Chinese Filipinos - Knowledge

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that "the strong foundation of Sulu-China relations has provided Sulu society with a kind of historical consciousness that allows the easy, smooth, and almost natural integration of Chinese into the local society as shown by the extent of Chinese intermarriages with the native Sama and Tausug ... This explains why the Chinese in Sulu have become an integral part of the local social, economic, cultural and political traditions which are shared independently by the Tausug and Sama people. " Li Ding – guo's paper, " Exploratory ... Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu Archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researches. 4. The ' Sulu Kings ', more accurately datus or rajahs, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A.D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A.D. This continued regularly until the last embassy in 1762 A.D. The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking 27 days. 5. It was during the visit of 1417 A.D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te – Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir named Antuluk decided to remain also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the Chinese texts as An Lu Chin and Un Chong Kai. 6. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from 17th century on in their works. The Philippine Islands (55 volumes). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. 7. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia General de Filipinas desde el Discubrimiento de Dichas Islas hasta Nuestros Dias, vol. II. (Madrid, 1894–1895), pp. 266–269. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under American Military Rule, 1899–1913. (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967) p. 11. 9. Najeeb M. Saleeby, The History of Sulu, (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc. 1963), p. 83. 10. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. 11. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter of recognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. 12. Data on the Tawi – Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimlan Lim. 13. The information on Chinese families in Bongao etc. were provided by Paquito Tan of Sitangkai during the visits of the author to Bongao in late 1988..

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Chinese was US$ 27 million in 1937 to a high of US$ 100 million in the estimated aggregate, making them second to the Americans in terms of total foreign capital investment held. Under Spanish rule, the Chinese were willing to engage in trade and venture into other business activities where Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry were responsible for introducing sugar refining devices, new construction techniques, movable type printing, and bronze making into the Filipino economic landscape while also providing fishing, gardening, artisan, and other such trading services. Many poverty-stricken Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were drawn towards business ownership and investing as they were prohibited from owning land and saw the only path out of abject poverty was by going into commercial business, entrepreneurship, and investing as a sole recourse to alleviate themselves from extreme economic destitution and ameliorate the parlous state of their personal financial situations. Numerous budding Chinese-born and Filipino-bred entrepreneurs and investors, driven by their shrewd commercial instincts, have leveraged their business skills and entrepreneurial spirit to change the trajectory of the parlous state of their financial destinies in unshackling themselves from the debilitating stranglehold of poverty towards a pathway of financial prosperity and economic enlightenment. By assuming responsibility for their personal financial circumstances empowered and precipitated countless budding Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry to become self-employed as dealers, distributors, hawkers, marketers, peddlers, producers, retailers, sellers, and vendors of variegated goods and services catered to the Spanish and American colonizers as well as the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers. Mainly attracted and lured by the promise of bountiful economic opportunities brought upon by the auspices of American colonial influence during the first four decades of the 20th century actuated the Chinese to vigorously assert and ultimately secure their domains of economic power fostered amongst their entrepreneurial activities and investment pursuits. The implementation of a free trade policy between the Philippines and the United States allowed the Chinese to capitalize on the growth of a burgeoning Filipino consumer market. As a result, Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry were able to capture a significant market share across the country by expanding their commercial business activities in which they were the key players who ventured into then newly emerging industries such as industrial manufacturing and financial services. The American and Spanish colonizers who saw the indispensable benefit of the enterprising Chinese, harnessed their commercial expertise, contacts, capital, and presence to serve and protect their colonial economic interests. Chinese-owned sari-sari stores that cropped up all over the Philippines were utilized to distribute and supply American and cheap Chinese-made Filipino goods and raw materials with the finished products purposed for the eventual export to the American and other foreign markets overseas. The conspicuous presence of the Chinese that permeated throughout the textual fabric of daily Filipino economic life incurred the volatile emotions and hostility of the indigenous Filipino masses manifested in the form of animosity, bitterness, envy, grievance, insecurity, and resentment.

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manufacturing sector. The majority of Filipino industrial manufacturing establishments that produce the processing of coconut products, flour, food products, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, as well as heavy industry products such as metals, steel, industrial chemicals, paper products, paints, leatherwork, garments, sugar refining, timber processing, construction materials, food and beverages, rubber, plastics, semiconductors, and personal computers are controlled by Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry. In the secondary industry, 75 percent of the country's 2500 rice mills were Chinese-owned. Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs were also dominant in wood processing, and accounted for over 10 percent of the capital invested in the lumber industry and controlled 85 percent of it as well as accounting for 40 percent of the industry's annual output propagated through their extensive control of nearly all the sawmills throughout the country. Emerging import-substituting light industries induced the active participation and ownership of Chinese entrepreneurs being involved in various several salt works in addition to a large number of small and medium-sized producers engaged in food processing as well as the production of leather and tobacco goods. The Chinese also hold enormous sway over the Filipino food processing industry with approximately 200 outlets being involved in this sector alone predominating the eventual export of their finished products to Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. More than 200 Chinese-owned companies are also involved in the production of paper, paper products, fertilizers, cosmetics, rubber products, and plastics. By the early 1960s, the Chinese presence in the manufacturing sector became even more significant. Of the industrial manufacturing establishments that employed 10 or more workers, 35 percent were Chinese-owned and among 284 enterprises employing more than 100 workers, 37 percent were likewise Chinese-owned. Of the 163 domestic industrial manufacturing companies operating throughout the Philippines, 80 were Chinese-owned and included the manufacturing of coconut oil, food products, tobacco, textiles, plastic products, footwear, glass, and certain types of metals such as tubes and pipes, wire rods, nails, bolts, and containers. In 1965, the Chinese controlled 32 percent of the country's top industrial manufacturing outlets. Of the 259 industrial manufacturing establishments belonging to the top 1000 that operated throughout the entire country, the Chinese owned 33.6 percent of the top manufacturing companies as well as 43.2 percent of the top commercial manufacturing outlets in 1980. By 1986, the Chinese controlled 45 percent of the country's top 120 domestic manufacturing companies. These manufacturing establishments are mainly involved in the production of tobacco and cigarettes, soap and cosmetics, textiles and rubber footwear.

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to accept this view in the light of corroborative data from more recent researchers. The " Sulu Kings " more accurately datus or rajas, before the Sultanate era began about 1450 A. D., sent tribute embassies to China beginning from 1417 A. D. This continued regularly until the last embassy 1762 A. D. The ancient Chinese records show the increasing importance of the China visits to the Sulu leaders. At one time, a group of 340 people visited China and stayed in Peking for 27 days. It was during the visit of 1417 A. D. when the Sulu King, as the Tausug head was called, died of illness and was entombed in Te – Chow by imperial order. A part of his retinue remained in China to take care of his remains. His heir, named Antuluk, decided to stay also. Their number increased and their leaders were identified in the texts as An Lu Chih and Un Chong Kai. Blair and Robertson record several of the Chinese revolts from the 17th century in their work The Philippine Islands ( 55 volumes ). It appears from close analysis of the data that the Chinese were inevitably led to violent means not because of any revolutionary ideal as in the case of over 200 Filipino revolts against Spanish rule. Jose Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas desde el discubrimento de dichas ilas hasta nuestros dias. ( Madrid, 18941895 ), 266-69.. 5. 6. 7. 8. Samuel K. Tan, Sulu Under the American Military Rule, 1899–1913. ( Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1967 ), 11. Najeeb M. Salleby, The History of Sulu. ( Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, Inc., 1963 ), 83. 9. 10. 11. Data on the Tan family of Tan 63. Data on the Tan family of Maimbung and Jolo were obtained from several interviews and discussions with Mr. Tomas Que who is related to the Tans by marriage. The interviews were conducted in late 1990 and early 1991 in Quezon City where the Ques permanently live after leaving Jolo as a result of the 1974 conflict between the MNLF and the government. Chinese membership in the Ruma Bichara, the Advisory Council of the Sulu Sultanate, goes back in time to the 18th century when such a privilege was granted by the Sultan to the Chinese sector as a matter ofrecognition of their important role in Sulu's economy. In fact, Wang also records Sulu's taking of Chinese hostages as a means of ensuring the much desired return of Chinese traders not for purposes of ransom or other exploitations as it is understood in contemporary usage. Data on the Tawi – Tawi Chinese connections were taken during several sustained interviews and discussions with former Mayor Hokking Lim and his family members in their Kamias apartment residence from 1989 to early 1991 during frequent visits to Metro Manila. As permanent residents of South Ubian, Mayor Lim and his family have established networks of family alliances especially with the natives. The data on the Ullayans, Dausans, and Aldanis were provided by Mrs. Kimian Lim

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counterparts. In the aftermath of such a historically significant legal change that occurred throughout the Filipino geopolitical landscape at this time, its reverberating ramifications afterwards soon led to an upsurge of massive land purchases throughout the country predominated by Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry which started by the next decade following the country's political transition from a dictatorship to a democracy. The acquisition of Filipino citizenship during the 1970s allowed the Chinese to expand their economic presence even more greatly by venturing into larger-scale investment-grade commercial real estate ventures and delving into other property investment opportunities that inevitably augmented and galvanized their economic grip on the Filipino real estate markets while elevating their respective socioeconomic positions in the process. Since the 1980s, Filipino businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry have cornered much of the Philippines's real estate investment markets, land, and property development sectors, when much of the industry's grasp had long been held by the Spaniards. Chinese-owned Filipino real estate companies have devoured large swathes of prime commercial and residential real estate across Metro Manila and other urban Filipino cities utilized for the exploitative purposes of profit through commercial property development and investment. Since 1990, the Filipino real estate markets have been primarily controlled by both Chinese and non-Chinese Filipino entrepreneurs and investors alike, all strategically vying for lucrative opportunities in key property developments and prime real estate investments across the country. The competitive landscape amongst these entrepreneurs and investors alike have been positioning themselves to capitalize on the promising potential for profitability. Notably through cash flow generation and capital appreciation in rapidly growing real estate markets around the country, leading to intense competition among these stakeholders. Presently, many of the biggest real estate development operators in the Philippines are owned by Filipino businessmen and investors of Chinese ancestry following the exodus of the Spanish Filipino Mestizo landowning elites such as the Araneta's, Ayala's, Lopez's, and Ortiga's. Of the 500 real estate companies operating in the Philippines, 120 are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry with the firms mostly specializing in real estate investment, land, and property development, in addition to construction having much of their commercial presence mainly being concentrated in the Manila Metropolitan area. Well-known real estate companies controlled by some of the Philippines's most high-profile businessmen and investors include

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enterprises previously owned by Americans and Spaniards came under the control of the Chinese, who have collectively emerged and established themselves as the country's most dominant economic force. Although the modern Chinese community in the Philippines amounts to 1 percent of the country's entire population, they are estimated to effectively control 60 to 70 percent of the modern Filipino economy. The enterprising Chinese minority, comprising 1 percent of the total population of the Philippines, control the country's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, hotels, shopping malls, airlines, and fast-food restaurants in addition to all of its major financial services providers, banks and stock brokerage houses, as well as dominating the nation's wholesale distribution networks, shipping lines, banks, construction, textiles, real estate, personal computer, semiconductors, pharmaceutical, mass media, and industrial manufacturing industries. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also control 40 percent of the Philippine's national corporate equity. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also involved in the processing and distribution of pharmaceutical products. More than 1000 companies are involved in this industry, with most being small and medium-sized businesses amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱1.2 billion. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also prominent players in the Filipino mass media sector, as the Chinese control six out of the ten English-language newspapers in Manila, including the one with the largest daily circulation. Many retail stores and restaurants presided by Filipino owners with Chinese ancestry are regularly featured in Manila newspapers which often attracted great public interest as such examples of high-profile business ownership were used to illustrate the Chinese community's strong economic influence that permeated throughout the country. The Chinese also dominate the Filipino telecommunications industry, where one of the current significant players in the Filipino telecom sector was the business taipan

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Trade Nationalization Law of 1954, where ethnic Chinese were barred and pressured to move out of the retail sector restricting engagement to Filipino citizens only. In addition, the Chinese were prevented from owning land by restricting land ownership to Filipinos only. Other restrictions on Chinese economic activities included limiting Chinese involvement in the import-export trade while trying to increase the indigenous Filipino involvement to gain a proportionate presence. In 1960, the Rice and Corn Nationalization Law was passed restricting trading, milling, and warehousing of rice and corn only to Filipinos while barring Chinese involvement, in which they initially had a significant presence. These policies ultimately backfired on the government as the laws had an overall negative impact on the government tax revenue which dropped significantly because the country's biggest source of taxpayers were Chinese, who eventually took their capital out of the country to invest elsewhere. The increased economic clout held in the hands of the Chinese has triggered bitterness, suspicion, resentment, envy, insecurity, grievance, instability, ethnic hatred, and outright anti-Chinese hostility among the indigenous native Filipino majority towards the Chinese minority. Such hostility has resulted in the kidnapping of hundreds of Chinese Filipinos by indigenous Filipinos since the 1990s. Many victims, often children are brutally murdered, even after a ransom is paid. Numerous incidents of crimes such kidnap-for-ransom, extortion, and other forms of harassment were committed against the Chinese Filipino community starting from the early 1990s continues to this very day. Thousands of displaced Filipino hill tribes and aborigines continue to live in

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a critical role in maintaining the country's economic vitality and prosperity. With their powerful economic prominence, the Chinese virtually make up the country's entire wealthy elite. Chinese Filipinos, in the aggregate, represent a disproportionate wealthy, market-dominant minority not only form a distinct ethnic community, they also form, by and large, an economic class: the commercial middle and upper class in contrast to their poorer indigenous Filipino majority working and underclass counterparts around them. Entire posh Chinese enclaves have sprung up in major Filipino cities across the country, literally walled off from the poorer indigenous Filipino masses guarded by heavily armed, private security forces. Though the contemporary Chinese Filipino community albeit remains stubbornly insular, given their propensity to voluntarily segregate themselves from the indigenous Filipino populace through typically associating themselves with the Chinese community, their collective impacting presence nonetheless still remains powerfully felt throughout the country at large. In particular, given their dominant middleman minority status and ubiquitous economic influence and prosperity owing to their shrewd business acumen and astute investment savvy have prompted the community's acculturation into mainstream Filipino society and their maintenance of their exclusively unabashed distinctive cultural sense of ethnic identity, clannishness, community, kinship,

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estimated to control over one-third of the Philippines's 1000 largest corporations with the Chinese controlling 47 of the 68 locally owned companies publicly listed on the Manila Stock Exchange. In 1990, the Chinese controlled 25 percent of the top 100 businesses in the Philippines and by 2014, the share of top 100 firms owned by them grew to 41 percent. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry are also responsible for generating 55 percent of overall Filipino private commercial business activity across the country. In addition, Chinese-owned Filipino companies account for 66 percent of the sixty largest commercial entities. In 2008, among the top ten wealthiest Filipinos, 6 to 7 were of Chinese ancestry with Henry Sy Sr. having topped the list with an estimated net worth US$ 14.4 billion. In 2015, the top 4 wealthiest people in the Philippines (with 9 being pure-blooded Han Chinese in addition to 10 out of the top 15) were of Chinese ancestry. In 2019, 15 of the 17 Filipino billionaires were of Chinese ancestry.

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Filipino since marriages to a non-Han Chinese Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider was considered taboo and undesirable. The prospects and implications of the sustained trend of ongoing intermarriage between Chinese to native, mestizo Filipinos, and other outsiders, still continues to be shrouded in ambiguity, raising controversy, casting doubt, and posing uncertainty for all parties involved, even to this day. As the Chinese Filipino family structure is traditionally patriarchal hence, it is the male that carries the last name of the family which also entails the pedigree and legacy of the family name itself. Marriages between Chinese Filipino men and native Filipinas or mestizas, or any outsider, was deemed more socially permissible than the other way around. In the case of the Chinese Filipina female marrying a native or mestizo Filipino or any outsider, it may incur several unwanted racial issues and tensions, especially on the side of the Chinese family.

2438: 8042:, as he remained adamant in establishing a financial services institution that was specifically tailored to serve the needs of the Chinese Filipino business community. Following the country's rapid parallel economic shift at the time towards the burgeoning industrial manufacturing sector prompted the Chinese business community to concurrently venture into the nascent banking and financial services sector. In 1956, there were four Chinese-owned Filipino banks, nine by 1971, sixteen in 1974, with the Chinese holding majority stakes in 10 of the 26 private commercial Filipino banks by the early 1990s. Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's principal banks have come under Chinese ownership with Filipinos of Chinese ancestry owning six of the top ten banks in the country. Of these six banks, the Chinese collectively control 63 percent of the aggregate assets among the top ten banks in the country. Chinese-controlled Filipino banks include the 2457: 7839:. Gokongwei's eldest daughter became publisher of the newspaper in December 1988 at the age of 28, at which during the same time her father acquired the paper from the Roceses, a Spanish Mestizo family. Of the 66 percent remaining part of the economy in the Philippines held by either Chinese or indigenous Filipinos, the Chinese control 35 percent of all total sales. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control an estimated 50 to 60 percent of non-land share capital in the Philippines, and as much as 35 percent of total sales are attributed to the largest public and private firms owned by the Chinese. Many prominent Filipino companies that are Chinese-owned focus on diverse industry sectors such as semiconductors, chemicals, real estate, engineering, construction, fibre-optics, textiles, financial services, consumer electronics, food, and personal computers. A third of the top 500 companies publicly listed on the 2401: 2665: 7825:

packaging materials, detergents, and cement mixing. Gokongwei's family firm is one of the six largest and most well-known Filipino conglomerates that has been under the hands of an owner of Chinese lineage. Gokongwei began his business career by starting out in food processing during the 1950s, venturing into textile manufacturing in the early 1970s, and then cornered the Filipino real estate development and hotel management industries by the end of the decade. In 1976, Gokongwei established Manila Midtown Hotels and has since then assumed the controlling interest of two other hotel chains, Cebu Midtown and Manila Galleria Suites respectively. In addition, Gokongwei has also made forays into the Filipino financial services sector as he expanded his business interests by investing in two Filipino banks,

2927: 8324:, an umbrella business network of Overseas Chinese companies operating in the markets of Greater China and Southeast Asia that share common family, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties. With the spectacular growth of varying success stories witnessed by a number of individual Chinese Filipino business tycoons and investors have allowed them to expand their traditional corporate activities beyond the Philippines to forge international partnerships with increasing numbers of expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese investors on a global scale. Instead of quixotically diverting excess profits elsewhere, many Filipino businesspeople of Chinese ancestry are known for their penurious and parsimonious ways by eschewing improvident lavish extravagances and frivolous 7941:

retail outlets also exercised a vast disproportionate share of several local goods such as rice, lumber products, and alcoholic drinks. Some Chinese Filipino merchant traders even branched into retailing these products in addition to rice milling, logging, saw-milling, distillery, tobacco, coconut oil processing, footwear making, and agricultural processing. Over time, the domestic Filipino economy began to broaden by the multitudinous expansion of commercial business activities long held by the Chinese which also ushered in new forms of entrepreneurship with the Chinese having assiduously devoted and directed their corporate efforts, energies, and capital into cultivating new industries and growth areas over other well-established and matured sectors.

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Manila in May 1603 bearing Chinese officials with the seal of the Ming Empire. This led to suspicions that the Chinese had sent a fleet to try to conquer the islands. However, seeing the city's strong defenses, the Chinese made no hostile moves. They returned to China without showing any particular motive for the journey and without either side mentioning the apparent motive. Fortifications of Manila were started, with a Chinese settler in Manila named Engcang, who offered his services to the governor. He was refused and a plan to massacre the Spaniards quickly spread among the Chinese inhabitants of Manila. The revolt was quickly crushed by the Spaniards, ending in a large-scale massacre of the non-Catholic Sangley in Manila.

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by capable Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry that are armed with the necessary managerial capabilities, enterprising disposition, commercial expertise, entrepreneurial acumen, investment savvy, and visionary foresight were able to germinate from small budding enterprises to making headway into gargantuan corporate leviathans garnering widespread economic influence across the Philippines, Southeast Asia, and the global financial markets. Such massive corporate expansions engendered the term "Chinoy", which is colloquially used in Filipino newspapers to denote Filipino individuals with a degree of Chinese ancestry who either speak a Chinese dialect or adhere to Chinese customs.

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sea transport industry as it was one of the few efficient methods of transporting goods cheaply and quickly across the country, with the Philippines geographically being an archipelago, comprising more than 1000 islands and inlets. There are 12 Filipino business families of Chinese ancestry engaged in inter-island transport and shipping, particularly with the shipping of food products requiring refrigeration amounting to an aggregate capitalization of ₱10 billion. Taiwanese expatriate investors have participated in various joint ventures by opening up new shipping lanes on the route between Manila and Cebu. Prominent shipping lines owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry include

5745: 7560:, one of Asia's leading health care institutions. In public safety, Teresita Ang See's Kaisa, a Chinese-Filipino civil rights group, organized the Citizens Action Against Crime and the Movement for the Restoration of Peace and Order at the height of a wave of anti-Chinese kidnapping incidents in the early 1990s. In addition to fighting crime against Chinese, Chinese Filipinos have organized volunteer fire brigades all over the country, reportedly the best in the nation. that cater to the Chinese community. In the arts and culture, the Bahay Tsinoy and the Yuchengco Museum were established by Chinese Filipinos to showcase the arts, culture and history of the Chinese. 8315:

the world. Like other Chinese-owned businesses operating throughout the Southeast Asian markets, Chinese-owned businesses in the Philippines often link up with Greater Chinese and other Overseas Chinese businesses and networks across the globe to focus on new business opportunities to collaborate and concentrate on. Common industry sectors of focus include real estate, engineering, textiles, consumer electronics, financial services, food, semiconductors, and chemicals. Besides sharing a common ancestry, cultural, linguistic, and familial ties, many Filipino entrepreneurs and investors of Chinese ancestry are particular strong adherents of the Confucian paradigm of

3061:, the Ampaw Unit under Colonel Chua Sy Tiao and the Chinese Filipino 48th Squadron since 1942 to 1946 in attacking Japanese forces. Thousands of Chinese Filipino soldiers and guerrillas died of heroism in the Philippines from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. Thousands of Chinese Filipino veterans are interred in the Shrine of Martyr's Freedom of the Filipino Chinese in World War II located in Manila. The new-found unity between the ethnic Chinese migrants and the indigenous Filipinos against a common enemy – the Japanese, served as a catalyst in the formation of a Chinese Filipino identity who started to regard the Philippines as their home. 5670: 8010:, one of the Philippines's largest airlines. In terms of industry distribution, small and medium size Chinese-owned retailers account for half of the Philippines retail trade, with 49.45 percent of the retail sector alone being controlled by Henry Sy's Shoemart, and the remaining share of the retail trade being dominated by a few larger Chinese-owned Filipino umbrella retail outlets that include thousands of smaller retail subsidiaries. Sy built his business empire from scratch out of his Shoe Mart department store chain, and has since made forays into banking and real estate development after purchasing a controlling interest of 8287:. One enterprising and pioneering Filipino businessman of Chinese ancestry was William Chiongbian, who established William Lines in 1949, which by the end of 1993, became the most profitable inter-island Filipino shipping line ranking first in terms of gross revenue generated as well as net income among the country's seven biggest shipping companies at that time. Currently, the Filipino inter-island shipping industry is dominated by four Chinese-owned shipping lines led by William Chiongbian's William Lines. Likewise, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also own all of the major airlines in the country, including the flagship carrier 2679: 8531: 8136:

and acquisitions that occurred within the Filipino banking sector due to major industry realignments that were set in motion with regards to how private commercial banks were owned, sparked a flurry of mergers and acquisitions that continued to consolidate the Chinese community's grip on the Philippines's private commercial banking sector. Among the most notable transactions that took place was George Ty's Metrobank, which at this time acquired Asian Bank and Global Business Bank and with Lucio Tan in 1992 having assumed a 67 percent controlling ownership of the privatized

2423: 8263:, Henry Sy, George Ty and Lucio Tan. Besides being responsible for spearheading the pioneering development and growth of the Philippines's modern real estate industry, both Sy and Tan have been generous patrons of the mainland Chinese on top of the local Chinese Filipino community, ardently extending their philanthropic hospitality by actively investing in the economic development and revitalization of their ancestral hometowns back in China. With Sy constructing supermalls in Chengdu, Chongqing, and Suzhou and Tan developing a 30-story banking center in Xiamen. 7931:, Chinese Filipinos controlled 85 percent of the nation's retail trade. The Chinese also presided over 40 percent of the retailing imports coupled with substantial controlling interests in banking, oil refining, sugar milling, cement, tobacco, flour milling, glass, dairy farming, automobile manufacturing, and consumer electronics. Although the Filipino Hacienderos owned an extensive array of businesses, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry greatly augmented their economic power coinciding with the pro-market reforms of the late 1980s and 1990s initiated by the 8337:

compete with Chinese-owned businesses. Underlying resentment and bitterness from the impoverished Filipino majority has been accumulating as there has been no existence of indigenous Filipino having any substantial business equity in the Philippines. Decades of free market liberalization brought virtually no economic benefit to the indigenous Filipino majority but rather the opposite resulting a subjugated indigenous Filipino majority underclass, where the vast disproportion of indigenous Filipinos still engage in rural peasantry, menial labor or

5810: 7852: 8358:. Such animosity, antagonmism, bitterness, envy, grievance, hatred, insecurity, and resentment is ready at any moment to be catalyzed as a form of vengeneance by the downtrodden indigenous Filipino majority as many Chinese Filipinos are subject to kidnapping, vandalism, murder, and violence. Anti-Chinese sentiment among the indigenous Filipino majority is deeply rooted in poverty but also feelings of resentment and exploitation are also exhibited among native and mestizo Filipinos blaming their socioeconomic failures on the Chinese. 8632: 8545: 8131:. George Ty's Metropolitan Bank generated the industry's highest share of gross revenues and net income in addition to holding the Filipino banking industry's largest amount of total assets during that year. In 1993, Chinese-owned Filipino banks controlled 38.43 percent of the total assets in the private Filipino commercial banking sector. By 1995, banks owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry had captured an even greater market share of the Philippines's financial services sector after the formerly government-owned 8517: 7267: 7240: 3320: 7003: 7888:(永和大王) have made headway into the Filipino restaurant industry with their various constiuent outlets being cropped up across various cities around the country. There are roughly 3000 fast-food outlets and restaurants controlled by Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry around the country, especially eating establishments specializing in Chinese cuisine have attracted an influx of foreign capital investments from Hong Kong and Taiwan. The banker and business taipan 4562: 7248: 3186:. Virtually all Chinese schools were ordered closed or else to limit the time allotted for Chinese language, history and culture subjects from four hours to two hours and instead devote them to the study of Filipino languages and culture. Marcos' policies eventually led to the formal assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into mainstream Filipino society, the majority were granted citizenship, under the administration of Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos. 3217: 4329:

marriage of patrilineal cousins of the same surname to each other, which the Han-descended Chinese Moro mestizos do not. Observant Hui Muslims also do not practice Chinese pagan holidays. The Han men continued practicing their own pagan religions and holidays when married to Moro Muslim women. As late as the 1970s, Professor Samuel Kong Tan said among the Chinese and Moros of Sulu, it was still normal for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women.

77: 8152:. During the 1999 Filipino banking mergers and acquisition frenzy, Gokongwei realized an immense windfall gain following the high-profit sale of his shares in PCIB and the Far East Bank in the process. In terms of industry distribution, Chinese-owned firms account for a quarter of the Filipino financial services sector. Today, the overwhelming majority of the Philippines's nine principal banks in addition to the formerly state-owned 5129:

were regarded as "coarse speech". They noted Mandarin Guanhua was solemn and used by the educated Fujianese literati and officials while it was the rural villagers and women who only spoke the local Min patois (xiangtan) since they didn't speak Mandarin. Jesuits in Ming dynasty China like Matteo Ricci generally focused on studying the official and prestigious Mandarin while Dominicans studied vernacular Hokkien dialects in Fujian.

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dominant players in the Filipino retail industry with the community having achieved a collective corporate feat of presiding an estimated 8500 Chinese-owned retail and wholesale outlets that predominate across various metropolitan areas the country. On a microscopic scale, the Hokkien community have a proclivity to run capital intensive businesses such as banks, commercial shipping lines, rice mills, dry goods, and

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Dysangco, Dytioco, Gueco, Gokongwei, Gundayao, Kiamco/Quiamco, Kimpo/Quimpo, King/Quing, Landicho, Lanting, Limcuando, Ongpin, Pempengco, Quebengco, Siopongco, Sycip, Tambengco, Tambunting, Tanbonliong, Tantoco, Tinsay, Tiolengco, Yuchengco, Tanciangco, Yuipco, Yupangco, Licauco, Limcaco, Ongpauco, Tancangco, Tanchanco, Teehankee, Uytengsu and Yaptinchay among such others. These were originally full

2657: 4257:. Presently, they are into small-scale entrepreneurship and in education. There are also about 30 or so Filipino Cantonese associations in the Philippines, such as the Baguio Filipino Cantonese Association CAR (BFCA-CAR), which was merged from The Baguio Cantonese Association and the Brotherhood of Filipino-Cantonese Mestizos during 1999. There are also schools such as 7536:

Foundation, Angelo King Foundation, Jollibee Foundation, Alfonso Yuchengco Foundation, Cityland Foundation, etc. Some Chinese-Filipino benefactors have also contributed to the creation of several centers of scholarship in prestigious Philippine Universities, including the John Gokongwei School of Management at Ateneo de Manila, the Yuchengco Center at

3248:(Unity for Progress) by Teresita Ang-See which called for mutual understanding between the ethnic Chinese and the native Filipinos. Aquino encouraged free press and cultural harmony, a process which led to the burgeoning of the Chinese-language media During this time, the third wave of Chinese migrants came. They are known as the "xin qiao" ( 6988:

other Chinese who have gone back to China and assumed his surname and/or identity. Sometimes, younger Chinese migrants would circumvent the Act through adoption – wherein a Chinese with Philippine nationality adopts a relative or a stranger as his own children, thereby giving the adoptee automatic Filipino citizenship – and a new surname.

7807:, Chinese merchants carried on trading activities with native communities along the coast of modern mainland China. By the time the Spanish arrived, the Chinese controlled all the commercial trading activities across the Philippines, serving as retailers, artisans, and food providers for various Spanish settlements. During the 3292:

into the Philippines decreased due to Aquino's pro-Filipino and pro-American approach in handling disputes with China. "Xin qiao" Chinese migration from mainland China into the Philippines intensified from 2016 up to the present, due to controversial pro-China policies by the Rodrigo Duterte presidency, prioritizing Chinese

7532:

civic organizations as their primary means of contributing to the general welfare of the Chinese community. Beyond the traditional family and clan associations, Chinese Filipinos tend to be active members of numerous alumni associations holding annual reunions for the benefit of their Chinese-Filipino secondary schools.

7927:

their commercial business presence across the Filipino retail industry. As the Chinese community exercised a considerable percentage of the total commercial investment, including the command of 55 percent of the Filipino retail trade and 85 percent of the country's lumber industry at this time. After the end of the

2834: 7611:

predominantly used to refer to non-Chinese people, but today, it does not necessarily carry its original connotations, depending on the speaker's perceptions and culture of how they grew up to learn to perceive the term, since in the Philippines, its present usage now mostly just plainly refers to any non-Chinese

7998:) controls the largest market share of cigarette distribution in the country and has since then emerged as of one richest men in the Philippines. Aside from taking over the Philippines's tobacco distribution networks, Tan has since parlayed his business interests into a corporate conglomerate behemoth of his own 7739:

colonial subjects of the Spanish crown, and as such were granted several privileges and afforded numerous opportunities that were denied to the unconverted and non-citizen Chinese. Starting out as traders, many Chinese mestizo businesspeople branched out into land leasing, money-lending, and later, landholding.

3303:, which majority preferring peaceful approaches to the dispute to safeguard their own private businesses. The community have also expressed concerns over the increased anti-Chinese sentiment from the Filipinos resulting from issues surrounding the POGO businesses and investigations on the background of former 7986:. Tan started off his business career in the cigarette distribution industry and then catapulted himself into entrepreneurial prominence within the major leagues of elite Filipino business circles after masterminding the corporate takeover of General Bank and Trust Company in 1977 and later renamed it as the 7755:

shifting perspectives towards miscegenation, many contemporary Chinese Filipino families would still by and large prefer that the Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider would have some or little Han Chinese ancestry, such as the descendants of Chinese mestizos dating back to the Spanish colonial period.

4695:, however, is perceived as the most prestigious Chinese language, so it is taught in Chinese Filipino schools and used in all official and formal functions within the Chinese Filipino community despite the fact that very few Chinese Filipinos are conversant in Mandarin or have it as a heritage language. 5584:. This was especially the case with the local Sangley Chinese that intermarried during Spanish colonial times. They brought forth Spanish-speaking Chinese Mestizos of varying proficiency, from the accented pidgin Spanish of the new Chinese immigrants to the fluent Spanish of Sangley Chinese old-timers. 12369:

Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations

10565:

The publication is a bimonthly magazine of the Philippine - China Resource Center ( PCRC ) with office in New Manila, Quezon City Dr. Wang thinks that the Sama people in Chinese Texts could be the seafaring Sama of the Sulu archipelago. A growing number of native researchers and scholars are inclined

10522:

While some of the papers tend to view integration as a continuing problem in Chinese-Filipino relations, Samuel K. Tan's paper on "The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis into the Nature and Extent of Chinese Integration in Sulu Society", provides a different historical process. In Sulu, Tan explains

8205:

in order to gain the privilege to buy, sell, and own land. Initially, the Chinese were not allowed to own land until formally acquiring Filipino citizenship in the 1970s, which eventually permitted them to be granted with the same economic rights, freedoms, and privileges as their indigenous Filipino

8196:

with assets exceeding ₱100 billion. The total combined assets of all the Philippines's commercial banks under Chinese ownership account for 25.72 percent of all the aggregate assets in the entire Filipino commercial banking system. Among the Philippines's 35 banks, shareholders of Chinese ancestry on

7746:

Today, "blood purity" is still of prime concern in most traditional Chinese Filipino families, especially pure-blooded Han ones. Many Chinese Filipinos who maintain traditional perspectives on marriage continue to uphold the belief that a Chinese Filipino can only be married to another fellow Chinese

7610:

originally just meant "foreigner" but at times may also have been considered derogatory since it could negatively connote to "barbarian/outsider" by some who had negative views on certain neighboring non-Chinese peoples that certain groups historically lived with since for centuries this was the term

7296:

As with other Southeast Asian nations, the Chinese community in the Philippines has become a repository of traditional Chinese culture common to unassimilated ethnic minorities throughout the world. Whereas in mainland China many cultural traditions and customs were suppressed or destroyed during the

6838:

Chinese Filipinos and Chinese mestizos usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Angseeco (from ang/see/co/kho) Aliangan (from liang/gan), Angkeko, Apego (from ang/ke/co/go/kho), Chuacuco, Chuatoco, Chuateco, Ciacho (from Sia), Cinco (from Go), Cojuangco, Corong, Cuyegkeng, Dioquino, Dytoc, Dy-Cok,

6709:

As both exposure to North American media as well as the number of Chinese Filipinos educated in English increased, the use of English names among Chinese Filipinos, both common and unusual, started to increase as well. Popular names among the second generation Chinese community included English names

3291:

More Chinese Filipinos were given Philippine citizenship during the 21st century. Chinese influence in the country increased during the pro-China presidency of Gloria Arroyo. Businesses by Chinese Filipinos were said to have improved under Benigno Aquino's presidency, while mainland Chinese migration

2897:

Sin Lok together with the progenitors of the Lacson, Sayson, Ditching, Layson, Ganzon, Sanson and other families who fled Southern China during the reign of the despotic Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in the 18th century and arrived in Maynilad; finally, decided to sail farther south and landed at the port

2893:

For fear of a Chinese uprising similar to that in Manila, the Spanish authorities implementing the royal decree of Gov. Gen. Juan de Vargas dated July 17, 1679, rounded up the Chinese in Iloilo and hamletted them in the parian (now Avanceña Street). It compelled all local unmarried Chinese to live in

2742:

in 1575. Almost simultaneously, the Chinese imperial admiral Homolcong arrived in Manila where he was well received. On his departure he took with him two priests, who became the first Catholic missionaries in China sent from the Philippines. This visit was followed by the arrival of Chinese ships in

8485:

During the 1990s to the early 2000s, Philippine economic difficulties and more liberal immigration policies in destination countries have led to well-to-do Chinese Filipino families to acquire North American or Australasian passports and send their children abroad to attend prestigious North America

8332:

by pragmatically, productively, and methodically reinvesting substantial surpluses of their business profits devoted for the purpose of commercial business expansion and performing the acquisition of cash flow producing and income-generating assets. A sizable percentage of the conglomerates managed

8135:

was partially privatized, along with four of the top five banks that were substantially controlled by Chinese shareholders claiming 48 percent of all bank assets and over 60 percent of all those held by private domestic commercial banks. At the turn of the 20th century, among the plethora of mergers

7957:

while the Cantonese gravitated towards hotels, restaurants, and laundromats. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry control 35 percent to upwards to two-thirds of the domestic sales among the country's 67 largest commercial retail outlets. By the 1980s, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry

7940:

by setting up their own supply chains, distribution networks, locating key competitors, making use of geographical coverage, attributes and characteristics, business strategies, staff recruitment, store proliferation, and establishing their own independent trade organizations. Chinese-owned Filipino

7926:

In 1940, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry were estimated to control 70 percent of the country's entire retail trade and 75 percent of the nation's rice mills. By 1948, the economic standing of the Chinese community began to elevate even further allowing them to wield considerable influence by expanding

7790:

the Filipino economy and commerce at every level of society. Chinese Filipinos collectively wield and uniformly demonstrate a disproportionatly high level of economic achievement and clout relative to their small population size over their indigenous Filipino majority counterparts while also playing

7531:

Aside from their family businesses, Chinese Filipinos are active in Chinese-oriented civic organizations related to education, health care, public safety, social welfare and public charity. As most Chinese Filipinos are reluctant to participate in politics and government, they have instead turned to

2885:

Sometime in the year 1750, an adventurous young man named Wo Sing Lok, also known as "Sin Lok" arrived in Manila, Philippines. The 12-year-old traveler came from Amoy, the old name for Xiamen, an island known in ancient times as "Gateway to China"—near the mouth of Jiulong "Nine Dragon" River in the

2816:

The Spanish, who initially viewed the Sangley as a good source of manpower and commerce for the colony, gradually had shifting perspectives due to presupposed threats of Chinese invasion, which historically never materialized. Regardless, the Spanish, including the clergy, sought ways to justify the

2313:

However, intermarriages occurred mostly during the Spanish colonial period because Chinese immigrants to the Philippines up to the 19th century were predominantly male. It was only in the 20th century that Chinese women and children came in comparable numbers. Today, Chinese Filipino male and female

8029:

From small trade cooperatives clustered by hometown pawnbrokers, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry would go on to establish and incorporate the largest financial services institutions in the country. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry have been the chief pioneering influence in the Filipino financial sector

7847:

Filipinos of Chinese ancestry exert a considerable influential foothold across the Filipino industrial manufacturing sector. With respect to delineating the parameters by industry distribution, Chinese-owned manufacturing establishments account for a third of the entirety of the Filipino industrial

7843:

are owned by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry. Of the top 1000 firms, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control 36 percent of them and among the top 100 companies, 43 percent. Between 1978 and 1988, 146 of the country's 494 top companies were under Chinese ownership. Filipinos of Chinese ancestry are also

7734:

are persons of mixed Chinese and either Spanish or indigenous Filipino ancestry. Mestizos are thought to make up as much as 25% of the country's total population. A number of Chinese mestizos have surnames that reflect their heritage, mostly two or three syllables that have Chinese roots (e.g., the

6987:

was applied to the Philippines. Such law led new Chinese migrants to purchase the Hispanic or native surnames of native and mestizo Filipinos and thus pass off as long-time Filipino residents of Chinese descent or as native or mestizo Filipinos. Many also purchased the Alien Landing Certificates of

2335:

sailed around the Philippines from the 9th century onward and frequently interacted with the local Austronesian people. Chinese and Austronesian interactions initially commenced as bartering and items. This is evidenced by a collection of Chinese artifacts found throughout Philippine waters, dating

8472:

As above, the fast economic growth of China and the increasing popularity of Chinese culture has also helped fan pro-China patriotism among a majority of Chinese Filipino who espouse 愛國愛鄉 (ài guó ài xiāng) sentiments (love of ancestral country and hometown). Some Chinese Filipino, especially those

8424:

who are gradually shifting to English as their preferred language, thus identifying more with Western culture, at the same time speaking Chinese among themselves. Similarly, as the cultural divide between Chinese Filipino and other Filipinos erode, there is a steady increase of intermarriages with

8349:

campaigns giving privileges to allow the indigenous Filipino majority to gain a more equitable economic footing during the 1950s and 1960s. The rise of economic nationalism among the impoverished indigenous Filipino majority prompted by the Filipino government resulted in the passing of the Retail

8314:

As Filipino businesspeople of Chinese ancestry became more financially prosperous, they often coalesced their financial resources and pooled large amounts of seed capital together to forge joint business ventures with expatriate Mainland and Overseas Chinese businessmen and investors from all over

8266:

The Chinese also pioneered the Filipino shipping industry which eventually germinated into a major industry sector as a means of transporting goods cheaply and quickly between the islands. Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have remained dominant in the Philippines's maritime shipping and

8200:

Filipinos of Chinese ancestry also wield enormous clout over the Philippines's real estate sector with much of the modern industry's grip being commercially grasped in their shrewdly enterprising and investment-savvy clutches. The line of revenue-generating business and income-producing investment

7977:

percolated rapidly throughout major cities around the country, with the products that they retailed having made their way into the shopping malls situated across various parts of the Manila Metropolitan area. Another prominent business figure in Philippines's retail industry is the Fujian-born and

7824:

controlled 28 wholly-owned subsidiaries with interests ranging from food and agro-industrial products, hotels, insurance agencies, financial services providers, electronic components, textiles and garment manufacturing, real estate, petrochemicals, power generation, printing, newspaper publishing,

7432:

Birthday traditions of Chinese Filipinos involve large banquet receptions, always featuring noodles and round-shaped desserts. All the relatives of the birthday celebrant are expected to wear red clothing which symbolize respect for the celebrant. Wearing clothes with a darker hue is forbidden and

7396:

Before the wedding, the groom is expected to provide the matrimonial bed in the future couple's new home. A baby born under the Chinese sign of the Dragon may be placed in the bed to ensure fertility. He is also tasked to deliver the wedding gown to his bride on the day prior to the wedding to the

7283:

Chinese Filipinos attribute their success in business to frugality and hard work, Confucian values and their traditional Chinese customs and traditions. They are very business-minded and entrepreneurship is highly valued and encouraged among the young. Most Chinese Filipinos are urban dwellers. An

5128:

who visited 17th century Fujian (late Ming and early Qing) learned both local Min Chinese and the official Ming dynasty Mandarin Chinese (guanhua) and they explicitly noted that Mandarin was regarded as an elegant, "elevated" language by the local Fujianese Chinese while their own local Min speech

4336:

The Chinese families among the Tausug include the Kho, Lim, Teo, Kong and multiple families with the surname Tan, including the family of Tuchay Tan and Hadji Suug Tan. These families maintain the Chinese practice of not permitting marriages in the same paternal families with the same surname, and

4332:

The Han who became part of the Chinese-Moro mestizo community are mostly of Minnan background, either directly from southern Fujian like Xiamen (Amoy) or the Peranakans who are descendants of Minnan speaking Han men and Malay women, with a small minority of them being descendants of other Han like

3243:

Despite getting better protections, crimes against Chinese Filipinos were still present, the same way as crimes against other ethnic groups in the Philippines, as the country was still battling the lingering economic effects of the Marcos regime. All these led to the formation of the first Chinese

8459:

Despite the community's inherent ethnocentrism – there are no active proponents for political separation, such as autonomy or even independence, from the Philippines, partly due to the small size of the community relative to the general Philippine population, and the scattered distribution of the

8406:

During the 1970s, Fr. Charles McCarthy, an expert in Philippine-Chinese relations, observed that "the peculiarly Chinese content of the Philippine-Chinese subculture is further diluted in succeeding generations" and he made a prediction that "the time will probably come and it may not be far off,

7935:

administration. As a result, the Chinese gradually increased their commanding role in the domestic Filipino commercial retail sector over time by acting as an intermediary in connecting Chinese-owned Filipino retailers to the masses of indigenous Filipino consumers through the exchange of various

6750:

Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines from 1898 onward usually have monosyllabic Chinese surnames. On the other hand, most Chinese ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 usually have multisyllabic surnames such as Gokongwei, Ongpin, Pempengco, Yuchengco, Teehankee and

8493:

Many Philippine-educated Chinese Filipino from middle-class families are also migrating to North America and Australasia for economic advantages. Those who have family businesses regularly commute between North America (or Australasia) and the Philippines. In this way, they follow the well-known

8336:

As Chinese economic might grew, much of the indigenous Filipino majority were gradually driven out and displaced into poorer land on the hills, on the outskirts of major Filipino cities, or into the mountains. Disenchantment grew among the displaced indigenous Filipinos who felt they were unable

7952:

in the Filipino retail sector is now completely under Chinese hands as they have been at the forefront at pioneering the modern and contemporary development of the Philippines's retail sector. From the 1970s onward, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have re-established themselves as the

7754:

On the other hand, modern Chinese Filipino families who exhibit more liberal cosmopolitan views and beliefs are generally more receptive to interracial marriage by allowing their children to marry native or mestizo Filipino or any non-Han Chinese outsider. Even with these changes in attitude and

7750:

In some instances, a member of a traditional Chinese Filipino family may be denied of his or her inheritance and likely to be disowned by his or her family for marrying an outsider without their consent. However, there are narrow exceptions in which intermarriage to a non-Chinese Filipino or any

7100:

With the increasing number of Chinese with Philippine nationality, the number of political candidates of Chinese-Filipino descent also started to increase. The most significant change within Chinese Filipino political life would be the citizenship decree promulgated by former President Ferdinand

6979:

Many also took on Spanish or native Filipino surnames (e.g. Alonzo, Alcaraz, Bautista, De la Cruz, De la Rosa, De los Santos, Garcia, Gatchalian, Mercado, Palanca, Robredo, Sanchez, Tagle, Torres, etc.) upon naturalization. Today, it can be difficult to identify who are Chinese Filipino based on

4328:

and the Chinese mainland migrated to Mindanao (and the islands of Sulu) and founded families. These mestizos celebrated Chinese New Year and Chinese holidays including ones of pagan origin and practice Han cultural taboos; like the taboo against patrilineal cousin marriage. Hui in China practice

2788:

mestizo tributes. Pure Spaniards were not counted, as they were exempt from tribute. Out of these, Fr. Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga estimated a total population count exceeding half a million souls with Chinese and Chinese Mestizos forming 10,512 of the total tribute of 110,000+. In the provinces:

2707:(city-states) of the island of Luzon and the Ming dynasty. "Sangley" was the term used during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines to refer to any ethnic Chinese person, regardless of specific ancestral origin in China. In the case of the Philippines, majority came from the province of 2641:

for a unique tradition seemed to have stemmed from the native's village that a man who had been to China was revered. In 1007 AD, a local chief from Butuan sent an envoy to China, requesting an equal status with Champa, however, this was rejected for the Song court appear to have favored Champa.

1734:

ancestry or more are typically not considered to be characteristically mestizo. Many Chinese mestizos are still Chinese Filipinos, though some with more indigenous Filipino ancestry or family or have just had a very long family history of living and assimilating to life in the Philippines may no

8370:

Chinese Filipinos are descendants of Chinese who migrated during the 1800s onward – this group retains much of Chinese culture, customs, and work ethic (though not necessarily language), whereas almost all Chinese mestizos are descendants of Chinese who migrated even before the Spanish colonial

7815:

Up until the 1970s, many of the Philippines's biggest corporations and commercial economic activities had long been under the control of the Americans and Spaniards. Since the 1970s, a significant shift has occurred in the commercial economic sector of the Philippines, whereby numerous Filipino

7738:

During the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish authorities encouraged the Chinese male immigrants to convert to Catholicism. Those who converted got baptized and their names Hispanized, and were allowed to intermarry with indigenous Filipino women. The couple and their mestizo offspring became

7646:

Some Chinese Filipinos perceive the government and authorities to be unsympathetic to the plight of the ethnic Chinese, especially in terms of frequent kidnapping for ransom during the late 1990s. Currently, most of the third or fourth generation Chinese Filipinos generally view the non-Chinese

7535:

Outside of secondary schools catering to Chinese Filipinos, some Chinese Filipinos businessmen have established charitable foundations that aim to help others and at the same time minimize tax liabilities. Notable ones include the Gokongwei Brothers Foundation, Metrobank Foundation, Tan Yan Kee

6975:

The Chinese who survived the massacre in Manila in the 1700s fled to other parts of the Philippines and to hide their identity, some also adopted two-syllable surnames ending in "son" or "zon" and "co" such as: Yanson = Yan = 燕孫, Ganzon = Gan = 颜孫(Hokkien), Guanzon = Guan/Kwan = 关孫 (Cantonese),

2317:

By this definition, the ethnically Chinese Filipino comprise 1.8% (1.35 million) of the population. This figure however does not include the Chinese mestizos who since Spanish times have formed a part of the middle class in Philippine society nor does it include Chinese immigrants from the

8066:

that was owned by banker and businessman George Ty, which has been the country's second-largest and most aggressive financial services conglomerate. Lesser-known private commercial banks established in the 1950s and 1960s are also owned and controlled by Filipinos of Chinese ancestry. The lone

7811:

epoch, Chinese merchants controlled a significant percentage of the retail trade and internal commerce of the country. They predominated the retail trade and owned three-quarters of the 2500 rice mills interspersed along with the Filipino islands. Total resources of banking capital held by the

7388:

enters the ceremonial room walking backward and turned three times before being allowed to see the groom. A welcome drink consisting of red-colored juice is given to the couple, quickly followed by the exchange of gifts for both families and the wedding tea ceremony, where the bride serves the

7279:

The Chinese Filipino are mostly business owners and their life centers mostly in the family business. These mostly small or medium enterprises play a significant role in the Philippine economy. A handful of these entrepreneurs run large companies and are respected as some of the most prominent

8250:

Golf Club and Resort development in Tagaytay City were testaments of such joint projects undertaken by Filipino real estate developers of Chinese ancestry in cooperation with other fellow Overseas Chinese dealmakers operating throughout the Southeast Asian real estate markets. These corporate

6131:

The changes in Chinese education initiated with the 1973 Philippine Constitution led to a large shifting of mother tongues, reflecting the assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into general Philippine society. The older generation of Chinese Filipinos, who were educated in the old curriculum,

3535:, namely Cebu Memorial Park, Queen City Memorial Park, Manila Memorial Park Cebu (Liloan), Cebu Chinese Cemetery (宿務華僑義山), and Ludo Memorial Park. The gravestones inspected with marked birthplaces or ancestral places from China of those interred were as follows, 669 graves (46.6%) hailed from 7904:

is a Filipino restaurateur of Chinese ancestry. Jollibee's popularity around the country has since then led to the expansion of its corporate presence throughout the world by establishing subsidiaries in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Guam, and other Southeast Asian countries such as Brunei and

6741:

It is thus not unusual to find a young Chinese Filipino, for example, named "Chase Tan", whose father's name is "Emerson Tan" and whose grandfather's name is "Elpidio Tan Keng Kui", reflecting the depth of immersion into the English language as well as into the Philippine society as a whole.

3028:

from 1942 to 1945 to fight against the Japanese Imperial forces. Some Chinese Filipinos who joined as soldiers were integrated into the 11th, 14th, 15th, 66th & 121st Infantry Regiment of the U.S. Armed Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL) under the military unit of the

2922:

in the United States was also put into effect in the Philippines. Nevertheless, the Chinese were able to settle in the Philippines with the help of other Chinese Filipinos, despite strict American law enforcement, usually through "adopting" relatives from Mainland or by assuming entirely new

8439:

Meanwhile, the general Philippine public is largely neutral regarding the role of the Chinese Filipino in the Philippines, and many have embraced Chinese Filipino as fellow Filipino citizens and even encouraged them to assimilate and participate in the formation of the Philippines' destiny.

7867:

Today, Filipinos of Chinese ancestry control all of the Philippines's largest and most lucrative department stores, supermarkets, and fast-food restaurants. In the fast-food industry, Filipino restaurateurs of Chinese ancestry have been behind the Philippines's biggest fast-food restaurant

8455:

The recent rapid economic growth of both China and Taiwan as well as the successful business acumen of Overseas Chinese have fueled among many Chinese Filipino a sense of pride through immersion and regaining interest in Chinese culture, customs, values and language while remaining in the

4414:

The exact number of all Filipinos with some Chinese ancestry is unknown. Various estimates have been given from the start of the Spanish Colonial Period up to the present ranging from as low as 1% to as large as 18–27%. The National Statistics Office does not conduct surveys of ethnicity.

2558:), whose traders presented themselves as tribute-paying envoys to China. They continued trade with the Song court in the years 1004, 1007 and 1011 and brought home Chinese ceramics. A century later, in addition to Ma-i, the bureau then recorded another states from the Philippines Baipuer ( 7781:

is now pullulated with thousands of prospering Chinese-owned Filipino stock brokerage houses and publicly traded companies. Filipino investors of Chinese ancestry dominate the Manila Stock Exchange as they are estimated to control more than half of the publicly listed companies by market

6120:). Teaching hours relegated to Chinese language and arts, which featured prominently in the pre-1973 Chinese schools, were reduced. Lessons in Chinese geography and history, which were previously subjects in their own right, were incorporated into the Chinese language subject(s), whereas 8706:

Kaisa, the organization she heads, aims to inform the Filipino mainstream of the contributions of the ethnic Chinese to Philippine historical, economic and political life. At the same time, Kaisa encourages Chinese Filipinos to maintain loyalties to the Philippines, rather than China or

6371:'Calligraphy Brush'). Chinese history, geography and culture are also integrated in all the three core Chinese subjects – they stood as independent subjects of their own before 1973. Many schools currently teach at least just one Chinese subject, known simply as just "Chinese" ( 2784:, which held most of Luzon under its spiritual care, and he reported that the tributes represented an average family of 5 to 7 per tribute; in which case there were 90,243 native Filipino tributes; 10,512 Chinese (Sangley) and mixed Chinese Filipino mestizo tributes; and 10,517 mixed 2889:

Earlier in Manila, immigrants from China were herded to stay in the Chinese trading center called "Parian". After the Sangley Revolt of 1603, this was destroyed and burned by the Spanish authorities. Three decades later, Chinese traders built a new and bigger Parian near Intramuros.

7698:. Due to such racist remarks against native Filipinos, racism against mainland Chinese in mainland China and by extension, ethnic-Chinese in general such as Chinese Filipinos, later developed among certain native or mestizo Filipino communities as a form of backlash. During the 7511:

of the 1980s. Generally, the "Third Chinese" are the most entrepreneurial and have not totally lost their Chinese identity in its purest form and seen by some "Second Chinese" as a business threat. Meanwhile, continuing immigration from mainland China further enlarge this group

5551:. Due to this history in the Philippines, many of the older generation Chinese Filipinos (mainly those born before WWII), whether pure or mixed, can also understand some Spanish, due to its importance in commerce and industry. The Chinese community of the Philippines during the 3335:. Many Chinese Filipinos are either fourth-, third-, or second-generation; in general natural-born Philippine citizens who can still recognize their Chinese roots and have Chinese relatives in China, as well as in other Southeast Asian, Australasian or North American countries. 12077: 6636:

Many Chinese who lived during the Spanish naming edict of 1849 eventually adopted Spanish name formats, along with a Spanish given name (e.g., Florentino Cu y Chua). Some adopted their entire Chinese name romanized as a surname for the entire clan (e.g., Jose Antonio Chuidian

2314:

populations are practically equal in numbers. Chinese mestizos, as a result from intermarriages during the Spanish colonial period, then often opted to marry other Chinese or Chinese mestizos. Generally, Chinese mestizos is a term referring to people with one Chinese parent.

7914:

is among the Philippines's most prominent beverage providers. The company was founded in 1851 by Enrique María Barretto de Ycaza y Esteban and is responsible for supplying the country's entire beverage needs. Two Chinese-owned Filipino beverage companies, namely Lucio Tan's

7461:. A unique tradition of many Chinese Filipino families is the hiring of professional mourners which is alleged to hasten the ascent of a dead relative's soul into Heaven. This belief particularly mirrors the merger of traditional Chinese beliefs with the Catholic religion. 6705:

Newer Chinese migrants who came during the American Colonial Period use a combination of an adopted Spanish (or rarely, English) name together with their Chinese name (e.g., Carlos Palanca Tan Quin Lay or Vicente Go Tam Co). This trend was to continue up to the late 1970s.

7674:. Organizations belonging to this category include the Laspip Movement, headed by Adolfo Abadeza, as well as the Kadugong Liping Pilipino, founded by Armando "Jun" Ducat Jr. that stirred tensions around the late 1990s. Also due in part to racial or chauvinistic views from 7448:

is widely practiced within the Chinese Filipino community regardless of religion, albeit at a lesser rate as compared to native Filipinos. First birthdays are celebrated with much pomp and pageantry, and grand receptions are hosted by the child's paternal grandparents.

5882:. The Chinese, especially the older generations, have the tendency to go to pay respects to their ancestors at least once a year, either by going to the temple, or going to the Chinese burial grounds, often burning incense and bringing offerings like fruits and 8319:

when doing business with each other, as the Chinese believed that the underlying source for entrepreneurial and investment success relied on the nurturing of personal relationships. Moreover, Filipino businesses that are Chinese-owned form a part of the larger

4340:

The assimilation and intermarriages between the local Muslim Moro Tausug and Sama in Sulu and the Han Chinese immigrants, in contrast to Chinese living in Filipino Catholic areas, was facilitated by the good relations throughout history between China and Sulu.

5120:

phonetic system were also introduced from China and Singapore. Some Chinese Filipino schools now also teach Mandarin in Simplified characters with the Pinyin system, modeled after those in China and Singapore. Some schools teach both or either of the systems.

7288:. In contrast with the Chinese mestizos, few Chinese are plantation owners. This is partly due to the fact that until recently when the Chinese Filipino became Filipino citizens, the law prohibited the non-citizens, which most Chinese were, from owning land. 5784:

In contrast to Roman Catholicism, Protestantism forbids traditional Chinese practices such as ancestor veneration, but allows the use of meaning or context substitution for some practices that are not directly contradicted in the Bible (e.g., celebrating the

10324: 8419:

As of the present day, due to the effects of globalization in the Philippines, there has been a marked tendency to assimilate to Filipino lifestyles influenced by the US, among ethnic Chinese. This is especially true for younger Chinese Filipino living in

4344:

The Chinese mestizo descendants of Han Chinese men and Moro Muslim Tausug and Sama women are integrating and dissolving into the Tausug and Sama population as they lose practice of Chinese culture except celebrating some festivals and their Chinese names.

6535:), Jubilee Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), LIGHT Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Makati Hope Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), MGC-New Life Christian Academy (Protestant-Evangelical), Saint Peter the Apostle School (Roman Catholic- 7742:

Chinese mestizo men and women were encouraged to marry Spanish and indigenous women and men, by means of dowries, as part of a colonial policy to mix the different ethno-racial groups of the Philippines so as it would be impossible to expel the Spanish.

3000:, Chinese soldiers and guerrillas joined in the fight against the Japanese Imperial Forces during the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines (1941–1945). On April 9, 1942, many Chinese Filipino Prisoners of War were killed by Japanese Forces during the 2853:, which during that time referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The Chinese mestizos would later fan the flames of the Philippine Revolution. Many leaders of the Philippine Revolution themselves have substantial Chinese ancestry. These include 4423:, number around 20,000 (as of 1918), and that around one-third of the population of Luzon have partial Chinese ancestry. This comes with a footnote about the widespread concealing and de-emphasising of the exact number of Chinese in the Philippines. 6077:. In the late 20th century, despite Mandarin taking the place of Amoy Hokkien as the usual Chinese course taught in Chinese schools, some schools still tried to teach Hokkien as well, deeming it more practical in the Philippine-Chinese setting. 2765:(converted). Many immigrants converted to Catholicism and due to the lack of Chinese women, intermarried with indigenous women and adopted Hispanized names and customs. The children of unions between indigenous Filipinos and Chinese were called 12069: 7802:

The Chinese have had a significant presence in Filipino business and industry, having been at the forefront of controlling the economy of the Philippines for many centuries long before the Spanish and American colonial eras. Long before the

8415:

Assimilation is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture, while integration is defined as the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin.

4802:. This is due to Hokkien nowadays only being used and heard within family households and no longer being taught at schools. As a result, most of the youth can either only understand Hokkien by ear or do not know it at all, using instead 5796:

Unlike native and mestizo Filipino-dominated Protestant churches in the Philippines which have very close ties with North American organizations, most Protestant Chinese Filipino churches instead sought alliance and membership with the

10597:... p.17 " The Overseas Chinese and China's Economic Modernization " Tan, Samuel K. Volume 2 Number 1 January - February 1991, p.6 " The Chinese of Siasi: A Case of Successful Integration " Tan Chee - Beng Volume 3 Number 1 January ... 10628:... PDRC Volume 2 Number 17 January - February 1991 Published by the Philippine-China Development Resource Center No .... 6 THE CHINESE OF SIASI: A Case of Successful Integration By Samuel K. Tan, Ph.D. 10 Theresa C. Cariño is the ... 7304:

Many new cultural twists have evolved within the Chinese community in the Philippines, distinguishing it from other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. These cultural variations are highly evident during festivals such as

15703: 10670:

With the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing. Tilman (1974), whose study was carried out on the provincial city of Cebu where the Chinese have greater contacts with the

6621:

Most Chinese Filipinos attend Chinese Filipino schools until Secondary level and then transfer to non-Chinese colleges and universities to complete their tertiary degree, due to the dearth of Chinese language tertiary institutions.

3283:'new sojourner'), tourists or temporary visitors with fake papers, fake permanent residencies or fake Philippine passports that started coming starting the 1990s during the administration of Fidel Ramos and Joseph Estrada. 2507:

island, southwest of Manila. A year earlier, the annals recorded traders from Ma-i coming to Canton, and then in 982 AD. In the 11th century, the states—or chief settlements—recorded by the local Bureau of Maritime Trade are

8201:

opportunities that allowed the Chinese to expand their economic predominance into the Filipino real estate industry presented themselves occurred when they were finally conferred full-fledged Filipino citizenship during the

10467: 4408:

The figure above denotes first-generation Chinese mestizos – namely, those with one Chinese and one Filipino parent. This figure does not include those who have less than 50% Chinese ancestry, who are mostly classified as

1130:

Chinese Filipinos are a well established middle class ethnic group and are well represented in all levels of Filipino society. Chinese Filipinos also play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and dominate the

10552: 5981:, and have an international reputation for producing award-winning students in the fields of science and mathematics, most of whom reap international awards in mathematics, computer programming, and robotics Olympiads. 7647:

Filipino people and government positively, and have largely forgotten about the historical oppression of the ethnic Chinese. They are also most likely to consider themselves as just being "Filipino" and focus on the

6044:

Burgeoning of Chinese schools throughout the Philippines, including in Manila, occurred from the 1920s until the 1970s, with a brief interlude during World War II, when all Chinese schools were ordered closed by the

7909:

with the company having expanded gradually its corporate operating presence throughout mainland China as evidenced by its foreign acquisition of the Chinese fast food chain Dim Sum in 2008. In the beverage sector,

10744:

Today, with the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing. The implication of this preliminary observation points to the two types of Chinese integration.

8468:

Many Chinese-Filipino entrepreneurs and professionals have flocked to their ancestral homeland to partake of business and employment opportunities opened up by China's emergence as a global economic superpower.

8030:

as they dominated the country's financial services domain and have had a presence in the country's banking industry since the early part of the 20th century. The two earliest Chinese-founded Filipino banks were

4418:

According to a research report by historian Austin Craig who was commissioned by the United States in 1915 to ascertain the total number of the various races of the Philippines, the pure Chinese, referred to as

2437: 10702:

Today, with the exception of their names and occasional festivities, the Chinese elements are gradually diminishing The implications of this preliminary observation point to two types of Chinese integration.

9491: 7108:

of 1986 which toppled the Marcos dictatorship and ushered in the Aquino presidency. The Chinese have been known to vote in blocs in favor of political candidates who are favorable to the Chinese community.

10816: 2400: 2731:

language (referred also in the Philippines as Fukien or Fookien). The Hokkien people have their own unique culture, language, and religious belief systems, different from other ethnic groups in China.

10969:"The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century. By Henning Klöter. Leiden: Brill, 2011. xxii, 411 pp., 32 pages of color plates. $ 179.00 (cloth)" 7714:

outbreak, that may sometimes extend and generalize on Chinese Filipinos. Chinese Filipino organizations have discouraged the mainstream Filipino public from being discriminatory, particularly against

8633: 5539:

to the early to mid 20th century when its role was eventually eclipsed by English and later largely dissipated from mainstream Philippine society. Most of the elites of Philippine society during the

7544:

enroll a large number of Chinese-Filipino students. In health care, Chinese Filipinos were instrumental in establishing and building medical centers that cater for the Chinese community such as the

8407:

when, in this sense, there will no more 'Chinese' in the Philippines". This view is still controversial however, with the constant adoption of new cultures by Filipinos contradicting this thought.

2456: 9960: 3112:)), i.e., Chinese in the Philippines who acquired citizenship, referred only to those who arrived in the country before World War II. Those who arrived after the war were called the "jiu qiao" ( 2738:

attacked and besieged the newly established capital of Manila in 1574. The pirates tried to capture the city but were defeated by the combined Spanish and native forces under the leadership of

8490:

universities. Many of these children are opting to remain after graduation to start professional careers in North America or Australasia, like their Chinese brethren from other parts of Asia.

15687: 10615: 10584: 8436:

openly espouses eventual integration but not assimilation of the Chinese Filipino with the rest of Philippine society and clamors for maintaining Chinese language education and traditions.

10657: 7678:

towards native Filipinos or Filipinos in general in the 1980s after Filipinos became in demand in the international work force, some racial tendencies of mainland Chinese brought about by

7424:

in return. After three days, the couple then visits the bride's family, upon which a pair of sugar cane branch is given, which is a symbol of good luck and vitality among Hokkien people.

8079:

in 2007. Banco De Oro, which saw its beginnings as a mere savings bank in 1980, catapulted itself into the ranks of prominence in the Filipino financial services sector when it subsumed

17105: 9797: 8115:

came under the control of Chinese shareholders. Among the top ten private commercial banks in 1993, Chinese-Filipino business families were in full control of four of them, namely the

11392: 8345:. The Filipino government has dealt with this wealth disparity by establishing socialist and communist dictatorships or authoritarian regimes while pursuing a systematic and ruthless 7349:

based on the birthdates of the couple, as well as of their parents and grandparents may also be considered. Certain customs found among Chinese Filipinos include during supplication (

6956:'Grandchild') used as surnames for some Chinese Filipinos who trace their ancestry from Chinese immigrants to the Philippines during the Spanish Colonial Period. The surnames 10285: 8197:

average control 30 percent of the total banking equity. There are also 23 Filipino insurance agencies that are Chinese-owned, with some branches operating overseas and in Hong Kong.

7172:, as well as several governors, congressmen and mayors throughout the Philippines. Many ambassadors and recent appointees to the presidential cabinet are also Chinese Filipinos like 10259: 12184: 10458: 7485:. They have embraced a Hispanized Filipino culture since the 17th century. After the end of Spanish rule, their descendants, the Chinese mestizos, managed to invent a cosmopolitan 12211: 11067: 6983:

A phenomenon common among Chinese migrants in the Philippines dating from the 1900s would be to purchase their surname, particularly during the American Colonial Period, when the

11760: 10536: 9448: 5643:

Chinese Filipinos are unique in Southeast Asia in being overwhelmingly Christian (83%). but many families, especially Chinese Filipinos in the older generations still practice

2976:

to the Philippines to avoid poverty, worsening famine and political persecution. This group eventually formed the bulk of the current population of unmixed Chinese Filipinos.

10731: 10689: 4592:

The use of Hokkien as a first language is seemingly confined to the older generation and to Chinese Filipino families living in traditional Chinese Filipino centers, such as

4426:

Another source dating from the Spanish Colonial Period shows the growth of the Chinese and the Chinese mestizo population to nearly 10% of the Philippine population by 1894.

8002:. His corporate empire presides over a portfolio of diversified business interests including chemicals, sports, education, brewing, financial services, real estate, hotels ( 4333:

one northern Han family who married into the Tausug. Some Han of either Hakka or Cantonese background in Sabah, Borneo married Tausug women there before World War II ended.

2754:. With low chances of employment and prohibited from owning land, most of them engaged in small businesses or acted as skilled artisans to the Spanish colonial authorities. 10059: 9230: 2703:

When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, there was already a significant population of migrants from China all of whom were male due to the relationship between the

17710: 14734: 5710:

Unique to the Catholicism of Chinese Filipinos is the religious syncretism that is found in Chinese Filipino homes. Many have altars bearing Catholic images such as the

3057:

in attacking Imperial Japanese forces. Many Chinese Filipinos joined the guerrilla movement of the Philippine-Chinese Anti-Japanese guerrilla resistance fighter unit or

12727: 11447: 1072:, who later became the dominant group within the Filipino-Chinese community. In the 19th century, migration was triggered by the corrupt and bad governance of the late 16201: 10090: 7496:

The largest group of Chinese in the Philippines are the "Second Chinese", who are descendants of migrants in the first half of the 20th century, between the anti-Qing

2670: 10206: 10174: 7397:

sister of the bride, as it is considered ill fortune for the groom to see the bride on that day. For the bride, she prepares an initial batch of personal belongings (

12290: 10824: 4258: 12429:

Hodder, Rupert (2005). "The Study of the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia: Some Comments on its Political Meanings with Particular Reference to the Philippines".

12268: 12237: 9487: 6726:, among such others. For parents who are already third and fourth generation Chinese Filipinos, English names reflecting American popular trends are given, such as 4177:, most Cantonese were into the service industry, working as artisans, miners, househelpers, bakers, shoemakers, metal workers, barbers, herbal physicians, porters ( 11701: 11669: 13780: 11582: 9469: 8875: 7413:

toward her mother to preserve harmony within the bride's family upon her departure. Most of the wedding ceremony then follows Catholic or Protestant traditions.

3017: 8083:

in July 2005 under the aegis of Sy. With Sy having assumed majority ownership of Banco de Oro, a commercial bank as well as acquiring a 14 percent stake in the

7961:

Chinese-owned Filipino retail outlet's today are among the single largest owners of department store chains in the Philippines with one prominent example being

6976:

Tiongson/Tiongzon = Tiong = 仲孫 (Hokkien), Cuayson/Cuayzon = 邱孫 (Hokkien), Yuson = Yu = 余孫, Tingson/Tingzon = Ting = 陈孫 (Hokchew), Siason = Sia = 谢孫 (Hokkien).

13335: 10236: 8448:

Separation is defined as the rejection of the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin, often characterized by the presence of

16122: 7662:

Some Chinese Filipinos believe racism still exists toward their community among a minority of non-Chinese Filipinos, who the Chinese Filipinos refer to as "

16173: 5326:

in Philippine society. Due to this, around 30% of all Chinese Filipinos, mostly those belonging to the younger generations, use English as their preferred

14080: 11091:"The concepts and methods of Western Chinese learning in the early period:A study based on Spanish missionary Francisco Varo's Arte de la lenguaMandarina" 11028: 7923:, along with several lesser-known beverage companies are also now competing with each other to capture the largest share in the Filipino beverage market. 4679:

Unlike other overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, which feature an assortment of dialect groups, Chinese Filipinos descend overwhelmingly from

4337:

even though the Tans are multiple families, they still adhere to the rule of avoiding marriage to each other believing they were related far in the past.

14148: 14114: 11120: 9899: 9774: 9396: 9328: 7863:, a Filipino entrepreneur of Chinese ancestry. The outlet today continues to remain as one of the country's most famous and beloved fast food franchises. 13674: 10492:

Tan, Samuel K. (1994). "The Tans and Kongs of Sulu: An Analysis of Chinese Integration in a Muslim Society". In See, Teresita Ang; Go, Bon Juan (eds.).

4237:

and they set up businesses like restaurants, grocery stores, bazaars, hardware stores, sari-sari stores and dried fish stalls. The logging, mining, and

2637:)). These native traders mostly belonged to the elite. In a Song dynasty record, a man from Sandao was treated with respect after he returned home from 9956: 8953: 11151: 7444:

Births of babies are not celebrated and they are usually given pet names, which he keeps until he reaches first year of age. The Philippine custom of

2894:

the Parian and all married Chinese to stay in Binondo. Similar Chinese enclaves or "Parian" were later established in Camarines Sur, Cebu and Iloilo.

2817:

limiting or expulsion of the Sangley population in the Philippines. The main contentions were often on religious morality grounds, such as vices of

10609: 10578: 8385:

separation, where the Chinese Filipino community can be clearly distinguished from the other ethnic groups in the Philippines; reminiscent of most

8018:, another privately Chinese-owned Filipino commercial bank and wealth management house whose services are specifically catered and tailored to the 14793: 9019:. Working paper / Universität Bielefeld, Fakultät für Soziologie, Forschungsschwerpunkt Entwicklungssoziologie, 0936-3408. Universität Bielefeld. 7616: 2214: 1723: 15662: 12699: 10641: 6532: 5948: 5547:

were Spanish mestizos or Chinese mestizos, which later intermixed together to an unknown degree and now frequently treated as one group known as

4556: 3888:. Many younger Hokkien-descended Chinese Filipinos are also entering the fields of banking, computer science, engineering, finance and medicine. 11389: 9836: 4233:. In Baguio, Cantonese Chinese were known for their carpentry, masonry, and culinary skills, where they were employed in hotels and places like 1310:)—generalized term referring to any and all Chinese people in or outside the Philippines in general regardless of nationality or place of birth. 16194: 11826: 11620: 10933: 9998: 9418: 8850: 7936:

goods and services. The Chinese Filipino business community accomplished such commercial feats as a tight-knit group in an enclosed system via

7631:), which directly means, "Philippine person" or simply "Filipino". This itself brings complications though as Chinese Filipinos themselves are 4589:

as their native language. Most Chinese Filipinos (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language.

4304:

Temporary resident Chinese businessmen and envoys include people from Beijing, Shanghai and other major cities and provinces throughout China.

9805: 7405:. On the wedding date, the bride wears a red robe emblazoned with the emblem of a dragon prior to wearing the bridal gown, to which a pair of 6972:, perhaps shedding light on the Hokkien suffix -son/-zon/-chon used here as a surname alongside some sort of accompanying enumeration scheme. 2422: 1429:. This also includes Chinese Filipinos who now live and/or were born overseas, but still have close ties to the community in the Philippines. 17233: 2797:

has had half of its 3000 tributes/families at 1,500 be Chinese Filipinos. In 1603, Manila itself was also home to 25,000 Chinese immigrants.

1140: 1093: 13245: 9546:

International Seminar for UNESCO Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue: "Manila as an Entrepot in the Trans-pacific Commerce".

17908: 10509: 10301: 10148: 8988: 8772: 8754: 7437:(red packets containing money) to the birthday celebrant, especially if he is still unmarried. For older celebrants, boxes of egg noodles ( 5778: 10968: 10024: 9867: 9541: 8038:, one of the most high-profile Filipino businessmen of Chinese ancestry at the time, played a key role in initiating the establishment of 4289:

and Hong Kong who are naturalized Philippine citizens and have since formed part of the Chinese Filipino community. Many of them are also

4145:) form roughly 1.2% of the unmixed ethnic Chinese population of the Philippines, with large numbers of descendants originally from either 2942:

The privileged position of the Chinese as middlemen of the economy under Spanish colonial rule quickly fell, as the Americans favored the

2664: 17913: 12176: 9374: 7691: 7545: 3300: 16055: 12207: 11051: 9269: 9195: 8809: 17635: 16894: 11216: 8579: 6666: 6066: 5960: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5510: 5170: 5025: 4968: 4711: 4707: 4190: 4182: 4174: 3957: 3686: 2915: 2234: 2218: 1727: 1226:, among others, also omits the hyphen. When used as an adjective as a whole, it may take on a hyphenated form or may remain unchanged. 1172: 1144: 1089: 1085: 1081: 11831: 16187: 14670: 11768: 9445: 7380:

During the supplication ceremony, pregnant women and recently engaged couples are forbidden from attending the ceremony. Engagement (

6074: 5748: 2341: 7469:

Most of the Chinese mestizos, especially the landed gentry trace their ancestry to the Spanish era. They are the "First Chinese" or

17156: 14082:

The Trillion-Dollar Enterprise: How the Alliance Revolution Will Transform ... – Cyrus F. Freidheim, Cyrus Freidheim – Google Books

12356: 11874: 10715: 10683: 8068: 7808: 7409:(English: marital happiness) coin is sewn. Before leaving her home, the bride then throws a fan bearing the Chinese characters for 6665:)). Chinese mestizos, as well as some Chinese who chose to completely assimilate into the local Filipino or Spanish culture during 5798: 2258: 16009: 12047: 10051: 17032: 11761:"A Guide to the Filipino-Chinese Wedding Rituals – Wedding Article – Kasal.com – The Essential Philippine Wedding Planning Guide" 9510: 8494:

pattern of other Chinese immigrants to North America who lead "astronaut" lifestyles: family in North America, business in Asia.

7751:

outsider would considered socially permissible provided that their family's socioeconomic background is well-off or influential.

5889: 5364:

The majority of Chinese Filipinos who were born, were raised, or have lived long enough in the Philippines are at least natively

5028:

in the Philippines. However, since the language is rarely used outside of the classroom besides jobs and interactions related to

3012:

in 1942. Chinese Filipinos were integrated in the U.S. Armed Forces of the First & Second Filipino Infantry Regiments of the

578: 10889:"从四语人到双语人：论菲律宾华校的多语教学 (From Quadrilingual to Bilingual: On the Multilingual Teaching in the Chinese Schools in the Philippines)" 10794: 9655: 7944:

Since the 1950s, Filipino entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have controlled the entirety of the Filipino retail industry. Every

5855:

is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. The Chinese Filipino community also established indigenous religious denominations like

5149:

at home or in their circles, but many who still interact with the overall Chinese Filipino community have also learned to speak

141: 17731: 17264: 17227: 16816: 13006:"Boxing with Shadows: Competing Effectively with the Overseas Chinese and Overseas Indian Business Networks in the Asian Arena" 2233:—obsolete term referring to people of unmixed Chinese ancestry, especially fresh first generation Chinese migrants, during the 16091: 11904: 9925: 7029:

cuisine, as Chinese Filipino home-based dishes are locally known, make use of recipes that are traditionally found in China's

5535:

mestizos (Spanish-era mixed Chinese-Spanish or Chinese-Spanish-native Filipinos) also learned to speak Spanish throughout the

4888:. Its unique features include its conservative nature that preserves old vocabulary and pronunciations, the presence of a few 2734:

The first encounter of the Spanish authorities with the Chinese occurred when several Chinese pirates under the leadership of

2384: 2368: 113: 17223: 16852: 16755: 16231: 15837: 15757: 15697: 15141: 15091: 15066: 14587: 14562: 13905:

The Chinese In Southeast Asia And Beyond, The: Socioeconomic And Political Dimensions: Socioeconomic and Political Dimensions

12639: 12342: 12159: 12134: 12099: 12022: 11972: 11502: 11439: 11192: 11061: 10651: 10394: 10359: 10295: 10128: 10082: 9263: 9189: 9162: 9132: 9094: 9060: 6698: 6608: 6185: 6093: 5789:

with moon cakes denoting the moon as God's creation and the unity of families, rather than the traditional Chinese belief in

5157:

within the Chinese Filipino community. Due to the relatively small population of Chinese Filipinos who are or claim to be of

3183: 13479: 10838: 7321:

Wedding traditions of Chinese Filipinos, regardless of religious persuasion, usually involve identification of the dates of

17786: 17186: 16847: 11852: 10424: 10196: 10170: 8594: 8181: 6819:

On the other hand, most Chinese Filipinos whose ancestors came to the Philippines prior to 1898 use a Hispanicized surname

6536: 6005:) along with Western science and technology. This was followed suit in the establishment of other Chinese schools, such as 5318:) as taught in schools in the Philippines. They are usually natively bilingual or even multilingual since both English and 2802: 2781: 1185: 12298: 9222: 5843:

Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where the Chinese live, especially in urban areas like Manila. Veneration of the

16842: 12260: 12233: 11552: 9682: 8670: 8173: 8063: 7804: 6690: 6540: 5752: 5514: 5504: 5004: 4893: 4117: 3933: 3829: 3293: 3249: 3113: 2948:(educated elite) formed by Chinese mestizos and Spanish mestizos. As American rule in the Philippines started, events in 1593: 1467: 1373: 1282: 120: 11730: 11707: 11675: 11246: 10840:

Full text of "Report of ... Austin Craig on a research trip to the United States, December 15th, 1914, to May 5th, 1915"

17858: 17454: 17176: 16801: 15984: 15953: 15919: 15894: 15869: 15807: 15782: 15670: 15623: 15598: 15570: 15545: 15520: 15476: 15446: 15413: 15355: 15326: 15294: 15247: 15222: 15194: 15166: 15116: 15041: 14981: 14956: 14927: 14902: 14872: 14842: 14803: 14776: 14630: 14537: 14499: 14465: 14425: 14400: 14375: 14350: 14320: 14290: 14265: 14240: 14206: 14190: 14020: 13995: 13966: 13937: 13912: 13887: 13853: 13825: 13763: 13720: 13629: 13605: 13572: 13540: 13463: 13433: 13405: 13380: 13303: 13278: 13190: 13157: 13132: 13087: 13062: 12988: 12960: 12906: 12881: 12818: 12793: 12707: 12611: 12569: 12544: 12519: 12494: 12463: 12410: 11574: 9020: 8202: 7945: 7557: 5773:

churches in the Philippines, many of which are also founded by Chinese Filipinos, such as the Christian Gospel Center,

5696: 4613: 94: 49: 16032: 10764: 9473: 8879: 8354:

in economic destitution where two-thirds of the country's indigenous Filipinos live on less than 2 dollars per day in

8095:. By 1970, among the Philippines's five largest banks holding almost 50 percent of all assets in the industry, namely 7623:, most older Chinese Filipinos still use the term, while younger Chinese Filipinos may sometimes instead use the term 4612:, and many other parts of the Philippines. In part due to the increased adoption of Philippine nationality during the 17720: 15384: 15010: 14744: 14654: 14158: 14124: 14090: 14053: 13790: 13684: 13657: 13345: 12931: 12737: 11997: 11269: 10725: 10546: 10503: 6583: 6058: 6054: 5896:

at the latest, but there is evidence of cultural and human transference from China to the Philippines since at least

5774: 240: 222: 160: 63: 11320: 8425:

native and mestizo Filipinos, with their children completely identifying with the Filipino culture and way of life.

4173:. Many were/are not as economically prosperous as the Hokkien Chinese Filipinos. Barred from owning land during the 204: 16210: 11416: 7892:

was responsible for securing and franchising the rights of the famous publicly traded American hamburger franchise

7612: 7301:

or simply regarded as old-fashioned nowadays, these traditions have remained largely preserved in the Philippines.

5051: 4230: 2926: 127: 17: 16129: 13005: 10228: 7507:

The "Third Chinese" are the second largest group of Chinese, the recent immigrants from mainland China, after the

4754:

of most Chinese Filipinos. Currently, it is typically the elderly and those of the older generations, such as the

3016:. After the Fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942, Chinese Filipinos joined as soldiers in a military unit of the 2979: 2906: 8558: 6062: 5989:

The first school founded specifically for the Chinese in the Philippines, the Anglo-Chinese School (now known as

5965:

There are 150 Chinese schools that exist throughout the Philippines, slightly more than half of which operate in

3021: 1164: 8563: 8477:

by donating money to fund clan halls, school buildings, Buddhist temples and parks in their hometowns in China.

5322:

are required subjects in all grades of all schools in the Philippines, as English serves as an important formal

4316:

descent who married Moro Muslim women from Tausug, Sama and Maguindanaon ethnicities and are not descendants of

17522: 16887: 16781: 16728: 14709: 13737: 11018: 8681: 8104: 8047: 6693: 6615: 6548: 6422: 6380: 6204: 6026: 5084: 5047: 4779: 4128: 4003: 3840: 3811: 3620: 3260: 3171: 3124: 3025: 2160: 2131: 2102: 1991: 1894: 1865: 1796: 1767: 1701: 1604: 1575: 1478: 1449: 1384: 1355: 1293: 1264: 1049: 912: 756: 639: 189: 98: 14393:

Dynamics and Dilemma: Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong in a Changing World. Edited by Yu Bin and Chung Tsungting

11798: 11090: 9766: 9404: 9295: 4775: 2746:

The Spanish authorities started restricting the activities of the Chinese immigrants and confined them to the

109: 17843: 17240: 16750: 13592:

Words of Fire: Independent Journalists who Challenge Dictators, Drug Lords, and Other Enemies of a Free Press

10888: 9890: 8673: 7578:) by ethnic Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines. It is also used in other Southeast Asian countries such as 7524: 7504:. This group accounts for most of the "full-blooded" Chinese. They are almost entirely from Fujian Province. 7313:. The Chinese Filipino have developed unique customs pertaining to weddings, birthdays and funerary rituals. 6686: 6451: 6372: 6196: 5817: 5728:, saints, or the dead using joss sticks and otherwise traditional offerings, much as one would have done for 5113: 4860:'Our People's Language'). Philippine Hokkien is mutually intelligible to a certain degree with other 4120: 3832: 3803: 3252: 3116: 2123: 2094: 1983: 1886: 1857: 1788: 1759: 1693: 1596: 1567: 1470: 1441: 1376: 1347: 1285: 1256: 995: 770: 721: 653: 552: 9706: 9590: 8945: 8901: 2777:

area although eventually they spread all over the islands, and became traders, moneylenders and landowners.

17589: 17434: 17375: 17370: 17282: 17078: 17073: 17063: 16955: 16745: 12431: 11143: 9898:. East Asian Series, Reprint No. 3. Lawrence, Kansas: Center for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas. 8342: 8189: 8169: 7599: 7101:

Marcos which opened the gates for thousands of Chinese Filipinos to formally adopt Philippine citizenship.

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comprised 22.8 million of the population. However, the actual current figures are not known since the

503: 11938: 5310:, the vast majority of Chinese Filipinos who grew up in the Philippines are fluent in English, especially 4948:" to refer to a "driver") and use of vocabulary terms from various variants of Hokkien, such as from the 3857:, form 98.7% of all unmixed ethnic Chinese in the Philippines. Of the Hokkien peoples, about 75% are from 3346:

with marked birthplaces or ancestral places of the interred, 89.26% were from within the Hokkien-speaking

3311:, who was accused by the authorities of having connections with a POGO business in the said municipality. 17737: 17604: 16811: 16786: 13712: 12440: 10260:"Why the loyalty check?: Chinese-Filipinos fear prejudice fuelled by Alice Guo case, South China Sea row" 8161: 7995: 7549: 6591: 6587: 6089: 6006: 5863:

religion with ecumenical and interfaith in orientation. There are several prominent Chinese temples like

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alongside Catholicism, due to the recent openness of the Church in accommodating Chinese beliefs such as

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The Chinese Community of Manila: A Study of Adaptation of Chinese Familism to the Philippine Environment

16128:(Report). Canada in Asia. Vancouver, British Columbia: Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Archived from 11368: 10538:

Society and Culture: The Asian Heritage: Festschrift for Juan R. Francisco, Ph.D., Professor of Indology

8215: 7965:, which is one of the country's most prestigious department store brands. Other prime retailers such as 17888: 17781: 17760: 17698: 17693: 17599: 17594: 17401: 17117: 17053: 17022: 17001: 16991: 16837: 16796: 16791: 16686: 16653: 15744:

The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia

15433:

Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories

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Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories

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Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe

9181:

Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe

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returning to the ancestral land, which is the current phenomenon of overseas Chinese returning to China

8355: 8207: 8157: 8141: 8120: 8072: 7987: 7906: 7768: 7671: 7640: 7620: 7603: 7540:, and the Ricardo Leong Center of Chinese Studies at Ateneo de Manila. Coincidentally, both Ateneo and 6544: 6049:

and their students were forcibly integrated into Japanese-sponsored Philippine public education. After

5744: 5669: 5464: 5456: 4834: 4826: 4745: 4714:, the use of Spanish gradually decreased and is now completely replaced by either English or Filipino. 4574: 4273:

There are also some ethnic Chinese from neighboring Asian countries and territories, most notably from

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inhabitants prior to the Spanish Conquest of the islands. During the Spanish Colonial Period, the term

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Resilient States from a Comparative Regional Perspective Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia

10117:"Who Will Save Us From The 'Law'?": The Criminal State and the Illegal Alien in Post-1986 Philippines" 7773: 5079:) taught and spoken in many older Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines closely mirrors that of 17715: 17705: 17688: 17667: 17662: 17483: 17338: 17083: 17058: 17027: 16975: 16970: 16939: 16924: 16880: 12324: 9828: 8503: 8382:

who eventually lost their genuine Chinese heritage and adopted Thai culture and language as their own

8300: 8284: 8276: 8165: 8096: 8043: 8015: 7840: 7598:, it was also used but it has become a taboo term with negative stigma since it was used to refer to 7285: 5690: 3770: 1952: 1726:

ancestry, a common and historical phenomenon in the Philippines especially families tracing from the

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There are four trends that the Chinese Filipino would probably undertake within a generation or so:

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exception of a non-Chinese and non-foreign owned Filipino bank was the Spanish Filipino Lopez-owned

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There are various universally accepted terms used in the Philippines to refer to Chinese Filipinos:

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Post-wedding rituals include the two single brothers or relatives of the bride giving the couple a

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