Chinese nationalism

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nationalism. In the context of social mobilization, Chinese nationalism only fully emerged during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), when the CCP mobilized the peasantry to fight against the Japanese invaders. Johnson contends that early nationalism of the Kuomintang was quite similar to the late nineteenth-century nationalism in Europe, as both referred to the search for their national identities and positions in the modern world by the intelligentsia. He argues that nationalism constructed by the intellectuals is not identical to nationalism based on mass mobilization, as the nationalist movements led by the Kuomintang, as well as the May Fourth Movement in 1919, were not mass movements because their participants were only a small proportion of the society where the peasants were simply absent. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, the CCP began to mobilize the Chinese peasantry through mass propaganda of national salvation (

686:). Liang was among the most prominent nationalists who viewed earlier conceptions of a Han-focused national identity as too restrictive. Liang attributed the decline of China to the Qing dynasty ruled by the Manchus, who treated the Han as an "alien race" and imposed a racial hierarchy between the Han and the Manchus while ignoring the threat of imperial powers. However Liang's critique of the Qing court and the Manchu-Han relations laid the foundation for anti-Manchuism, an ideology that early Republican and nationalist revolutionaries advocated in their efforts to overthrow the Qing dynasty and found a new Republic in China. More broadly, Liang's view was that modernity was "an age of struggle among nations for the survival of the fittest" and that therefore the Qing government should support industrialization and develop a Chinese people with strong work ethic, "a strong sense of nationalism, and a militaristic mentality." 2075:, a Chinese Muslim general and Kuomintang member, was another Chinese nationalist. Ma Fuxiang preached unity of all Chinese people, and even non-Han Chinese people such as Tibetans and Mongols to stay in China. He proclaimed that Mongolia and Tibet were part of the Republic of China, and not independent countries. Ma Fuxiang was loyal to the Chinese government, and crushed Muslim rebels when ordered to. Ma Fuxiang believed that modern education would help Hui Chinese build a better society and help China resist foreign imperialism and help build the nation. He was praised for his "guojia yizhi"(national consciousness) by non-Muslims. Ma Fuxiang also published many books, and wrote on Confucianism and Islam, having studied both the 3088: 36: 2090:, and fought against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. The Muslim unit he served in was noted for being anti-foreign, being involved in shooting a Westerner and a Japanese to death before the Boxer Rebellion broke out. It was reported that the Muslim troops were going to wipe out the foreigners to return a golden age for China, and the Muslims repeatedly attacked foreign churches, railways, and legations, before hostilities even started. The Muslim troops were armed with modern repeater rifles and artillery, and reportedly enthusiastic about going on the offensive and killing foreigners. Ma Fuxiang led an ambush against the foreigners at 1484:

be part of the Qing Empire rather than the Republic of China. Pressured by both domestic and international problems, the fragile Republican regime decided to maintain the borders of the Qing Empire to keep its territories intact. With the increasing threat from the imperialist powers in the 1910s, anti-imperialist sentiments started to grow and spread in China. An ideal of "a morally just universe," anti-imperialism made racism appear shameful and thus took over its dominant role in the conceptualization of Chinese nationalism. Yet racism never perished. Instead, it was embedded by other social realms, including the discourse of eugenics and

713: 657: 11480: 3431: 1435: 326: 3151: 1625: 463: 558:, the rise of the national education trend emphasizes instilling national values in education and inspiring patriotic sentiments. For example, the Chinese geography textbooks published during the period usually praised China's superior geographical conditions, and such texts generally came from the first chapters of the textbooks, which were convenient for guiding students to develop a love for their motherland when they first came into contact with China's geography. Chinese nationalists drew inspiration from Japan's victory in the 11490: 1423: 3055: 1678: 358: 531:, based on modern technology that was lacking in China. It was a matter of humiliation one after another, the loss of faith in the Qing dynasty. By the 1890s, disaffected Chinese intellectuals began to develop "a new nationalist commitment to China as a nation-state in a world dominated by predatory imperialist nation states." Overall, their concern was not in preserving a traditional Chinese order but instead the construction of a strong state and society that could stand in a hostile international arena. 444: 2369: 750: 3084:

phenomenon in the post-Cold War upsurge of Chinese nationalism is that Chinese intellectuals became one of the driving forces. Many well-educated people-social scientists, humanities scholars, writers, and other professionals have given voice to and even become articulators for rising nationalistic discourse in the 1990s. Some commentators have proposed that "positive nationalism" could be an important unifying factor for the country as it has been for other countries.

12382: 1769: 585: 2285: 1621:) Johnson observed that the primary shift of the CCP's post-1937 propaganda was its focus on the discourse of national salvation and the temporary retreat of its Communist agenda on class struggle and land redistribution. The wartime alliance of the Chinese peasantry and the CCP manifests how the nationalist ideology of the CCP, or the peasant nationalism, reinforced the desire of the Chinese to save and build a strong nation. 1694: 8483: 2517: 2146:, and a member of the Kuomintang, presented himself as the protector of Islam in China and harbored Muslim intellectuals fleeing from the Japanese invasion in Guangxi. General Bai preached Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese. Translations from Egyptian writings and the Quran were used to support propaganda in favour of a 2462: 705:, also believed that the Manchus were an inferior race. Wang contended that a state consisting of a single race would be superior to those multiracial ones. Most of the Republican revolutionaries agreed that preserving the race was vital to the survival of the nation. Since the Han had asserted its dominant role in Chinese nationalism, the Manchus had to be either absorbed or eradicated. Historian 604: 535:

within the empire were identified according to language and culture, including the Manchus who originated in a non-Han Chinese population and ruled the dynasty. Most citizens had multiple identities, of which the locality was more important than the nation as a whole. Anyone who wanted to rise in government non-military service had to be immersed in Confucian classics, and pass the

5789: 1706: 593: 5845: 5817: 2671:) is a comparatively late development in Chinese nationalism of the 1990s. It began to take recognizable shape after 1996, as a joint result of the evolving nationalist thinking of the early 1990s and the ongoing debates on modernity, postmodernism, postcolonialism, and their political implications-debates that have engaged many Chinese intellectuals since early 1995. 2154: 693:, an active Chinese revolutionary at the turn of the twentieth century, demanded an educational revolution for the Han people who were suffering under the oppressive rule of the Manchus. He argued that China should be a nation of the orthodox Han Chinese and no alien race shall rule over them. According to Zou, the Han Chinese, as the descendants of the 2167:, a Chinese Muslim general who was part of the Kuomintang, supported Chinese nationalism and tolerance between the different Chinese ethnic groups. The Japanese attempted to approach him however, their attempts at gaining his support were unsuccessful. Ma Bufang presented himself as a Chinese nationalist who fought against Western 1828:) was published by the Manchu government, which defined Chinese with the following rules: 1) born in China while his/her father is a Chinese; 2) born after his/her father's death while his/her father is a Chinese at his death; 3) his/her mother is a Chinese while his/her father's nationality is unclear or stateless. 6334: 3280:

their accomplishments through hard work, tremendous sacrifices, dogged determination, and well-crafted policies, many Chinese are fed up with US criticisms that China's rise is because it did not play by rules, violated international commitments, and tilted the playing field to advantage Chinese firms."

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points out, was based on the practical concerns of both imperial threats from the international environment and conflicts on the Chinese frontiers. While both Japan and Russia were encroaching China, the newly born republic also faced ethnic movements in Mongolia and Tibet which claimed themselves to

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Chinese nationalism was rooted in the long historic tradition of China as the center of the world, in which all other states were offshoots and owed some sort of deference. That sense of superiority underwent a series of terrible shocks in the 19th century, including large-scale internal revolts, and

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Three days later, in Tiananmen Square, before a crowd of seventy thousand, Xi delivered a blunt warning to the outside world. "The Chinese people will never allow foreign forces to bully, oppress, or enslave us," he said. "Whoever nurses delusions of doing that will crack their heads and spill blood

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After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China, the national flag of which contained five colors with each symbolizing a major racial ethnicity of China. This marked a shift from the earlier discourse of radical racism and assimilation of the non-Han groups to the political

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In some revolutionary circles in the 19th century, the significance of the development of a Chinese national identity was the result of an attempt to negatively identify the Han people by turning them against the Qing dynasty, which was non-Chinese in their view. Under this initial view of Chinese

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attitudes remain deeply entrenched, and popular views and actual power relationships create a situation in which Chinese nationalism has in practice meant Han dominance of minority areas and peoples and assimilation of those groups. Since Xi Jinping took power, assimilation of non-Han ethnic groups

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policy. The Chinese Communist Party also criticized that the Kuomintang-led Republic of China for supporting Han chauvinism. The official ideology of the People's Republic of China asserts that China is a multi-ethnic state, with the majority Han as one of many ethnic groups of China, each of whose

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in 1912, concerns of both domestic and international threat made the role of racism decline, while anti-imperialism became the new dominant ideology of Chinese nationalism over the 1910s. While intellectuals and elites advocated their distinctive thoughts on Chinese nationalism, political scientist

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also fueled nationalist sentiment among both CCP leadership and the general public. The external pressure of the trade war allowed Xi Jinping to point to the United States' actions as a reason for China's economic slowdown. The Chinese public responded. Academic Suisheng Zhao summarizes, "Proud of

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killing three Chinese citizens. The US claimed that the bombing was an accident caused by the use of outdated maps but few Chinese accepted this explanation. The incident caused widespread anger and following the attack Chinese officials described the bombing as a "barbarian act" and a "war crime"

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argues that nationalism in China is not monolithic but exists in various forms, including political, liberal, ethnical, and state nationalism. Over the first half of the twentieth century, Chinese nationalism has constituted a crucial part of many political ideologies, including the anti-Manchuism

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instead, retaining the former Chinese officials and keeping them in power. The Uyghurs had been promoting Islamism in their separatist government, but Ma Hushan eliminated religion from politics. Islam was barely mentioned or used in politics or life except as a vague spiritual focus for unified

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A feature of Chinese state nationalism is that it is CCP-centred; it regards the party as an embodiment of the nation's will and the nation as a means rather than an end in itself. Accordingly, its primary objective is 'stability' for the party-state, even though it is keen to maintain national

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Unlike many nationalist projects in other countries, the trend among Chinese intellectuals was to regard tradition as unsuitable for China's survival and instead to view tradition as a source of China's problems. For the Qing dynasty, ethnicity was a troublesome issue. Some of the ethnic groups

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Zhonghua (Chinese) or huaren (Chinese people) can be inclusive terms that refer to a common ancestry, traceable according to legend to the Yellow Emperor. Sometimes the Chinese are called the Yan-Huang zisun—descendants of the legendary Emperor Yan (a.k.a. Shen Nong, god of husbandry and first

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was a benchmark for 1990s nationalist sentiment. Nationalist online forums including Strong China Forum and Iron Blood became popular forums for expression of nationalist sentiment on the internet. The internet has since continued to increase in significance as a forum for Chinese nationalism.

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has seen the revival throughout the world of nationalist sentiments and aspirations, nationalism is seen as increasing the legitimacy of Chinese Communist Party rule. It has been pursued in a more pragmatic and flexible manner compared to policies during the Cultural Revolution. One remarkable

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was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralized ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to

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were a major source of national pride, anti-Olympics sentiments are often seen as anti-Chinese sentiments inside China. Moreover, the Sichuan earthquake in 2008 sparked a high sense of nationalism from the Chinese at home and abroad. The central government's quick response to the disaster was

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have played an important role in Chinese nationalism. Chinese Muslims, known as Hui people, are a mixture of the descendants of foreign Muslims like Arabs and Persians, mixed with Han Chinese who converted to Islam. Chinese Muslims are sinophones, speaking Chinese and practicing Confucianism.

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into territories which they controlled. The Manchus were faced with the simultaneous task of maintaining loyalty among the people who they ruled and maintaining their distinct identity. The main method by which they accomplished control of the Chinese heartland was by portraying themselves as

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has argued that the rise of power of the CCP through its alliance with the peasantry should also be understood as "a species of nationalism." Johnson observes that social mobilization, a force that unites people to form a political community together, is the "primary tool" for conceptualizing

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On 1 July 2019, a group of protesters stormed the legislative council, graffitied it with political slogans and calls for reform, and placed a British Hong Kong colonial flag on the central podium-the ultimate statement of Hong Kong nationalism, or at least opposition to Chinese state

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to the people of China in order to deflect criticism by opponents that his government was feudal and oppressed minorities like Tibetans and Buddhist Mongols. He presented himself as a Chinese nationalist to his advantage to keep himself in power as noted by the author Erden.

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of ethnic groups in the western and central provinces into the "culturally advanced" Han state, a policy which would enable them to become members of the Chinese nation in name as well as in fact. Furthermore, it was also influenced by the fate of multi-ethnic states such as

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was one of the most important events in the modern construction of Chinese nationalism. The Chinese experience in the war helped create an ideology based on the concept of “the people” as a political body in its own right, “a modern nation as opposed to a feudal empire.”

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Devout societies vs. impious states?: transmitting Islamic learning in Russia, Central Asia and China, through the twentieth century : proceedings of an international colloquium held in the Carré des Sciences, French Ministry of Research, Paris, November 12–13,

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in which the rebels fiercely fought against the Manchus on the ground that they were barbarians and foreigners while at the same time, others fought just as fiercely on behalf of the Manchus on the ground that they were the preservers of traditional Chinese values.

5760: 2399:. Despite this, the relationship between Chinese nationalism and Taiwan remains controversial, involving symbolic issues such as the use of the "Republic of China" as the official name of the government on Taiwan and the use of the word "China" in the name of 2384:

of mainland China and Taiwan. While this was the commonly stated goal of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) before 1992, both sides differed sharply in the form of unification due to differences in political ideology.

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in response to disruptions by anti-China activists in Paris and London. At least 5,000 Chinese Americans including immigrants from mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Southeast Asia also protested outside CNN's Hollywood offices after CNN commentator

5380: 484:(c. 1570 BC-c. 1045 BC). The Chinese concept of the world was largely a division between the civilized world and the barbarian world and there was little concept of the belief that Chinese interests were served by a powerful Chinese state. Commenter 3420:) exhibition. Since then, the phrase has become the signature political slogan of the Xi era. In the public media, the Chinese Dream and nationalism are interwoven. In diplomacy, the Chinese dream and nationalism have been closely linked to the 644:, reformers and intellectuals both held debates about how they should build a new Chinese national subject based on a proper racial order, particularly the Manchu-Han relations. After the collapse of the Qing regime and the founding of the 6469:... Chinese state nationalism, whether the Mainland Chinese or orthodox KMT version, is not genuine; only the sentiments of the Taiwanese people can provide the foundations of an authentic nationalism. Contemporary Taiwanese nationalism ... 5341: 6410: 1519:, and it stated that its agenda was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China, crush Communism, and eliminate feudalism. In addition to being anticommunist, some KMT members, like Chiang Kai-shek's right-hand man 539:. If accepted, they would be rotated around the country, so the bureaucrats did not identify with the locality. The depth of two-way understanding and trust developed by European political leaders and their followers did not exist. 6502: 3286:

has determined through a 2018 survey that young Chinese consumers are turning to local brands as a result of growing nationalism. Local brands like Lenovo have also received backlash from some online Chinese for being unpatriotic.

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While it was initially rejected by Mao Zedong and his Chinese Communist Party, it later became accepted, the concept of "Chinese" created in Mao's period was "huge Chinese family" or a political union including the Han Chinese and

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fascism'. In China thousands were involved in protest marches in Beijing and other provincial capitals, some protesters threw gas bombs and rocks at the diplomatic missions of the United States and other NATO countries while in

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pharmacist) and Emperor Huang (whose burial place is in Huangling). The legend of Emperors Yan-Huang can provide only an "imagined" identity for those who wish their genealogy to be traced to the royal gene of the emperors.

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in 1949. The origin of modern Chinese nationalism can be traced back to the intellectual debate about the subjects of race and nation which occurred during the late nineteenth century. Shaped by the global discourse about

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of the Olympic torch has gathered strong opposition within the Chinese community inside China and abroad. Almost every Tibetan protest on the Olympic torch route was met with a considerable pro-China protest. Because the

2112:. They asserted that there was no contradiction between Confucianism and Islam, and no contradiction between being a Chinese national and a Muslim. Chinese Muslim students returning from study abroad, from places such as 546:(1894–1895) was fundamental to the development of the first generation of Chinese nationalists. The most dramatic watershed came in 1900, in the wake of the invasion, capture, and pillaging of the national capital by the 11957: 2027:, the Chinese Muslim Brotherhood, which became a Chinese nationalist, patriotic organization, stressing education and independence of the individual. Hu Songhan also wrote a prayer in Arabic and Chinese, praying for 7577: 2202:. Uyghur street names and signs were changed to Chinese, and the Chinese Muslim troops imported Chinese cooks and baths, rather than using Uyghur ones. The Chinese Muslims even forced the Uyghur carpet industry at 5783: 2599:

The branches (枝橫), shadow (影斜), flexibility (曳疏), and cold resistance (傲霜) of the plum blossom also represent the four kinds of noble virtues, "originating and penetrating, advantageous and firm" mentioned in the

1906:, all belonged to a single Chinese identity. The government promoted Chinese nationalism for these five ethnic groups but with the Han Chinese are main ethnic group of "Zhonghua minzu" or China, this continued by 3165:

In the 21st century, notable spurs of grassroots Chinese nationalism grew from what the Chinese public saw as the marginalization of their country from Japan and the Western world. One such event occurred in the

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The plum blossom withstands the cold winter (it blossoms more in colder temperatures) – it symbolises the faithful, the resolute and the holy; it represents the national spirit of Republic of China nationals.

1458: 12199: 5839: 5811: 2886:, state-led nationalism or simply "statism" is nationalism from above, in contrast to popular nationalism. State nationalism was strongly advocated by incumbent political elites in both the regimes of the 11446: 7398: 6594: 6861: 7546: 1544:

counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon

6167: 3186:'s expression of "very sorry" as sufficient. The incident nonetheless created negative feelings towards the United States by the Chinese public and increased public feelings of Chinese nationalism. 6134: 956: 875: 7483: 3341:

such as photos of clashes between police and Tibetan independence protestors that took place in Nepal and India but captioned to seem as if the events happened in China. Student-founded website

2965:". The PRC government and Chinese Communist Party (CCP) opposes these singular ethnic nationalism and encourages multi-ethnic nationalism. However, the CCP portrays itself as the custodian of a 4952: 3250:

of funding Tibetan independence groups. Protests and calls for boycott resulted and ultimately subsided, in part because of efforts by French officials to apologize for the Paris torch attack.

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protestor attempted to snatch it from a young handicapped Chinese athlete who clung to it. The images were widely televised and led to an internet rumor that accused French supermarket company

2019:, was a Chinese nationalist and preached Chinese nationalism and unity of all Chinese people, and also against foreign imperialism and other threats to China's sovereignty. He even ordered the 7516: 2990:

American scholar Edward Friedman has argued that there is a northern governmental, political, bureaucratic Chinese nationalism that is at odds with a southern, commercial Chinese nationalism.

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In response to protests during the 2008 Olympic Torch Relay, the Chinese blogosphere became filled with nationalistic material, many of which highlighted perceived biases and inaccuracies in

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described Chinese products as "junk" and the Chinese as “goons” and “thugs” during a segment about China's relationship with America. When the Olympic torch passed through Paris, a pro-

7645: 11937: 1647:. To this day, the Republic of China maintains its territorial claims since its inception in 1912. Its territorial claims were inherited from the Great Qing government as part of the 841: 3416:

on 29 November 2012, where he and his Standing Committee colleagues were attending a "national revival" (民族复兴; more commonly translated "national rejuvenation" to differentiate from

2120:, who studied at Mecca, translated a Hadith, or saying of Muhammad, "Aiguo Aijiao"- loving the country is equivalent to loving the faith. Chinese Muslims believed that their "Watan" 6672: 18:

This article is about nationalism that asserts all Chinese, including ethnic minorities, are a nation. For Chinese nationalism applied exclusively to the Han Chinese ethnicity, see

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under Chiang Kai-shek and his Kuomintang in all China until the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in Chinese Mainland and the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan.

12204: 3261:. The researchers who conducted the survey concluded that China's state-media coverage of the dispute was "more of a dampener than a driver of nationalistic policy preference." 3214:

instrumental in galvanizing general support from the population amidst harsh criticism directed towards China's handling of the Lhasa riots only two months previously. In 2005,

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summarized this by stating that the Republican revolutionaries primarily drew on the international discourse of "racist evolutionism" to envision a "racially purified China."

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posts across the Chinese internet. Online representations of Russian women across the Chinese internet have been described as gendered nationalism or nationalistic sexism.

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were held throughout Asia as a result of events such as the Japanese history textbook controversies. In 2012, Chinese people in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan held

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Chalmers Johnson has pointed out that most of these ideas had very little to do with China's majority population—the Chinese peasantry. He thus proposes to supplement the

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that overpowered provincial warlords and sharply reduced special privileges for foreigners helped further strengthen and aggrandize a sense of Chinese national identity.

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In 2021 Hannah Bailey, a researcher of Chinese internet censorship at the University of Oxford's Internet Institute, noted a shift in China's approach toward deriving

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at the center of the universe was shattered, and last-minute efforts to modernize the old system were unsuccessful. These last-minute efforts were best exemplified by

4877: 1981:, rising economic standards and the lack of any other legitimizing ideology, has led to what most observers see as a resurgence of nationalism within mainland China. 12355: 12308: 7832: 6111:我國的國花是梅花。梅有三蕾五瓣，代表三民主義及五權憲法，且梅花凌冬耐寒，其所表現的堅貞剛潔，足為國人效法。梅開五瓣，象徵五族共和，具有敦五倫、重五常、敷五教的意義；而梅花「枝橫」、「影斜」、「曳疏」、「傲霜」同時亦代表易經中「元」、「貞」、「利」、「亨」四種高尚德行。我國在民國53年7月21日，經行政院正式核定將梅花訂為國花。 4904: 10980: 9774: 8233:

Chow, Kai-Wing. "Narrating Nation, Race and National Culture: Imagining the Hanzu Identity in Modern China," in Chow Kai-Wing, Kevin M. Doak, and Poshek Fu, eds.,

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in the Republic of China on 21 July 1964. It was also proposed to be the national flower of the People's Republic of China. The Republic of China patriotic song

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These misgivings are particularly prevalent among younger generations of Taiwanese, who generally consider themselves to have little or no connection to China.

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Under Xi Jinping, the CCP portrays itself as the custodian of a conservative, Han-centric vision of 'China's outstanding traditional culture' (Vickers 2021a).

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The Chinese believe that they all came from the common ancestors Sanhuang Wudi referring to themselves as Yanhuang zisun (descendants of Yandi and Huangdi).)

2497:, there are many symbols opted for use by Chinese nationalists. Some of these include Chinese legendary or ancient figures such as the Yellow Emperor and the 1958:, and as a result, nationalistic rhetoric was largely subsumed into internationalist rhetoric. On the other hand, the primary focus of Chinese nationalism in 1918:. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the government extended the number of ethnicities comprising the Chinese nation to these 56. 7538: 7258: 5639: 944: 7999: 7846:

Mao, Lin (2024). "From Trade War to New Cold War: Popular Nationalism and the Global Times on Weibo under Xi Jinping". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.).

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A group of Chinese "statist" legal scholars is influencing the authoritarian policies of the Chinese government, which, influenced by ultraconservative and

2057:, and he taught that Islam could only be understood by using Chinese culture such as Confucianism. He read classic Chinese texts and even took his cue from 10545: 6797: 6157: 1648: 8438:

Zhang, Huijie, Fan Hong, and Fuhua Huang. "Cultural Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Modernization of Physical Education and Sport in China, 1840–1949."

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The discussion of modern Chinese nationalism has dominated many political and intellectual debates since the late nineteenth century. Political scientist

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more grievously the systematic gaining and removal of special rights and privileges by foreign nations who proved their military superiority during the

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In 2005, twenty-two million Chinese netizens signed an internet petition in opposition to Japan's efforts to join the United Nations Security Council.

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sages part of whose goal was to preserve and advance Chinese civilization. Over the course of centuries, the Manchus were gradually assimilated into

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This abdication decree announced the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the succession of the Republic of China, marking the success of the 1911 Revolution

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During the Cold War era, American strategies to contain the spread of communism fueled nationalist sentiment in China, including as a result of the

11865: 11561: 11510: 11468: 10856: 3405: 3298:. Xi said, "The Chinese people will never allow foreign forces to bully, oppress, or enslave us," and "whoever nurses delusions of doing that will 3295: 2047:). Hu Songshan harshly criticized those who were non-patriotic and those who taught anti-nationalist thinking, saying that they were fake Muslims. 2403:. There is little support in Taiwan for immediate unification. Overt support for formal independence is also muted due to the PRC's insistence on 11775: 6206: 6078: 3092: 5937: 2894:(CCP); past KMT or present CCP-led state nationalism advocates Chinese nationalism and equates 'nation'/'state' (國家) and 'party' (黨) to build a 11947: 11917: 10820: 10611: 6059: 3677: 3616: 2094:

and inflicted many casualties, using a train to escape. Dong Fuxiang was a xenophobe and hated foreigners, wanting to drive them out of China.

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Clemens Büttner; Li Fan; Zhang Ke; Tze-Ki Hon; Sun Qing; Zhang Qing; Mirjam Tröster; Huang Xingtao; Zhiyi Yang; Zou Zhenhuan (24 June 2011).

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attacks. Similarly, the Yasukuni Shrine website was hacked by Chinese hackers during late 2004, and another time on 24 December 2008.

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of 1919, which developed into nationwide protests that saw a surge of Chinese nationalism. Large-scale military campaigns led by the

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Peter Ferdinand, "Westward ho – the China dream and ‘one belt, one road’: Chinese foreign policy under Xi Jinping."

2552: 2416: 1210: 393:, Chinese nationalism again gained traction as China recovered lost territories previously lost to Japan before the war, including 9187: 6529: 3219: 3190: 2646:. In World War II, the Empire of Japan conquered large swathes of Chinese territory, and many contemporary nationalists in Japan 2323: 1528: 1451: 1275: 727: 674:, reformers and intellectuals debated about how to strengthen the nation, the discussion of which centered on the issue of race. 650: 7202: 6482: 3371:

police officers and people unsupportive of the protests, some Chinese nationalists in Hong Kong responded by doxing protestors.

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should see themselves as Chinese or Taiwanese; and partly over mistrust of the authoritarian Chinese Communist Party (CCP), its

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Chinese notation: “中国人民从来没有欺负、压迫、奴役过其他国家人民，过去没有，现在没有，将来也不会有。同时，中国人民也绝不允许任何外来势力欺负、压迫、奴役我们，谁妄想这样干，必将在14亿多中国人民用血肉筑成的钢铁长城面前碰得头破血流！”

3257:(which are more subject to state regulation) were less supportive of the idea that China should adopt hardline policies in the 8453: 8426: 8367: 7609: 4845: 3424:. Peter Ferdinand argues that it thus becomes a dream about a future in which China "will have recovered its rightful place." 12303: 11962: 11688: 11541: 10790: 10020: 9990: 9092: 7719: 7448: 7319: 7273: 7147: 6830: 6752: 6709: 6543: 6496: 6404: 6328: 6289: 5754: 5676: 5531: 5462: 5424: 5248: 5214: 5180: 4684: 4651: 4618: 4585: 4552: 4485: 4430: 4387: 4345: 4282: 4241: 4213: 4180: 4105: 4060: 4023: 3998: 3950: 3925: 3835: 3736: 3550: 3073: 2568: 2407:

should Taiwan make such a formal declaration. The argument against unification is partly over culture and whether democratic

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Hizi, Gil (2 January 2019). "Speaking the China Dream: self-realization and nationalism in China's public-speaking shows".

5569: 2316: 2273: 2211: 1938:, in general, the ethnic policy of the People's Republic of China at the time was strongly influenced by the nature of its 1439: 856: 268: 7822: 7164: 5910: 12345: 8386:

Tan, Alexander C. and Boyu Chen."China's Competing and Co-opting Nationalisms: Implications to Sino-Japanese Relations."

8318: 5710:. Vol. 1 of A History of Modern Tibet (reprint, illustrated ed.). University of California Press. p. 450. 4892: 2564: 2434: 2373: 2195: 1255: 8303:

Judge, Joan. "Talent, Virtue and Nation: Chinese Nationalism and Female Subjectivities in the Early Twentieth Century,"

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A 2013 survey of Chinese adults found that respondents who sourced their information about the dispute from traditional

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Since Xi Jinping took power, the Chinese Communist Party has been suspected of cultivating far-right ultranationalism.

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In the late Qing Dynasty, revolutionaries incited anti-Manchuism to overthrow the Qing dynasty, especially Zou Rong.

1962:

was the preservation of the ideals and lineage of Sun Yat-sen, the party which he founded, the Kuomintang (KMT), and

1643:

have also played a role in Chinese nationalism, declaring that China should regain its "lost territories" and form a

645: 366: 35: 10533: 6766: 12335: 11536: 10503: 8508: 3655: 3594: 3542: 3364: 3122: 2913:, values 'state authority'; these statists are also related to the Chinese government's reduction of autonomy over 1260: 1240: 7622:习近平说："中国人民从来没有欺负、压迫、奴役过其他国家人民，过去没有，现在没有，将来也不会有。同时，中国人民也绝不允许任何外来势力欺负、压迫、奴役我们，谁妄想这样干，必将在14亿多中国人民用血肉筑成的钢铁长城面前碰得头破血流！" 6098: 5705: 2592:(national philosophy of imperial China for two millennia until 1912, when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown and the 12385: 11454: 10943: 10476: 10266: 10121: 9370: 9177: 8172: 8148: 7989: 5995: 5623: 5064:

Papers from the Conference on Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance, Banff, August 20–24, 1987, Volume 3

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Manchus & Han : ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861-1928

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Manchus & Han : ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early republican China, 1861-1928

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took power in 2012, Chinese nationalism of the People's Republic of China was influenced strongly by the Soviet

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Hays Gries, Peter (July 2001). "Tears of Rage: Chinese Nationalist Reactions to the Belgrade Embassy Bombing".

5882: 4052: 3012: 2946: 2794: 2705: 2664: 2560: 2509:, or more modern figures such as Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, or Mao Zedong. Another symbol often used is the 2442: 1915: 1811: 1660: 735: 245: 144: 63: 7227: 3087: 1717:

Defining the relationship between ethnicity and the Chinese identity has been a very complex issue throughout

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are listed above. This does not imply that all nationalists with a given ethnicity subscribe to that form of

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to be saluted during prayer, and that all Imams in Ningxia preach Chinese nationalism. Hu Songshan led the

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The complexity of the relationship between ethnicity and Chinese identity was best exemplified during the

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movement which followed in the steps of the New Life Movement, the movement promoted Confucian values.

1205: 1078: 794: 421:, the CCP began to employ Chinese nationalism as a political tool. Chinese nationalism has become more 398: 7875: 6198: 6075: 1628:

A map of the 1945 de jure borders of the Republic of China, used by Chinese nationalists as a map of "

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Chinese anti-Japan protest in Hong Kong in 2012, with protesters waving the flags of the PRC and ROC

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continually shaped Chinese nationalism. Despite joining the Allied Powers, China was again severely

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In the 1990s, nationalists among the Chinese public were primarily connected through the internet.

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Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949

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Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

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Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

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Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

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in 1896 and was later expelled to Japan, where he began work on his ideas of Chinese nationalism.

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Chinese hackers have claimed to have attacked the CNN website numerous times, through the use of

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to change its design to Chinese versions. Ma Hushan proclaimed his loyalty to Nanjing, denounced

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have always been regarded as the foundations of the nation they may be interpreted as follows:

1725:

and set up the Qing dynasty. Over the next centuries, they would incorporate groups such as the

712: 656: 492:" is fundamentally different from a traditional empire, and argues that dynamics of the current 12158: 11725: 11710: 11484: 11235: 11012: 10550: 9707: 9597: 9375: 9339: 9221: 9066: 8915: 7263: 4748: 4738: 3985:Šebok, Filip (2023). "Historical Legacy". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). 3306: 3204:

was the source of considerable anger on Chinese blogs. In addition, the protests following the

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nationalism, the Chinese identity was primarily associated with the majority Han ethnic group.

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Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism."

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who are critical of Chinese nationalism are especially critical of Chinese state nationalism.

1947:

has been overt and intensified while preferential policies for ethnic minorities have shrunk.

22:. For the diplomatic system and ideology that emphasized China's centrality in the world, see 12313: 11982: 11896: 11815: 11765: 11230: 11093: 11076: 11056: 11041: 11002: 10728: 10676: 10486: 10030: 9995: 9980: 9859: 9687: 9677: 9642: 9637: 9622: 9602: 9566: 9349: 9319: 9309: 9299: 9194: 8973: 8930: 8900: 8878: 8825: 8748: 8659: 7359: 7252: 6893:(46). Canberra, Australia: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University: 25–43. 6744: 6125:"'In Milk Tea We Trust': How a Thai-Chinese Meme War Led to a New (Online) Pan-Asia Alliance" 5975: 5494: 4422: 4335: 4274: 4205: 4172: 3917: 2924: 2920: 2494: 2412: 1863: 1314: 892: 547: 276: 10985: 7707:

The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy

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The Hanfu Movement and Intangible Cultural Heritage: considering The Past to Know the Future

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The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy

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Ben Xu (2001). "Chinese Populist Nationalism: Its Intellectual Politics and Moral Dilemma".

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The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy

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Discourses of Weakness in Modern China: Historical Diagnoses of the »Sick Man of East Asia«

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on the Great Wall of steel built from the flesh and blood of 1.4 billion Chinese people.".

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and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives.

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Chinese nationalism as it emerged in the early 20th century was based on the experience of

325: 8213: 8186: 7925: 6025: 5970: 2135:'country; homeland' was the whole of the Republic of China, non-Muslims included. 1854:

In the 1920s and 1930s, the official Chinese nationalistic view was heavily influenced by

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Reconfiguring Chinese nationalism: How the Qing frontier and its indigenes became Chinese

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on the Great Wall of steel built from the flesh and blood of 1.4 billion Chinese people."

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How China Sees the World: Han-Centrism and the Balance of Power in International Politics

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The Chinese government has also pursued ethno-nationalist policies aimed at appealing to

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in Egypt, learned about nationalism and advocated Chinese nationalism at home. One Imam,

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Chiang Kai-shek's Politics of Shame: Leadership, Legacy, and National Identity in China.

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Media, Sport, Nationalism: East Asia: Soft Power Projection via the Modern Olympic Games

5971:"They Used To Be Anti-Communist, But Now They Play To Beijing's Tune - 報導者 The Reporter" 2031:

to support the Chinese Kuomintang government and defeat Japan. Hu Songshan also cited a

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concept. This principle held that the five major ethnicities in China, the Han Chinese,

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Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c. 1900–1949

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