640:(FVRDE), therefore was strongly oriented at optimising the ceramic composite system for defeating shaped charge attack. The British system consisted of a honeycomb matrix with ceramic tiles backed by ballistic nylon, placed on top of the cast main armour. In July 1973 an American delegation, in search of a new armour type for the XM815 tank prototype, now that the MBT-70 project had failed, visited Chobham Common to be informed about the British system, the development of which had then cost about £6,000,000; earlier information had already been divulged to the US in 1965 and 1968. It was very impressed by the excellent shaped-charge protection combined with the penetrator impact damage limitation, inherent to the principle of using tiles. The Ballistic Research Laboratory at the
22:
518:
increasing their thickness requires reducing the armour thickness in non-critical areas of the vehicle. They typically form an inner layer placed below the much more costly matrix, to prevent extensive damage to it should the metal layer strongly deform but not defeat a penetrator. They can also be used as the backing plate for the matrix itself, but this compromises the modularity and thus tactical adaptability of the armour system: ceramic and metal modules can then no longer be replaced independently. Furthermore, due to their extreme hardness, they deform insufficiently and would reflect too much of the impact energy, and in a too wide cone, to the ceramic tile, damaging it even further. Metals used include a
614:
speculation in the West as to its true nature, the characteristics of this type were disclosed when the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the introduction of a market system forced the
Russian industries to find new customers by highlighting its good qualities; it is today rarely referred to as Chobham armour. Special armour much more similar to Chobham appeared in 1983 under the name of BDD on the T-62M upgrade to the T-62, was first integrated to an armour array in 1986 on the T-72B, and has been a feature of every Soviet/Russian MBT since. In its original iteration, it is built directly into the cast steel turret of the T-72 and required lifting it to perform repairs.
711:
conventional
Chieftain. The prototype, FV 4211 or the "Aluminium Chieftain", was fitted with a welded aluminium add-on armour, in essence a box on the front hull and front and side turret to contain the ceramic modules, of which box the fifty millimetre thick inner wall due to its relative softness could serve as their backing plate. The extra weight of the aluminium was limited to less than two tonnes and it was shown that it was not overly susceptible to cracking, as first feared. Ten test vehicles were ordered but only the original one had been built when the project was cancelled in favour of the more advanced programmes. However, the
593:
be produced in the form of large sheets. The reinforced light metal sheets were to be sandwiched between steel layers. This arrangement had the advantage of having a good multiple-hit capability and of being able to be curved, allowing the main armour to benefit from a sloped armour effect. However, this composite with a high metal content was primarily intended to increase the protection against KE-penetrators for a given armour weight; its performance against shaped charge attack was mediocre and would have to be improved by means of a laminate spaced armour effect, as researched by the
Germans within the joint MBT-70 project.
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fragments of long rods or HEAT jets after they have been fractured or disrupted by the front plate and NERA. This is another factor favouring a slab-sided or wedge-like turret: the amount of material the expanding plates push into the path of an attack increases as they are placed closer to parallel to the direction of that attack.
455:; this was, in the early sixties, the first general application of ceramic armour. Silicon carbide is better suited to protect against larger projectiles than boron carbide as the latter material suffers a phase collapse when impacted by a projectile travelling at a speed over 850 m/s. The ceramics can be created by
675:
a weight then seen as prohibitive by both armies. The US Army in the summer of 1974 faced the choice between the German system and their own
Burlington, a decision made more difficult because Burlington offered, relative to steel armour, no weight advantage against KE-penetrators: the total armour system would have a
317:
coverage provided by tiles would become unfavourable, placing a practical limit at a diameter of about ten centimetres (approximately four inches). The small hexagonal or square ceramic tiles are encased within the matrix either by isostatically pressing them into the heated matrix, or by gluing them with an
674:
A3, they put a clear emphasis on improving KE-penetrator protection, reworking the system into a perforated metal module armour. A version with added
Burlington was considered, including ceramic inserts in the various spaces, but rejected as it would push vehicle weight well over sixty metric tonnes,
592:
Since the early 1960s there were, in the US, extensive research programmes ongoing aimed at investigating the prospects of employing composite ceramic materials as vehicle armour. This research mainly focused on the use of an aluminium metal matrix composite reinforced by silicon carbide whiskers, to
211:
as the disturbed jet causes still greater irregularities in the ceramic, until in the end it is defeated. The newer composites, though tougher, optimise this effect as tiles made with them have a layered internal structure conducive to it, causing "crack deflection". This mechanism, using a jet's own
385:
A gradual technological development has taken place in ceramic armour: ceramic tiles, in themselves vulnerable to low energy impacts, were first reinforced by gluing them to a backplate; in the nineties their resistance was increased by bringing them under compression on two axes; in the final phase
541:
These metal modules function on the principle of perforated armour (typically employing perpendicular rods), with many expansion spaces reducing the weight by up to one third while keeping the protective qualities fairly constant. The depleted uranium alloy of the M1 has been described as "arranged
316:
problem in that they cannot sustain successive impacts without quickly losing much of their protective value. To minimise the effects of this the tiles are made as small as possible, but the matrix elements have a minimal practical thickness of about 25 mm (approximately one inch), and the ratio of
207:, the entrance channel of a shaped charge jet is not smooth—as it would be when penetrating a metal—but ragged, causing extreme asymmetric pressures which disturb the geometry of the jet (on which its penetrative capabilities are critically dependent) as its mass is relatively low. This initiates a
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inserts, which offered about 50% better protection against both shaped charge and KE-penetrator threats, relative to steel armour of the same weight. It was, later in several improved forms, incorporated into the glacis of many subsequent Soviet main battle tank designs. After an initial period of
596:
An alternative technology developed in the US was based on the use of glass modules to be inserted into the main armour; although this arrangement offered a better shaped charge protection, its multiple hit capability was poor. A similar system using glass inserts in the main steel armour was from
350:
as they lack sufficient toughness to significantly deflect heavy penetrators. Indeed, because a single glancing shot could crack many tiles, the placement of the matrix is chosen so as to optimise the chance of a perpendicular hit, a reversal of the previous desired design feature for conventional
683:
himself decided the issue in favour of
Burlington. Eventually each army procured its own national tank design, the project of a common tank failing in 1976. In February 1978 the first tanks protected by Burlington left the factory when the first of eleven pilot M1 tanks were delivered by Chrysler
517:
The introduction of more effective ceramic composite materials allows for a larger width of these metal layers within the armour shell: given a certain protection level provided by the composite matrix, it can be thinner. Because these metal layers are denser than the rest of the composite array,
509:
rounds; for the newest composites it is about one-tenth. A typical example, the 3BM-42 is a segmented projectile which frontal segments are sacrificed in expanding the NERA plates in the front of the armour array, leaving a hole for the rear segment to strike the ceramic with full efficiency. For
231:
layer is being penetrated will cause the rubber to deform and expand, so deforming both the back and front plates. Both attack methods will suffer from obstruction to their expected paths, so experience a greater thickness of armour than there is nominally, thus lowering penetration. Also for rod
738:
Industries performed experiments aimed at developing a light vehicle ceramic armour, in 1970 resulting in the CERALU-system consisting of aluminium-backed alumina weldable to the vehicle, offering a 50% increase in weight-efficiency against ballistic threats compared to steel plate. An improved
235:
All versions of
Chobham armour have incorporated a large volume of non-energetic reactive armour (NERA) plates, with added hard armour ahead of the NERA (intended to protect the NERA elements and disrupt the penetrator before it encounters the NERA) and/or behind the NERA (intended to catch the
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for this purpose, of which type the
Germans had already been informed in March 1970; the Germans however in response in 1974 initiated a new armour development programme of their own. Having already designed a system that in their opinion offered satisfactory protection against shaped charges,
325:
The matrix has to be backed by a plate, both to reinforce the ceramic tiles from behind and to prevent deformation of the metal matrix by a kinetic impact. Typically the backing plate has half of the mass of the composite matrix. The assemblage is again attached to elastic layers. These absorb
660:
However, on 11 December 1974 a
Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and the US about the common future production of a main battle tank; this made any application of Chobham armour dependent on the eventual choice for a tank type. Earlier in 1974 the
402:
Over the years newer and tougher composites have been developed, giving about five times the protection value of the original pure ceramics, the best of which were again about five times as effective as a steel plate of equal weight. These are often a mixture of several ceramic materials, or
710:
that a completely new design using only
Chobham armour for the most vulnerable front and side sectors (thus without an underlying steel main armour) could be 10% lighter for the same level of protection against KE-ammunition, but to limit costs it was decided to base the first design on the
338:
component of the protective value of a ceramic is much larger than for steel armour. Using a number of thinner matrices again enlarges that component for the entire armour package, an effect analogous to the use of alternate layers of high hardness and softer steel, which is typical for the
330:. Several assemblages can be stacked, depending on the available space; this way the armour can be made modular, to be replaceable, and more adaptable to varied tactical situations. The thickness of a typical assemblage is today about five to six centimetres. Earlier assemblages, so-called
239:
To date, few Chobham armour-protected tanks have been defeated by enemy fire in combat; the relevance of individual cases of lost tanks for determining the protective qualities of Chobham armour is difficult to ascertain as the extent to which such tanks are protected by ceramic modules is
652:, adapted to the specific American situation, characterised by a much higher projected tank production run and the use of a thinner rolled steel main armour. The increased threat posed by a new generation of Soviet guided missiles armed with a shaped charge warhead, as demonstrated in the
723:, the British government, under pressure to modernise its tank fleet to maintain a qualitative superiority relative to the Soviet tank forces, decided to use the sudden surplus production capacity to procure a number of vehicles very close in design to the Shir-2, called the
381:
Tiles under compression suffer far less from impacts; in their case it can be advantageous to have a metal face plate bringing the tile also under perpendicular compression. The confined ceramic tile then reinforces the metal face plate, a reversal of the normal situation.
1759:
Advances in Ceramic Armor: A Collection of Papers Presented at the 29th International Conference on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, January 23–28, 2005, Cocoa Beach, Florida, Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Volume 26, Number
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resin. Since the early 1990s it has been known that holding the tiles under constant compression by their matrix greatly improves their resistance to kinetic penetrators, which is difficult to achieve when using glues.
580:
The concept of ceramic armour goes back to 1918, when Major Neville Monroe Hopkins discovered that a plate of ballistic steel was much more resistant to penetration if covered with a thin (1–2 millimetres) layer of
656:
of October 1973, when even older-generation missiles caused considerable tank losses on the Israeli side, made Burlington the preferred choice for the armour configuration of the XM1 (the renamed XM815) prototype.
773:, it is yet unknown which type is used. There was a general trend in the 1980s away from ceramic armour towards perforated armour, but even many tanks from the 1970s like the Leopard 1A3 and A4, the French
545:
Such modules are also used by tanks not equipped with Chobham armour. The combination of a composite matrix and heavy metal modules is sometimes informally referred to as "second generation Chobham".
168:
have been disclosed as being thus armoured. The framework holding the ceramics is usually produced in large blocks, giving these tanks, and especially their turrets, a distinctive angled appearance.
386:
a third compression axis was added to optimise impact resistance. To confine the ceramic core several advanced techniques are used, supplementing the traditional machining and welding, including
719:(FV 4030/3), using the same technology of adding Chobham armour to the main cast armour, bringing total weight to 62 metric tonnes. When this order was cancelled in February 1979 because of the
702:
In the United Kingdom application of Chobham armour was delayed by the failure of several advanced tank projects: first that of a joint German-British main battle tank; then the purely British
706:
programme. A first directive to prepare Chobham armour technology for application in 1975 was already given in 1969. It was determined by a study of a possible Chobham-armour protected
1287:
Proceedings of the 14th National Symposium and Exhibit, Vol. 14 – 'Advanced Techniques for Material Investigation and Fabrication', 5-7 Nov 68, Cocoa Beach, Florida, Paper No. 11-4A-3
687:
Beside these state projects, private enterprise in the US during the 1970s also developed ceramic armour types, like the Noroc armour made by the Protective Products Division of the
542:
in a type of armour matrix" and a single module as a "stainless-steel shell surrounding a layer (probably an inch or two thick) of depleted uranium, woven into a wire-mesh blanket".
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1259:
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In the United Kingdom another line of ceramic armour development had been started in the early 1960s, meant to improve the existing cast turret configuration of the
505:
which the ceramic layer was not particularly effective against: the original ceramics had a resistance against penetrators of about a third compared to that against
637:
306:
Configuration of early M1 Abrams Special Armor. Clockwise from upper left: Hull front, turret bustle with Chobham triplate, hull side with triplate, gun shield.
232:
penetrations, the transverse force experienced due to the deformation may cause the rod to shatter, bend, or only change its path, again lowering penetration.
1812:
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against Iraqi forces. The crew remained safe inside for many hours, the Burlington LV2 composite armour protecting them from enemy fire, including multiple
1822:
1285:
Kolkowitz, W. and Stanislaw, T.S., "Extrusion and Hot Rolling – Two Advanced Fabrication Techniques for the Preparation of Whisker-Metal Composites",
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composite. Of these boron carbide is the hardest and lightest, but also the most costly and brittle. Boron carbide composites are today favoured for
746:), and (though the composition most probably differs) the M1 Abrams series of tanks, which according to official sources is currently protected by
769:
configuration, cheaper in terms of procurement, maintenance and replacement than a ceramic armour system. For many modern tanks, such the Italian
1030:
S.G. Savio, K. Ramanjaneyulu, V. Madhu & T. Balakrishna Bhat, 2011, "An experimental study on ballistic performance of boron carbide tiles",
751:
224:
57:
223:: that of sandwiching an inert but soft elastic material such as rubber, between two armour plates. The impact of either a shaped charge jet or
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1170:
938:
Bruchey, W., Horwath, E., Templeton, D. and Bishnoi, K.,"System Design Methodology for the Development of High Efficiency Ceramic Armors",
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is very costly to produce but the metal is favoured for its lightness, strength, and resistance to corrosion, which is a constant problem.
1213:
964:
V. Hohler, K. Weber, R. Tham, B. James, A. Barker and I. Pickup, "Comparative Analysis of Oblique Impact on Ceramic Composite Systems",
1245:
1012:
Chu, Henry S.; McHugh, Kevin M. and Lillo, Thomas M., "Manufacturing Encapsulated Ceramic Armor System Using Spray Forming Technology"
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equivalence against them of about 350 mm (compared to about 700 mm against shaped charges). No consensus developing, General
1778:
761:
Though it is often claimed to be otherwise, the original production model of the Leopard 2 did not use Chobham armour, but a combined
477:, but, as its main function is to improve the stability and stiffness of the assemblage, aluminium is more weight-efficient in light
698:
US Marine Corps M1A1 on a live fire exercise in Iraq, 2003. It is a modern Main Battle Tank that extensively uses Chobham armour
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The backing plate reflects the impact energy back to the ceramic tile in a wider cone. This dissipates the energy, limiting the
1618:
905:
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layer on the face of the ceramic absorbing the energy without making it strongly rebound again as a metal face plate would.
95:
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of the plate. Instead of rounded forms, the turrets of tanks using Chobham armour typically have a slab-sided appearance.
326:
impacts somewhat, but their main function is to prolong the service life of the composite matrix by protecting it against
21:
951:
Hauver, G. E., Netherwood, P. H., Benck, R. F. and Kecskes, L. J., 1994, "Enhanced Ballistic Performance of Ceramics",
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tiles encased within a metal framework and bonded to a backing plate and several elastic layers. Owing to the extreme
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1741:
1713:
1692:
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Chen Mingwei, McCauley James W & Hemker Kevin J. 2003. "Shock induced localized amorphization in boron carbide".
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were seen as the greatest threat. In the eighties however they began to face the improved Soviet 3BM-32, then 3BM-42
670:
consisting of multiple-laminate spaced armour with the spaces filled with ceramic polystyrene foam as fitted to the
125:
Although the construction details of the Chobham armour remain a secret, it has been described as being composed of
636:
that already offered excellent heavy penetrator protection; the research by a team headed by Gilbert Harvey of the
996:
Yiwang Bao, Shengbiao Su, Jianjun Yang, Qisheng Fan, "Prestressed ceramics and improvement of impact resistance",
940:
Proceedings of the 17th International Symposium on Ballistics, Volume 3, Midrand, South Africa, March 23–27, 1998
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to improve toughness even further. Commercially produced or researched ceramics for such type of armour include
485:. A deformable composite backing plate can combine the function of a metal backing plate and an elastic layer.
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tiles. Given the publicly stated protection level for the earliest M1: 350 mm steel equivalence against
220:
1817:
1802:
227:(APFSDS) kinetic energy (KE) long rod penetrators, after the first layer has been perforated and while the
103:
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D. Yaziv1, S. Chocron, C. E. Anderson, Jr. and D. J. Grosch, "Oblique Penetration in Ceramic Targets",
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Journal of Military Ordnance – "T-72B MBT – The First Look at Soviet Special Armor", 2002, pp. 4-8
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which combine ceramic compounds within a metal matrix. The latest developments involve the use of
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when placed perpendicularly than when placed obliquely, because the cracking propagates along the
148:
The armour was first tested in the context of the development of a British prototype vehicle, the
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641:
493:
The armour configuration of the first western tanks using Chobham armour was optimised to defeat
843:
JTCG/AS Interlaboratory Ballistic Test Program – Final Report Army Research Laboratory – TR-1577
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404:
1757:
Jeffrey J. Swab (Editor), Dongming Zhu (General Editor), Waltraud M. Kriven (General Editor);
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main battle tank was planned to field Chobham armour, before being cancelled in favour of the
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189:
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Feasibility study of Burlington (Chobham armour) fitted to Chieftain tank – WO 194/1323 –.
727:. On 12 April 1983 the first British tank protected by Chobham armour was delivered to the
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8:
1782:
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Article on DSTL/QinetiQ Chertsey and Longcross Test Track (Chobham Tank Research Centre)
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W. S. de Rosset and J. K. Wald, "Analysis of Multiple-Hit Criterion for Ceramic Armor",
859:
Chan, Helen (28 November 2003). "Layered ceramics: processing and mechanical behavior".
463:. A high density is required, so residual porosity must be minimised in the final part.
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1682:
1568:
1314:
Trinks, Walter, "Hohlladungen und Panzerschutz – Ihre wechselweise weiterentwicklung",
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of molten metal around the core and spraying the molten metal onto the ceramic tile.
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797:, the successor to the Challenger 2 in the British Army, will feature Epsom armour.
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prototypes, considered by them too lightly armoured, and had suggested adoption of
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19th International Symposium of Ballistics, 7–11 May 2001, Interlaken, Switzerland
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energy against it, has caused the effects of Chobham to be compared to those of
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any penetrator. Against lighter projectiles, the hardness of the tiles causes a
1276:, Defense Metals Information Center DMIC-S-21, MCIC-005839 PL-011311 MMC-700204
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467:
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754:(APFSDS) kinetic energy (KE) penetrators, it seems to have been equipped with
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Modern Ballistic Armor – Clothing, Bomb Blankets, Shields, Vehicle Protection
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is usually in reference to additional armour packages, primarily composed of
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armour. Ceramic armour normally even offers better protection for a given
87:
is a broader informal term referring to any armour arrangement comprising
1195:
Hazell, P.J. (2010), "Sviluppi nel settore delle corazzature ceramiche",
742:
The latest version of Chobham armour is used on the Challenger 2 (called
691:, consisting of boron carbide sheets backed by resin-bonded glass cloth.
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448:
200:), not lead to a deeper penetration but destroy the projectile instead.
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165:
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government ordered 1,225 vehicles of an upgraded Chieftain type, the
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527:
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effect: a higher velocity will, within a certain velocity range (the
153:
1684:
Soviet/Russian Armor and Artillery Design Practices: 1945 to Present
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Publications Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory
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of the ceramics used, the tiles offer superior resistance against a
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424:
375:
367:
363:
177:
130:
65:
152:, and first applied on the preseries of the American M1. Only the
68:. The name has since become the common generic term for composite
33:
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436:
204:
126:
1413:
House of Commons, Debates of 11 November 1976, vol. 919 cc272-3W
1049:"Penetration resistance of laminated ceramic/polymer structures"
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19th Army Science Conference, Orlando, Florida, June 20–24, 1994
366:
of the ceramic, but also means a more extended area is damaged.
778:
774:
770:
735:
703:
622:
228:
122:, although these are often conflated when in colloquial usage.
826:
Lett, Philip (January 1988). "Korea's Type 88 comes of age".
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248:
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of the ceramics used, they offer superior resistance against
1681:
Hull, Andrew W; Markov, David R.; Zaloga, Steven J. (2000).
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585:. Further, the Germans experimented with ceramic armour in
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Armored Cav – a guided Tour of an Armored Cavalry Regiment
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Americans had asked the Germans to redesign the existing
648:, initiated the development of a version that year named
188:(KE-penetrators). The (pulverised) ceramic also strongly
75:. Other names informally given to Chobham armour include
1605:
Char Leclerc: De la guerre froide aux conflits de demain
638:
Fighting Vehicles Research and Development Establishment
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this reason many modern designs include added layers of
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protecting against smaller projectiles, such as used in
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Van Zelm, G. and Fonck B.A., "Leopard-1 Gevechtstank",
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Tanks & Pantserwagens – De Technische Ontwikkeling
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Tanks & Pantserwagens – De Technische Ontwikkeling
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was the second main battle tank to use Chobham armour
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This should not be confused with the effect used in
25:
An American XM1 Abrams of the pre-series, the first
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US Army Research Laboratory TR-2861, September 2002
514:to add more density to the overall armour package.
370:caused by the reflected energy can be reduced by a
1708:. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
1650:
841:Chang, Albert L.; Bodt, Barry E. (December 1977).
530:(Heavy Armor) and later American tank variants, a
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609:" type, having a ceramic compound mixed with the
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1561:Jane's Armour & Artillery Upgrade, 2004-2005
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1328:
752:armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot
739:version was later applied in helicopter seats.
346:Ceramic tiles draw little or no advantage from
247:tank became stuck in a ditch while fighting in
225:armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot
58:Military Vehicles and Engineering Establishment
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1274:Fiber-Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites-1967
1813:Science and technology in the United Kingdom
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1024:
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1053:International Journal of Impact Engineering
1032:International Journal of Impact Engineering
966:International Journal of Impact Engineering
597:the late fifties researched for the Soviet
334:(DOP) matrices, were thicker. The relative
91:reactive plates, including Chobham armour.
1823:Military equipment introduced in the 1960s
1602:
1573:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1513:, p. 75, Barrie & Jenkins, London 1975
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481:(AFVs) only to be protected against light
1157:Tanks – Main Battle Tanks and Light Tanks
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390:the suspension material around the core;
1619:"IAV 2024: Challenger 3 trials to start"
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781:prototypes used the latter system; the
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1687:. Darlington Productions, Darlington.
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1244:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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243:During the second Iraq war in 2003, a
29:type to be protected by Chobham armour
16:British-designed composite tank armour
1732:. New Vanguard (Book 2). Oxford, UK:
1701:
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605:; this was later developed into the "
1729:M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank 1982–1992
1460:Claessen, Luitenant-kolonel A.H.J.,
1126:Claessen, Luitenant-kolonel A.H.J.,
1047:Yadav, S.; Ravichandran, G. (2003).
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1226:from the original on 16 August 2016
644:, which later became a part of the
473:The backing plate can be made from
102:usually refers specifically to the
64:research centre on Chobham Lane in
13:
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1377:The Armored Fist – New Face of War
888:United Kingdom Ministry of Defence
861:Annual Review of Materials Science
14:
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908:from the original on 24 July 2017
1509:Duncan Crow and Robert J. Icks,
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902:"Dragoon guards survive ambush"
873:10.1146/annurev.matsci.27.1.249
141:(HEAT) rounds and they shatter
1676:. The Crowood Press, Ramsbury.
1355:Hull, Markov & Zaloga 2000
1342:Hull, Markov & Zaloga 2000
1329:Hull, Markov & Zaloga 2000
958:
945:
932:
920:
894:
879:
852:
834:
819:
56:developed in the 1960s at the
1:
1641:
1073:10.1016/S0734-743X(02)00122-7
221:non-explosive reactive armour
1559:Strickland, Richard (2005).
1379:, Time Life Education, p. 82
828:International Defense Review
684:Corporation to the US Army.
534:alloy. Some companies offer
258:
104:non-explosive reactive armor
7:
1657:. Berkley Books, New York.
1375:Thomas H. Flaherty (1991),
830:. Jane's Information Group.
800:
549:Development and application
397:
10:
1839:
1316:Jahrbuch der Wehrtechnik 8
1260:"DSpace Angular Universal"
503:kinetic energy penetrators
479:armoured fighting vehicles
203:Because the ceramic is so
186:kinetic energy penetrators
143:kinetic energy penetrators
52:is the informal name of a
1603:Chassillan, Marc (2005).
1404:, Boulder 1986, pp. 82-84
788:
785:has an improved version.
253:rocket-propelled grenades
116:explosive reactive armour
96:Ministry of Defence (MoD)
1726:; Sarson, Peter (1993).
1705:King of the Killing Zone
1486:Zaloga & Sarson 1993
1423:Zaloga & Sarson 1993
1303:Zaloga & Sarson 1993
1140:Zaloga & Sarson 1993
812:
646:Army Research Laboratory
343:of modern Soviet tanks.
139:high-explosive anti-tank
1464:, Blaricum, 2003, p. 95
1434:Spielberger Walter J.,
1197:Rivista Italiana Difesa
1155:Gelbart, Marsh (1996).
1130:, Blaricum, 2003, p. 96
642:Aberdeen Proving Ground
526:or, in the case of the
405:metal matrix composites
314:multiple hit capability
1563:. London. p. 143.
1159:. London. p. 114.
699:
629:
577:
563:
457:pressureless sintering
46:
30:
1672:Griffin, Rob (2001).
1511:Encyclopedia of Tanks
1438:, München 1980, p.230
848:(Report). p. 12.
697:
620:
569:
556:
312:Ceramic tiles have a
184:jet and they shatter
36:
24:
1649:Clancy, Tom (1994).
734:In France from 1966
332:depth of penetration
172:Protective qualities
1818:History of the tank
1803:Composite materials
1702:Kelly, Orr (1989).
1065:2003IJIE...28..557Y
1016:, Idaho Falls, 2001
489:Heavy metal modules
176:Due to the extreme
1808:British inventions
1607:(in French). ETAI.
1449:De Tank, Juni 1991
1357:, p. 164-169)
721:Iranian Revolution
700:
630:
578:
564:
108:ceramic composites
47:
31:
1734:Osprey Publishing
1625:. 24 January 2024
998:Materials Letters
767:perforated armour
744:Dorchester armour
601:prototype of the
483:anti-tank weapons
466:A matrix using a
441:synthetic diamond
429:aluminium nitride
1830:
1747:
1719:
1698:
1677:
1668:
1656:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1507:
1501:
1500:, p. 13–43.
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1458:
1452:
1445:
1439:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1345:
1338:
1332:
1325:
1319:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1225:
1218:
1210:
1204:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1160:
1152:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1101:Lakowski, Paul,
1099:
1093:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1044:
1038:
1028:
1017:
1010:
1004:
994:
988:
978:
972:
962:
956:
949:
943:
936:
930:
924:
918:
917:
915:
913:
904:. 2 April 2003.
898:
892:
891:
883:
877:
876:
856:
850:
849:
847:
838:
832:
831:
823:
681:Creighton Abrams
570:The most recent
536:titanium carbide
532:depleted uranium
409:carbon nanotubes
336:interface defeat
300:
291:
280:
271:
54:composite armour
27:main battle tank
1838:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1788:
1787:
1775:
1755:
1753:Further reading
1750:
1744:
1716:
1695:
1665:
1644:
1639:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1601:
1594:
1586:
1582:
1566:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1488:, p. 9–10.
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1352:
1348:
1339:
1335:
1326:
1322:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1214:"Archived copy"
1212:
1211:
1207:
1194:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1162:
1161:
1153:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1084:
1080:
1045:
1041:
1029:
1020:
1011:
1007:
995:
991:
979:
975:
963:
959:
950:
946:
937:
933:
925:
921:
911:
909:
900:
899:
895:
890:(Report). 1969.
885:
884:
880:
857:
853:
845:
839:
835:
824:
820:
815:
803:
791:
748:silicon carbide
551:
499:guided missiles
491:
433:titanium boride
427:or "alumina"),
421:aluminium oxide
417:silicon carbide
400:
392:squeeze casting
310:
309:
308:
307:
303:
302:
301:
293:
292:
283:
282:
281:
273:
272:
261:
214:reactive armour
174:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1836:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1798:Vehicle armour
1786:
1785:
1780:
1774:
1773:External links
1771:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1742:
1724:Zaloga, Steven
1720:
1714:
1699:
1693:
1678:
1669:
1663:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1610:
1592:
1590:, p. 298.
1580:
1551:
1549:, p. 157.
1539:
1537:, p. 156.
1527:
1525:, p. 155.
1515:
1502:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1453:
1440:
1427:
1415:
1406:
1393:
1391:, p. 111.
1381:
1368:
1359:
1346:
1333:
1320:
1318:, 1974, p. 156
1307:
1290:
1278:
1265:
1251:
1205:
1188:
1176:
1144:
1132:
1119:
1107:
1094:
1078:
1039:
1018:
1005:
989:
973:
957:
955:, p. 1633-1640
944:
931:
919:
893:
878:
851:
833:
817:
816:
814:
811:
810:
809:
807:Case-hardening
802:
799:
790:
787:
689:Norton Company
654:Yom Kippur War
550:
547:
522:alloy for the
495:shaped charges
490:
487:
468:titanium alloy
445:ceramic plates
399:
396:
357:surface normal
305:
304:
295:
294:
286:
285:
284:
275:
274:
266:
265:
264:
263:
262:
260:
257:
209:vicious circle
173:
170:
135:shaped charges
85:Special armour
73:vehicle armour
50:Chobham armour
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1835:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1768:1-57498-237-0
1765:
1761:
1745:
1743:1-85532-283-8
1739:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1715:0-425-12304-9
1711:
1707:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1694:9781855322837
1690:
1686:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1664:9780425158364
1660:
1655:
1654:
1647:
1646:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1606:
1599:
1597:
1589:
1584:
1576:
1570:
1562:
1555:
1548:
1543:
1536:
1531:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1444:
1437:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1403:
1397:
1390:
1385:
1378:
1372:
1363:
1356:
1350:
1344:, p. 92)
1343:
1337:
1331:, p. 88)
1330:
1324:
1317:
1311:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1272:Hanby, K.R.,
1269:
1261:
1255:
1247:
1241:
1222:
1215:
1209:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1186:, p. 61.
1185:
1180:
1172:
1166:
1158:
1151:
1149:
1142:, p. 13.
1141:
1136:
1129:
1123:
1117:, p. 65.
1116:
1111:
1104:
1098:
1091:
1088:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1015:
1009:
1003:(2002) p. 523
1002:
999:
993:
986:
983:
977:
971:(2001) p. 342
970:
967:
961:
954:
948:
941:
935:
929:
923:
907:
903:
897:
889:
882:
874:
870:
866:
862:
855:
844:
837:
829:
822:
818:
808:
805:
804:
798:
796:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
763:spaced armour
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
740:
737:
732:
730:
729:Royal Hussars
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
705:
696:
692:
690:
685:
682:
678:
673:
668:
664:
658:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
628:
624:
619:
615:
612:
611:silicon oxide
608:
607:Combination K
604:
600:
594:
590:
588:
584:
576:
573:
568:
562:
559:
555:
546:
543:
539:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
515:
513:
508:
504:
500:
496:
486:
484:
480:
476:
471:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
451:and armoured
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
413:boron carbide
410:
406:
395:
393:
389:
383:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
354:
353:areal density
349:
348:sloped armour
344:
342:
337:
333:
329:
323:
320:
315:
299:
290:
279:
270:
256:
254:
250:
246:
241:
240:undisclosed.
237:
233:
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
210:
206:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
182:shaped charge
179:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
120:spaced armour
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
44:
40:
35:
28:
23:
19:
1758:
1756:
1728:
1704:
1683:
1673:
1652:
1627:. Retrieved
1622:
1613:
1604:
1583:
1560:
1554:
1547:Griffin 2001
1542:
1535:Griffin 2001
1530:
1523:Griffin 2001
1518:
1510:
1505:
1493:
1481:
1476:, p. 5.
1469:
1461:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1435:
1430:
1425:, p. 6.
1418:
1409:
1401:
1396:
1384:
1376:
1371:
1362:
1349:
1336:
1323:
1315:
1310:
1305:, p. 5.
1286:
1281:
1273:
1268:
1254:
1228:. Retrieved
1208:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1179:
1156:
1135:
1127:
1122:
1110:
1103:Armor Basics
1102:
1097:
1089:
1086:
1081:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1034:
1031:
1013:
1008:
1000:
997:
992:
984:
981:
976:
968:
965:
960:
952:
947:
939:
934:
927:
922:
910:. Retrieved
896:
887:
881:
864:
860:
854:
836:
827:
821:
795:Challenger 3
792:
760:
743:
741:
733:
725:Challenger 1
716:
701:
686:
666:
659:
649:
631:
627:Challenger 1
621:The British
598:
595:
591:
579:
561:Challenger 2
558:British Army
544:
540:
524:Challenger 2
516:
512:heavy metals
492:
472:
465:
461:hot pressing
401:
384:
380:
361:
345:
331:
324:
313:
311:
245:Challenger 2
242:
238:
234:
218:
202:
197:
193:
175:
162:Challenger 2
158:Challenger 1
147:
124:
111:
99:
93:
88:
84:
80:
76:
60:, a British
49:
48:
43:Challenger 1
39:British Army
18:
1588:Clancy 1994
1474:Clancy 1994
1184:Clancy 1994
1115:Clancy 1994
1092:: 1563-1566
1059:(25): 557.
942:, p.167-174
867:: 249–282.
587:World War I
453:helicopters
449:body armour
194:shatter gap
94:Within the
1792:Categories
1642:References
1498:Kelly 1989
1400:Long, D.,
1389:Kelly 1989
912:7 February
667:Burlington
650:Burlington
599:Obiekt 430
328:vibrations
166:K1 88-Tank
112:Dorchester
81:Dorchester
77:Burlington
1674:Chieftain
1569:cite book
1165:cite book
1037:: 535-541
672:Leopard 1
663:Leopard 2
634:Chieftain
575:M1 Abrams
538:modules.
388:sintering
372:malleable
259:Structure
154:M1 Abrams
1240:cite web
1221:Archived
906:Archived
801:See also
520:tungsten
425:sapphire
398:Material
376:graphite
368:Spalling
364:cracking
178:hardness
137:such as
131:hardness
110:, while
89:sandwich
66:Chertsey
1629:29 June
1230:29 June
1203:: 36-44
1087:Science
1061:Bibcode
987:p. 1264
783:Leclerc
758:tiles.
756:alumina
713:Iranian
572:US Army
437:Syndite
205:brittle
190:abrades
127:ceramic
100:Chobham
70:ceramic
1766:
1740:
1712:
1691:
1661:
1105:, p. 1
789:Future
779:AMX 40
775:AMX 32
771:Ariete
717:Shir-2
704:MBT-80
623:MBT-80
583:enamel
528:M1A1HA
341:glacis
229:rubber
164:, and
150:FV4211
106:&
1623:Janes
1451:p. 53
1224:(PDF)
1217:(PDF)
846:(PDF)
813:Notes
475:steel
374:thin
319:epoxy
249:Basra
1764:ISBN
1738:ISBN
1710:ISBN
1689:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1631:2024
1575:link
1246:link
1232:2012
1171:link
985:TB27
914:2015
793:The
777:and
765:and
736:GIAT
708:MICV
603:T-64
507:HEAT
439:, a
435:and
118:and
79:and
62:tank
37:The
1090:299
1069:doi
869:doi
677:RHA
497:as
459:or
198:gap
41:'s
1794::
1762:;
1736:.
1621:.
1595:^
1571:}}
1567:{{
1293:^
1242:}}
1238:{{
1219:.
1199:,
1167:}}
1163:{{
1147:^
1067:.
1055:.
1051:.
1035:38
1021:^
1001:57
969:26
865:27
863:.
731:.
589:.
431:,
419:,
415:,
255:.
216:.
160:,
156:,
145:.
98:,
83:.
1760:7
1746:.
1718:.
1697:.
1667:.
1633:.
1577:)
1353:(
1340:(
1327:(
1262:.
1248:)
1234:.
1201:5
1173:)
1075:.
1071::
1063::
1057:8
916:.
875:.
871::
423:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
