Wind", living religiously from the natural land. The characteristics most noted about them by the
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The Spanish policy evolved to make peace with the Chichimecas had four components: negotiation of peace agreements; welcoming, instead of forcing, conversion to Catholicism; encouraging native allies to settle the frontier to serve as examples and role models; and providing food, other commodities,
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The increase in number of Spanish soldiers in the Gran Chichimeca was not entirely favorable to the war effort as the soldiers often supplemented their income by slave-raiding, thus reinforcing the animosity of the Chichimeca. Despite the influx of Spanish settlers and soldiers from Southern Mexico
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were reported to have killed 120 Spanish within a few months. Some crucial raids of the early years of the war took place in 1553 and 1554 when many wagon trains on the road to Zacatecas were attacked, all the Spanish en route were killed, and the very substantial sums of 32,000 and 40,000 pesos in
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The Chichimecas Confederation consisted of four main nations: Guachichiles, Pames, Guamares, and Zacatecos. These nations had decentralized governments, and were more of independent states. Due to decentralized political unity, their territories overlapped and other Chichimecs joined one or another
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Even after offensives were fully financed by the royal treasury; from 1575 to 1585 the Chichimeca started attacking with even greater military force. In a letter from the viceroy of New Spain, Conde de Coruna, to Felipe II on April 1, 1581: "I have let the V.M. understand about the happenings with
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company or platoon with attachments, respectively. During the war, the Chichimecas learned to ride horses and use them in war. This was perhaps the first time that the Spanish in North America faced mounted Native warriors. The undeniable advantage for the Spanish was their use of horses and other
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As the war escalated, both the Spanish and Chichimeca adapted and bettered their defensive and offensive tactics. "He sent spies into Spanish towns for appraisal of the enemy's plans and strength; he developed a far-flung system of lookouts and scouts (atalays); and, in major attacks, settlements
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The Chichimeca were a nomadic culture making them very mobile and experts of rough terrain with vegetation filled (mostly cactus) land in which they always looked for hiding spots. "His long use of the food native to the Gran Chichimeca gave him far greater mobility than the sedentary invader, who
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The nomadic culture of the Chichimecas made it difficult for the Spanish to defeat them. The bow was their principal weapon and one experienced observer said the Zacatecos were "the best archers in the world." Their bows were short, usually less than four feet long, their arrows were long and thin
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in the south. Within this area of about 160,000 square kilometres (62,000 sq mi), the Chichimecas lived primarily by hunting and gathering, especially mesquite beans, the edible parts of the agave plants, and the fruit (tunas) and leaves of cactus. In favored areas some of the Chichimeca
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Indians, old allies of the Spanish, to establish eight settlements in Chichimeca areas. They served as Christian examples to the Chichimecas and taught animal husbandry and farming to them. In return for moving to the frontier, the Tlaxcalans extracted concessions from the Spanish, including land
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As the war continued unabated, it became clear that the Spanish policy of a war of fire and blood had failed. The royal treasury was being emptied by the demands of the war. Churchmen and others who had initially supported the war of fire and blood now questioned the policy. Mistreatment and
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several pieces of silver-rich ore. News of the silver strike soon spread across New Spain. The dream of quick wealth caused a large number of Spaniards to migrate from southern Mexico to the present-day city of Zacatecas in the heartland of La Gran Chichimeca. Soon the mines of San Martín,
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to the Gran Chichimeca, the Spanish were always short of soldiers compared to the Chichimeca ever growing recruitment of raiders, often staffing their presidios with only three Spaniards. The Spaniards, even with the assistance from other native soldiers and auxiliaries, especially the
695:"We need for some quantity of soldiers to be sent, and to be paid a royal salary as agreed upon by the V.M. and of which the V.M. will send to be paid, a third of the Royal Hacienda (in Mexico City), and by the miners and those interested" (Hernandez 326 (2)).
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Santa Maria, Guillermo de. "Guerra de los Chichimecas : Mexico 1575 – Zirosto 1580" Paleography by Carrillo Cazares, Alberto. 2nd Ed. University of Guadalajara, Michoacan College, University of Norte, University Los Lagos, 220. San Luis College 2003.
724:, could not rival the Chichimeca Confederation. The native allies were rewarded with Spanish colonized land, and native soldiers were allowed to ride Spanish horses and carry Spanish swords, formerly banned for use by native allies.
541:. They possibly had more political unity than other Chichimecas and were considered by one writer as the most "treacherous and destructive of all the Chichimecas and the most astute". The Guamares and the mestizo population of
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In 1584, the Bishop of Guadalajara made a proposal for a "Christian remedy" to the war: the establishment of new towns with priests, soldiers, and friendly Indians to gradually Christianize the Chichimecas. The Viceroy,
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and made of reed and tipped with obsidian, volcanic rock sharper than a modern-day razor. Despite the fragility of the obsidian arrows they had excellent penetrating qualities, even against Spanish armor which was
745:, declared that the Chichimeca War was unjust and caused by Spanish aggression. Thus, to end the conflict, the Spanish began to change public policy to purchase peace from the Chichimeca and assimilate with them.
643:. A few days later they were attacking Spanish colonies less than 10 miles (16 km) south of modern-day Zacatecas. In 1551 the Guachichile and Guamares joined in, killing 14 Spanish soldiers at an outpost of
659:) – promising death, enslavement, or mutilation to the Chichimeca. One of the priorities of the Spaniards throughout the war was to keep the roads open to Zacatecas and the silver mines – especially the
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and south and east of the Guachichiles. They were the least warlike and militant of the Chichimecas. They had absorbed some of the religious and cultural practices of the more urbanized native nations.
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Chichimeca battle tactics were mostly ambushes and raids on the Spanish. Some of their raids were conducted by up to 200 men, groups of 40 to 50 warriors were more common, about the size of a modern
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grants, freedom from taxes, the right to carry arms, and provisions for two years. The Spanish also took steps to curb slavery on Mexico's northern frontier by ordering the arrest of members of the
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grew corn and other crops. Chichimeca population is hard to estimate, although based on the average density of nomadic cultures they probably numbered 30,000 to 60,000. The Chichimecas lived in
817:. Large portions of the Guachihil population from La Montesa to Milagros migrated to the larger cities of Zacatecas or Aguascalientes and to the territories of California, Colorado, and Texas.
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The Chichimeca bow and arrow was expertly crafted allowing for penetration of Spanish armor. There are two Spanish accounts of the Chichimeca's archery skill that Powell writes in his book:
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from San Miguel de Allende. Without these crucial economic roads open, the Spanish would not be able to fund the war or continue supporting settlements. To do so they created a dozen new
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The Spanish government first attempted measures of both carrot and stick to attempt to tamp down the war, but, those failing, in 1567 it adopted the policy of a "war of fire and blood" (
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Over time most of the Chichimeca people transformed their ethnic identities and absorbed into the Catholic population and more assimilated in mainstream society before and during the
667:(forts), staffed by Spanish soldiers and native ally soldiers, and encouraged more Spanish people to settle in new areas, including what would be the nucleus of the future cities of
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in southeastern San Luis Potosí. They are conservative and nominal Catholics, but mostly still practicing their traditional religion and customs. Another group of about 1,500
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The conflict proved much more difficult and enduring than the Spanish anticipated. The first outbreak of hostilities was in late 1550 when Zacatecos attacked supply routes of
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The Purchase for Peace program worked to lower the rate of hostilities and the majority of the Chichimecas gradually became sedentary, Catholic, or nominally Catholic.
785:. An essential part of their strategy was conversion of the Chichimeca to Catholicism. The Franciscans sent priests to the frontier to aid in the pacification effort.
381:. It can be considered a continuation of the rebellion as the fighting did not come to a halt in the intervening years. The war was fought in what are the present-day
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Marlowe, Frank W. "Hunter-Gatherers and Human Evolution." Evolutionary Anthropology. Vol 14, 2005, p. 57. Average and median population densities for the New World.
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of double buckskin and metal, and into his chest, so he fell with the horse dead on the ground 'this was seen by many who are still living' (Powell 48).
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362:. The Chichimeca War is recorded as the longest and most expensive military campaign confronting the Spanish Empire and indigenous people in
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animals of burden that they had introduced to the Americas. Horses were unknown to the Americas before the Spanish imported them in 1519.
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driven by the Spaniards which led to the pacification and, ultimately, the streamlined integration of the native populations into the
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Powell, Philip Wayne, Mexico's Miguel Caldera: The Taming of America's First Frontier, 1548-1597, University of Arizona Press, 1977,
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are believed to be the descendants of the Guachichiles. About 20,000 of them live in an isolated area on the borders of Jalisco and
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enslavement of Chichimeca women, children, and men by Spaniards increasingly came to be seen as the cause of the war. In 1574, the
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Hernandez, Manuel G. "Cartas de Indias: Publicalas Por Primera Vez" Ministerio De Formento 1877. 326–340. Madrid. Print.
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and thus were experienced fighters against the Spanish. Some of the Zacatecos grew maize; others were nomadic.
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for soldiers fighting the Chichimeca. Many-layered buckskin armor was preferred to
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People of the Peyote: Huichol (Wixárika) Indian History, Religion, and Survival
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Soldiers, Indians, & Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 1550-1600
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Beginning of Spanish missionary tactics on northern colonial frontier
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territory centered on the area around what would become the city of
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The Chichimeca War (1550–1590) began eight years after the two-year
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Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546-1700
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Partial preservation of Chichemeca culture, identity, and language
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358:. The epicenter of the hostilities was the region now called the
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Confederation established in the territories today known as the
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A statue of a Chichimeca warrior in the city of Querétaro
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Chichimeca conversion into sedentary, Catholic lifestyle
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Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
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LatinoLA|Comunidad: The Indigenous People of Zacatecas
366:. The forty-year conflict was settled through several
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as obsidian arrows penetrated the links of the mail.
342:(1550–90) was a military conflict between the
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Benefits gained by Spain's native allies, including
752:A Map of Spanish Settlement in the Gran Chichimeca
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421:Chichimeca Tribes throughout the Gran Chichimeca
768:The next step, in 1591, was for a new Viceroy,
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917:. Cambridge: Cambridge U Press, 1971, pp. 4-14
647:and forcing its abandonment. Other raids near
635:person participating in a dance in Guanajuato
446:Chalchihuites, Avino, Sombrerete, Fresnillo,
1075:, Albuquerque: U of NM Press, 1997, p. 40-41
686:The first main forts were in San Miguel and
16:16th-century Spanish invasion of Mesoamerica
1133:http://davidmarkham.org/updates/1992_06.htm
124:Spanish sued for peace, ceasing hostilities
1044:Salt Lake City: U of UT Press, 2000, p. 47
466:to the Spanish at the time of the conflict
1115:Lugares de México - Santa María Acapulco
1088:Ethnologue report for language code: hch
959:Berkeley: U of CA Press, 1952, pp. 39-41
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433:On September 8, 1546, natives near the
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1217:. Houston Institute for Culture. 2004.
1270:Rebellions against the Spanish Empire
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537:lived mostly in present-day state of
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523:lived north of present-day state of
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570:lived in the present-day states of
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1042:The Tepehuan Revolt of 1616.
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1300:History of San Luis Potosí
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201:Allies & auxiliaries:
1285:History of Aguascalientes
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1105:Schaefer and Furst, p. 40
1093:February 3, 2013, at the
832:, religion, and culture.
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48:San Francisco Chamacuero
933:March 14, 2016, at the
901:March 14, 2016, at the
843:in the municipality of
352:Central Mexican Plateau
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1173:Chichimeca War
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845:Santa Catarina
837:Pame languages
830:their language
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763:Miguel Caldera
729:
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677:Aguascalientes
624:
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455:
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443:Juan de Tolosa
414:
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395:Aguascalientes
383:Mexican states
368:peace treaties
344:Spanish Empire
340:Chichimeca War
334:
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328:Miguel Caldera
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986:Powell, p. 37
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631:A modern-day
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304:Pedro de Anda
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739:Augustinians
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506:Guachichiles
504:
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469:
432:
376:
364:Aridoamerica
339:
337:
287:Anton Rayado
284:Bartolomillo
200:
187:
171:Guachichiles
155:
150:Belligerents
45:
27:Part of the
781:family and
743:Franciscans
661:Camino Real
649:Tlaltenango
557:during the
484:Guadalajara
454:Chichimecas
260:Nachancayal
207:Tlaxcalteca
1244:Categories
885:0816505691
867:References
861:Arauco War
792:Importance
735:Dominicans
720:, and the
688:San Felipe
592:chain mail
588:de rigueur
580:Mixtón War
539:Guanajuato
500:in raids.
489:rancherías
391:Guanajuato
348:Chichimeca
275:Quiatuiaya
272:Nacoloname
248:Martinillo
132:Tlaxcalans
116:Chichimeca
52:Guanajuato
822:Huicholes
803:Comanches
779:Carabajal
774:Tlaxcalan
718:Purépecha
665:presidios
641:Purépecha
572:Zacatecas
567:Zacatecos
525:Querétaro
480:Querétaro
403:Queretaro
387:Zacatecas
374:society.
372:New Spain
278:Paqualame
263:Gualiname
222:Purépecha
161:Zacatecos
80:New Spain
1148:Archived
1118:Archived
1091:Archived
931:Archived
899:Archived
855:See also
616:infantry
534:Guamares
472:Saltillo
346:and the
257:Acuaname
181:Guamares
166:Caxcanes
71:Location
1226:. 2004.
1162:Sources
826:Nayarit
799:Apaches
714:Caxcans
576:Durango
476:Durango
448:Mazapil
413:Prelude
399:Jalisco
254:Macolia
251:Cacayas
239:Maxorro
1233:Print.
1170:about
883:
716:, the
679:, and
669:Celaya
405:, and
217:Mexica
109:Result
722:Otomi
520:Pames
360:Bajío
242:Çayne
212:Otomí
196:Spain
176:Pames
93:Bajío
881:ISBN
801:and
741:and
673:León
574:and
564:The
531:The
517:The
503:The
482:and
474:and
338:The
281:Xale
245:Yuac
63:Date
31:and
385:of
1246::
1204:.
1154:."
1080:^
683:.
675:,
671:,
561:.
496:.
409:.
401:,
397:,
393:,
389:,
78:,
508:'
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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