190:
1209:
1555:. If a duct is obstructed, tight junctions permit migration of the ALP enzymes until the polarity is reversed and the enzymes are found on the whole of the cell membrane. Serum ALP levels exceeding 2–3 times the upper baseline value may be due to a variety of liver diseases. However, an elevation that exceeds 10 times the upper baseline limit is strongly indicative of either intrahepatic or extrahepatic cholestasis and requires further investigation. Cholestasis can be differentiated from other liver disorders by measuring the proportion of ALP to serum
1504:
29:
566:(PBC). PBC is a progressive autoimmune liver disease in which small intrahepatic bile ducts are selectively destroyed, leading to cholestasis, biliary fibrosis, cirrhosis, and eventually liver failure that requires transplantation. Prevalence of PBC ranges from 19 to 402 cases/million depending on geographic location, with a 9:1 female preponderance and median ages of diagnosis of 68.5 years for females and 54.5 years for males.
2090:. This leads to bicarbonate production and an environment that is less toxic. Mouse models have found promising results with norUDCA with the drug showing antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory properties. A recent clinical trial found norUDCA had significant dose-dependent reductions for ALP levels. This makes norUDCA a viable possibility to look into as it clearly plays a significant role in the treatment of cholestasis.
1804: is available to remove any leftover stones. If these stones are too large with these methods, surgical removal may be needed. Patients can also request an elective cholecystectomy to prevent future cases of choledocholithiasis. In case of narrowing of the common bile duct, a stent can be placed after dilating the constriction to resolve the obstruction.
1630:. Potential causes of extrahepatic cholestasis include obstructions outside the wall of the lumen, those outside the duct, and obstructions found in the duct lumen. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography may be useful to visualize the extrahepatic biliary ducts. In case of anatomical anomalies, or if endoscopic retrograde cholangiography is unsuccessful,
619:(the E2 subunit of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) may be a trigger for PSC. Specifically, PDC-E2 in apoptotic cholangiocytes undergo a covalent modification that may render them recognizable to antibodies and thereby trigger a break in self-tolerance. The problem is compounded by cholangiocytes' peculiarly abundant expression of
588:(UDCA) is an FDA-approved first-line treatment for PBC. At moderate doses, UDCA has been demonstrated to slow disease progression and improve transplant-free survival. A complete response is achieved in 25–30% patients, and similar survival as the general population is expected in 2/3 of patients on UDCA. For the 1/3 non-responders,
167:, which are fat deposits that accumulate below the skin. These usually appear waxy and yellow, predominantly around the eyes and joints. This condition results from an accumulation of lipids within the blood. If gallstones prevent bile flowing from the pancreas to the small intestine, it can lead to gallstone
2147:, which regulates both the innate and adaptive immune systems, is implicated. This can result in abnormal immunological development and an accumulation of primary bile acids. Using this information a bile-acid–intestinal-microbiota–cholestasis triangle is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of
1646:
There is a significant overlap between cholestasis resulting from a hepatocellular origin and cholestasis caused by bile duct obstruction. Due to this, obstructive cholestasis can only be diagnosed after finding additional diagnostic signs that are specific to obstructive changes to the bile ducts or
1470:
normally seal the gap between hepatocytes to prevent bile from diffusing out of the canaliculi. If a drug causes internalization of hepatocyte tight junctions, like rifampicin does in mice, bile flow may become impaired due to paracellular leakage. Membrane fluidity can affect bile flow by regulating
917:
of the liver and eventual failure. Diagnosis usually occurs using the classic criteria by looking at changes associated with the five systems discussed earlier. Like FIH, the definitive treatment is a liver transplant. Almost all patients with
Alagille syndrome have mutations of the genes involved in
1588:
is present in 80% of patients with extrahepatic cholestasis and 50% of patients with intrahepatic cholestasis. Given that many patients with hyperbilirubinemia may not have cholestasis, the measurement of bilirubin levels is not a good diagnostic tool for identifying cholestasis. In a later stage of
1292:
are upregulated to allow efflux of accumulated bile salts into portal blood. Similarly, MRP2 can accommodate additional bile flow across the apical membrane in cholestatic conditions. These compensatory mechanisms explain why some BSEP inhibitors do not cause cholestasis. On the contrary, contrast,
2049:
is responsible for regulating bile acid homeostasis. An agonist of this nuclear hormone receptor is seen as a possible treatment as it can downregulate bile acid synthesis and reabsorption. Further the farnesoid X receptor is partly responsible for lipid and glucose homeostasis, as well as pathogen
1948:
as a first line treatment. This drug stimulates biliary bicarbonate secretion, improves survival without having to resort to a liver transplantation, and is very well tolerated—making it an ideal treatment. However, around 40% of patients with primary biliary cholangitis are not responsive to UDCA.
1844:
at some point during their disease. This is a condition that can severely decrease a patient's quality of life as it can impact sleep, concentration, work ability, and mood. Many treatments exist, but how effective each option is depends on the patient and their condition. Assessment using a scale,
1686:
in the perivenular zone appear enlarged and flocculent. In cases of obstructive cholestasis, bile infarcts may be produced during the degeneration and necrosis of hepatocytes. Bile infarcts are marked by a large amount of pigmented tissue surrounded by a ring of necrotic hepatocytes. In some cases,
1130:
with bile salts to prevent the latter from damaging luminal epithelium. Bile flow requires canalicular secretion of both bile salts and phosphatidylcholine. MDR3 mutations are an established predisposing factor, found in 16% of ICP cases. More recently, studies have demonstrated involvement of BSEP
859:
Familial intrahepatic cholestasis (FIH) is a group of disorders that lead to intrahepatic cholestasis in children. Most often, FIH occurs during the first year of life, with an incidence rate of 1/50,000 to 1/100,000. There are three different versions of FIH, with each causing a different severity
1758:
and is evident from a large migration of neutrophils to the duct lumina. This can result in the formation of a cholangitic abscess. With treatment, many of the histological features of cholestasis can be corrected once the obstruction is removed. If the obstruction is not promptly resolved, portal
1402:
In addition to direct inhibition, drugs can also induce cholestasis by promoting downregulation and internalization of transporters. For example, cyclosporine A in rats was shown to induce BSEP internalization in addition to inhibition. Furthermore, human hepatocytes showed decreased expression of
982:(TPN) is given to patients with intestinal failure or a variety of other gastrointestinal problems. Under normal settings, TPN causes a slight elevation of ALP levels. However, this does not indicate cholestasis alone. In the case of TPN-induced cholestasis, there is an excessive elevation of ALP,
748:
at moderate doses failed to improve transplant-free survival in randomized controlled trials. Due to disease progression, 40% of patients eventually require liver transplantation, which has survival rates (91% at 1 year, 82% at 5 years, and 74% at 10 years). However, the disease recurs in at least
679:
PSC predominantly affects males (60–70%) of 30–40 years of age. The disease has an incidence is 0.4–2.0 cases/100,000 and a prevalence of 16.2 cases/100,000, making it a rare disease. Nonetheless, PSC accounts for 6% of liver transplants in the US due to its eventual progression to end-stage liver
1714:
Cholestatic liver cell rosettes may occur in children with chronic cholestasis. Histologically, this is evident as two or more hepatocytes in a pseudotubular fashion that encircle a segment of enlarged bile canaliculi. Children may also have giant hepatocytes present, which are characterized by a
1366:
On the hepatocyte basolateral membrane, Na+-taurocholate cotransporting peptide (NTCP) is the major transporter of conjugated bile acids. Enterohepatic bile flow requires the concerted activity of both NTCP and BSEP, which form the major route by which BAs enter and exit hepatocytes respectively.
135:
as an accompanying symptom. In a typical day, pruritus worsens as the day progresses, particularly during the evening time. Overnight, pruritus dramatically improves. This cycle can be attributed to an increase in the concentration of biliary elements during the day due to food consumption, and a
630:
between identical twins, higher incidence among relatives, and a strong association of disease with certain HLA variants. Disease is likely triggered in the genetically predisposed by some environmental factor, such as pollutants, xenobiotics (e.g., chemicals in makeup), diet, drugs, stress, and
2134:
targeted against interleukin 12 and 23. An experiment found though it did not significantly improve serum ALP levels. The researchers were further even criticized for placing patients at risk by allowing them to move to advanced disease stages where immunomodulatory therapies may not even be an
2058:
was more intense and prevalent than the placebo. A titration strategy may help to mitigate pruritus, but FDA approval for obeticholic acid is currently unlikely. In fact, in
February 2018, the FDA gave a black box warning for OCA. A recent study did find that if the drug is given with UDCA, the
998:
formation, subsequent blockage, and eventually cholestasis. Cholestasis resulting from TPN may also be a result of reduced bile flow from portal endotoxins. With TPN, there is a reduction in gastrointestinal motility, immunity, with an increase in permeability. These changes facilitate bacteria
663:
Chronic cholestasis is a feature in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). PSC is a rare and progressive cholestatic liver disease characterized by narrowing, fibrosis, and inflammation of intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts, leading to reduced bile flow or formation (i.e., cholestasis). The
796:
The intestinal dysbiosis theory hypothesizes that yet unidentified environmental triggers (e.g., diet, medication, inflammation) reduce microbiota diversity and/or alter the population of specific species. The resulting imbalance between primary and secondary bile acids may lead to PSC via the
1694:
Cholestasis is often marked by cholate stasis, which are a set of changes that occur in the periportal hepatocytes. Cholate stasis is more common in obstructive cholestasis compared to non-obstructive cholestasis. During the cholate stasis process, hepatocytes first undergo swelling and then
569:
At diagnosis, 50% of PBC patients are asymptomatic, indicative of an early stage of disease, while another 50% report fatigue and daytime sleepiness. Other symptoms include pruritus and skin lesions, and in prolonged cholestasis, malabsorption and steatorrhea leading to fat-soluble vitamin
111:
The signs and symptoms of cholestasis vary according to the cause. In case of sudden onset, the disease is likely to be acute, while the gradual appearance of symptoms suggests chronic pathology. In many cases, patients may experience pain in the abdominal area. Localization of pain to the
1937:(UDCA) and with no other suitable alternative, it poses a problem for those that are not responsive to (UDCA). However, with advancing technology in the molecular biochemistry field and higher understanding of bile acid regulation, novel pharmacological treatments have been considered.
760:
Although the pathogenesis of PSC is poorly understood, three dominant theories have been proposed: 1) aberrant immune response, 2) increased intestinal permeability, and 3) dysbiosis of gut microbiota. The first theory involves immune-mediated damage to bile ducts by T cells. In PSC,
1284:. Therefore, inhibiting BSEP should cause cytotoxic bile salts to accumulate in hepatocytes, leading to liver injury and impaired bile flow. Indeed, there is a strong association between BSEP inhibition and cholestasis in humans, and BSEP inhibitors are shown to induce cholestasis
786:(HLA) variants are strongly associated with PSC risk. Further evidence for genetic predisposition include the identification of 23 non-HLA susceptibility loci and a higher disease risk among siblings, though environmental factors appear to play a much greater role in pathogenesis.
615:. This results in decreased biliary bicarbonate secretion and consequently, cholestasis and injury to cholangiocytes by bile salts. Injury may induce cholangiocytes to undergo apoptosis, and during this process, the unique way in which cholangiocytes handle the degradation of
793:, which normally maintain the integrity of the intestinal epithelium, may become disrupted in inflammation. Leaky tight junctions could allow commensal bacteria and toxins to enter portal circulation and reach the liver, where they can trigger inflammation and fibrosis.
399:(loss of intrahepatic bile ducts). Bland cholestasis occurs when there is obstruction to bile flow in the absence of inflammation or biliary and hepatic injury, whereas these features are present in cholestatic hepatitis.Bland cholestasis is almost always caused by
2118:. In an open-label study, six patients that were unresponsive to UDCA had improvement in ALP levels after rituximab infusions. However, the efficacy of rituximab is still uncertain, and awaits further studies and trials. PBC can also lead to higher levels of
864:. Typically, children exhibit recurrent jaundice episodes, which eventually become permanent. Diagnosis usually occurs by analyzing laboratory features, liver biopsy results, DNA/RNA sequences, and biliary lipid analysis. The definitive treatment for FIH is
477:(via its sulfonamide component) is the fourth most common antibiotic responsible for DILI in North America. However, DIC is comparatively less common with low-dose tetracyclines like doxycycline. Other cholestatic antimicrobials include the antifungal
1575:
levels may be used to identify cholestasis in conjunction with ALP. Levels of ALP may rise within a few hours of cholestasis onset while 5' nucleosidase levels may take a few days. Many labs cannot measure 5' nucleosidase and ALP levels so,
130:
or itching is often present in many patients with cholestasis. Patients may present with visible scratch marks as a result of scratching. Pruritus is often misdiagnosed as a dermatological condition, especially in patients that do not have
726:, PSC lacks a diagnostic autoantibody or reliable biomarker of disease progression. Although a liver biopsy is not required for diagnosis, the characteristic histological finding is concentric periductal fibrosis resembling onion skin.
1887:
In cholestatic liver disease, when bilirubin concentration starts to build up, a deficiency of fat soluble vitamins may also occur. To manage this, doses of vitamin A, D, E, and K are recommended to retain appropriate vitamin levels.
2170:
As biochemistry technology becomes more advanced, promising targets have appeared, prompting numerous studies and trials to evaluate the feasibility. Fibrates, FXR agonists, and norUDCA are all innovative therapies for cholestasis.
954:
can inhibit and down-regulate bile salt transporters in hepatocytes, thereby leading to cholestasis. As such, in the case of sepsis, cholestasis occurs not as a result of impaired obstruction but rather the disruption of bile flow.
8257:"A 2-year multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of bezafibrate for the treatment of primary biliary cholangitis in patients with inadequate biochemical response to ursodeoxycholic acid therapy (Bezurso)"
6529:
Alagille D, Odièvre M, Gautier M, Dommergues JP (January 1975). "Hepatic ductular hypoplasia associated with characteristic facies, vertebral malformations, retarded physical, mental, and sexual development, and cardiac murmur".
336:
Acute and chronic cholestasis can be caused by certain drugs or their metabolites. Drug-induced cholestasis (DIC) falls under drug-induced liver injury (DILI), specifically the cholestatic or mixed type. While some drugs (e.g.,
8337:
Iwasaki S, Ohira H, Nishiguchi S, Zeniya M, Kaneko S, Onji M, et al. (June 2008). "The efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid and bezafibrate combination therapy for primary biliary cirrhosis: A prospective, multicenter study".
7229:
Parikh MP, Gupta NM, Thota PN, Lopez R, Sanaka MR (April 2018). "Temporal trends in utilization and outcomes of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in acute cholangitis due to choledocholithiasis from 1998 to 2012".
1749:
may also occur as a result of bile retention, as well as periductular infiltration of neutrophils. If the obstruction is left untreated, it can lead to a bacterial infection of the biliary tree. Infection is mostly caused by
904:
is an autosomal dominant disorder that impacts five systems, including the liver, heart, skeleton, face, and eyes. In the early part of life (within the first three months), patients with
Alagille syndrome exhibit conjugated
1567:
levels alone is not a good marker to determine cholestasis. In up to a third of patients, ALP levels may be elevated without the presence of cholestasis. As such, other biomarkers should be measured to corroborate findings.
2050:
recognition. An agonist for the farnesoid X receptor can therefore lead to an anti-cholestatic environment to minimize the effect of toxic bile acids on the liver. A candidate agonist for the farnesoid X receptor is
886:
gene encodes for the multidrug resistance 3 (MDR3) protein. BSEP and MDR3 are respectively responsible for transporting bile salt and phospholipid, two major constituents of bile, across the apical membrane of hepatocytes.
1811:
varies based on whether they are a suitable candidate for surgery. In most cases, surgical intervention is the best option. For patients whom complete removal of the biliary obstruction is not possible, a combination of a
1067:, where estrogen levels are more elevated than usual. Although estrogen's exact pathomechanism in ICP remains unclear, several explanations have been offered. Estrogen may induce a decrease in the fluidity of the hepatic
1414:
Bile canaliculi dynamics refers to the contractile motion of bile canaliculi (ducts) required for bile flow. Cholestasis can result when drugs constrict or dilate bile canaliculi. Constrictors include chlorpromazine,
1613:
is often used to identify the location of the obstruction but, is often insufficient in determining the level of biliary obstruction or its cause because it can pick up bowel gas that may interfere with readings.
769:
display aberrant expression of adhesion molecules, which facilitate homing of intestinal T cells to the liver. Additionally, intestinal microbiota may produce pathogen-associated molecular patterns that stimulate
2155:. After all, bile acids do modulate the gut microbiota; a disturbance here can result in development and progression of cholestasis. This information has prompted researchers into manipulating the microbiota via
9169:
9150:
2001:
levels. Another study of 48 patients with PBC found a combination of bezafibrate and UDCA showed a decrease of alkaline phosphatase in all patients. Further, the study found those treated had a marked relief in
817:(LCA). DCA and LCA are then reabsorbed into portal circulation and reach the liver, where they serve as signaling molecules that maintain bile acid homeostasis. Specifically, DCA and LCA and potent agonists of
1539:(MRI) are used to differentiate intrahepatic cholestasis from extrahepatic cholestasis. Additional imaging, laboratory testing, and biopsies might be conducted to identify the cause and extent of cholestasis.
999:
growth and increase the amount of circulating endotoxin. Moreover, given that patients using TPN often have underlying health problems, drugs being used with known liver toxicity may also cause cholestasis.
1580:
may be measured in some cases. Abnormal GGT elevation may be attributable to a variety of factors. As such, GGT elevations lack the necessary specificity to be a useful confirmatory test for cholestasis.
4535:"ATP8B1 and ABCB11 analysis in 62 children with normal gamma-glutamyl transferase progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (PFIC): phenotypic differences between PFIC1 and PFIC2 and natural history"
7887:
Corpechot C, Abenavoli L, Rabahi N, Chrétien Y, Andréani T, Johanet C, et al. (September 2008). "Biochemical response to ursodeoxycholic acid and long-term prognosis in primary biliary cirrhosis".
1618:
are not impacted by bowel gas and may also be more suitable for overweight patients. Typically, the cause of cholestasis and magnitude of obstruction is better diagnosed with CT compared to ultrasound.
805:(CDCA) are synthesized in the liver and undergo conjugation before being released into the small intestine to aid digestion. In the distal ileum, 95% of these conjugated BAs are actively reabsorbed via
136:
decline at night. Pruritus is mostly localized to the limbs, but can also be more generalized. The efficacy of naltrexone for cholestatic pruritus suggests involvement of the endogenous opioid system.
782:, which promote recruitment of immune cells to the bile ducts, fibrosis, cholangiocyte apoptosis and senescence, and ultimately destruction of the bile ducts. In support of T cell involvement, certain
4960:
Cavicchi M, Beau P, Crenn P, Degott C, Messing B (April 2000). "Prevalence of liver disease and contributing factors in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition for permanent intestinal failure".
3364:
Fernández-Murga ML, Petrov PD, Conde I, Castell JV, Goméz-Lechón MJ, Jover R (October 2018). "Advances in drug-induced cholestasis: Clinical perspectives, potential mechanisms and in vitro systems".
1229:
are essential for maintaining enterohepatic bile flow and bile acid homeostasis. Therefore, their direct inhibition by certain drugs may lead to cholestasis. Relevant transporters implicated include
990:
and failure. Cholestasis arising from TPN has a diverse range of causes, including toxicity to TPN components, underlying disorders, or a lack of enteral nutrition. Without enteral food consumption,
1387:, should theoretically cause cholestasis by decreasing hepatocyte BA uptake. However, no relationship was found between NTCP inhibition and DIC risk, possibly because basolateral sodium-independent
845:, could lead to bile duct damage via decreased activation of FXR and TGR5. Indeed, lower levels of secondary bile acids were found in PSC patients, but a causal relationship is yet to be confirmed.
595:
The precise etiology of PBC remains poorly understood, though a clearer picture is starting to emerge. A loss of immune tolerance is indicated by the presence of AMAs and autoreactive CD4+ and CD8+
181:. As such, patients with cholestasis may present with a deficiency in vitamins A, D, E, or K due to a decline in bile flow. Patients with cholestasis may also experience pale stool and dark urine.
1135:
in particular may lead to ICP by causing a reduction in hepatic BSEP expression and consequently decreased bile salt export. Other notable mutations identified in ICP patients include ones in the
1483:
was found to increase canalicular membrane fluidity and consequently reduce bile secretion. Bile flow was similarly reduced in rats as a result of alterations to basolateral membrane fluidity by
1174:
that eventually form either the right main hepatic duct that drains the right lobe of the liver, or the left main hepatic duct draining the left lobe of the liver. The two ducts join to form the
1052:. These signs and symptoms resolve on their own shortly after delivery, though they may reappear in subsequent pregnancies for 45–70% of women. In the treatment of ICP, current evidence suggests
7453:
Voegeli DR, Crummy AB, Weese JL (August 1985). "Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, drainage, and biopsy in patients with malignant biliary obstruction. An alternative to surgery".
1063:
plays a major role: ICP begins in the third trimester, when estrogen levels are highest, resolves after estrogen levels return to normal post-delivery, and occurs with higher incidence in
465:, which is commonly prescribed in the UK, Sweden, and Australia, is another penicillin frequently implicated in DIC. Cholestasis induced by penicillins usually resolves after withdrawal.
151:. Jaundice is an uncommon occurrence in intrahepatic (metabolic) cholestasis, but is common in obstructive cholestasis. The majority of patients with chronic cholestasis also experience
8949:
Qian C, Jiang T, Zhang W, Ren C, Wang Q, Qin Q, et al. (October 2013). "Increased IL-23 and IL-17 expression by peripheral blood cells of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis".
664:
pathogenesis of PSC remains unclear but probably involves a combination of environmental factors and genetic predisposition. Notably, 70-80% of patients with PSC are comorbid with
570:
deficiency. Disease progression is accompanied by intensifying portal hypertension and hepatosplenomegaly. Clinically, diagnosis generally requires a 1:40 or greater titer of
2167:, which has extensively studied and reviewed. The usage of the drug is found along with a significant decrease in ALP levels, although the long term clinical benefit is unknown.
1969:
for PSC and researchers offer conflicting recommendations. One study found UDCA had improved biochemical functions but did lower the rate for death or transplant-free survival.
1647:
portal tracts. In both non-obstructive and obstructive cholestasis, there is an accumulation of substances that are typically secreted in the bile, as well as degeneration of
1745:
Back pressure created from obstructive cholestasis can cause dilation of the bile duct and biliary epithelial cell proliferation, mainly in the portal tracts. Portal tract
10102:
1139:(FXR), a nuclear receptor in hepatocytes which activates transcription of MDR3 and BSEP upon binding intracellular bile acids, thereby increasing canalicular bile efflux.
345:, i.e., affecting only a minority of individuals taking the medication. Seventy-three percent of DIC cases can be attributed to a single prescription medication, commonly
1726:
In non-obstructive cholestasis, changes to the portal tracts are unlikely. However, it may occur in some unique situations. In the case of neutrophilic pericholangitis,
7180:
endoscopic sphincterotomy associated with balloon dilation for removal of bile duct stones: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on randomized controlled trials"
8294:
Reig A, Sesé P, Parés A (January 2018). "Effects of
Bezafibrate on Outcome and Pruritus in Primary Biliary Cholangitis With Suboptimal Ursodeoxycholic Acid Response".
4582:
Davit-Spraul A, Gonzales E, Baussan C, Jacquemin E (May 2010). "The spectrum of liver diseases related to ABCB4 gene mutations: pathophysiology and clinical aspects".
1396:
1523:
levels. However, this is not normally available in most clinical settings necessitating the use of other biomarkers. If 5' nucleosidase and ALP enzymes are elevated,
1099:(PXR). PXR is a nuclear receptor in hepatocytes that senses intracellular bile acid concentrations and regulates gene expression accordingly to increase bile efflux.
1391:
can partially compensate for bile salt uptake. Therefore, NTCP inhibition alone seems to be insufficient for causeing cholestasis. Indeed, the cholestatic effect of
1800:
and release the stones. Later, the endoscopist can place a stent in the common bile duct to soften any remaining stones and allow for bile drainage. If needed, a
2074:(ATRA), an activator for the retinoid X receptor. In vitro and animal studies found ATRA had lowered the amount of bile acid and decreased hepatic inflammation.
1675:. Most pigmentation and canaliculi dilation occurs in the perivenular region of the hepatic lobule. In chronic cases, this may extend into the periportal area.
8669:
Trauner M, Fickert P, Halilbasic E, Moustafa T (2008). "Lessons from the toxic bile concept for the pathogenesis and treatment of cholestatic liver diseases".
1495:) were shown to hinder proper localization of hepatocyte transporters by interfering with the microtubules required for their insertion into plasma membranes.
4250:
Torres, J.; Palmela, C.; Brito, H.; Bao, X.; Ruiqi, H.; Moura-Santos, P.; Silva, J. Pereira da; Oliveira, A.; Vieira, C.; Perez, K.; Itzkowitz, S. H. (2018).
1989:). The function of PPARα is that it promotes bile acid excretion and lowers inflammation by acting on nuclear transcription factors. A well known agonist are
1102:
Genetic predisposition for ICP is suggested by familial and regional clustering of cases. Several studies have implicated heterozygous mutations of the genes
1626:
Although CT, ultrasound, and MRI may help differentiate intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholestasis, the cause and extent of obstruction is best determined by
841:, thereby reducing production of proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, it is hypothesized that a reduction in secondary bile acid production, as a result of
2106:
that contribute to a worsening condition. Therefore, some treatments are looking into targeting the antigens of these immune cells. The monoclonal antibody
4925:
Guglielmi FW, Regano N, Mazzuoli S, Fregnan S, Leogrande G, Guglielmi A, et al. (February 2008). "Cholestasis induced by total parenteral nutrition".
1003:
in TPN may cause cholestasis and liver damage by overwhelming clearage mechanisms. Intravenous glucose can also cause cholestasis as a result of increased
9280:
1288:. However, hepatocytes have safety mechanisms that can compensate for impaired canalicular bile efflux. In response to cholestasis, MRP3 and MRP4 on the
826:
5160:
Lammert F, Marschall HU, Glantz A, Matern S (December 2000). "Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: molecular pathogenesis, diagnosis and management".
1872:
are the most common treatment. Side effects of this treatment are limited and include constipation and bloating. Other commonly used treatments include
1742:
and results in dilation of the bile ductules. Cholangitis lenta is likely a result of a stoppage of bile secretion and bile flow through the ductules.
139:
Many patients may experience jaundice as a result of cholestasis. This is usually evident after physical examination as yellow pigment deposits on the
2599:
Pearson HJ, Mosser JL, Jacks SK (November 2017). "The triad of pruritus, xanthomas, and cholestasis: Two cases and a brief review of the literature".
749:
25% of transplant recipients, particularly in those with IBD and an intact colon. Clinical trials are underway for several novel therapies, including
868:
which usually results in a high recovery rate. Each type of FIH is a result of a different mutation. The three genes thought to be involved include
9784:
7629:"Long-term efficacy and safety of nalfurafine hydrochloride on pruritus in chronic liver disease patients: Patient-reported outcome based analyses"
6512:
6415:
2895:
1609:
After determination using biomarkers, a variety of imaging studies may be used to differentiate between intrahepatic or extrahepatic cholestasis.
8853:"Biochemical and immunologic effects of rituximab in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and an incomplete response to ursodeoxycholic acid"
1166:) similar to the terminal branches of a tree. The canaliculi join each other to form larger and larger structures, sometimes referred to as the
8622:"Combination Therapy of All-Trans Retinoic Acid With Ursodeoxycholic Acid in Patients With Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: A Human Pilot Study"
8804:"Heterogeneity of autoreactive T cell clones specific for the E2 component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in primary biliary cirrhosis"
2082:
A recent scientific breakthrough for cholestasis that has allowed us to evaluate a new treatment option is that a hydrophilic environment and
603:
that line the bile ducts. Cholangiocytes are normally responsible for 40% of bile flow, mostly through secretion of bicarbonate into bile via
5106:
Wood AM, Livingston EG, Hughes BL, Kuller JA (February 2018). "Intrahepatic
Cholestasis of Pregnancy: A Review of Diagnosis and Management".
2205:
1651:. The most significant feature from a histopathological perspective includes pigmentation resulting from the retention of bilirubin. Under a
854:
525:
825:(TGR5), both of which mediate anti-inflammatory and cholangioprotective effects upon activation. On cholangiocytes, TGR5 activation induces
9379:
500:(duloxetine) causing cholestasis have also been reported. Anti-inflammatory drugs with cholestatic potential include the immunosuppressant
7061:"The intrahepatic biliary epithelium in the guinea pig: is hepatic artery blood flow essential in maintaining its function and structure?"
3693:
Lleo A, Leung PS, Hirschfield GM, Gershwin EM (February 2020). "The
Pathogenesis of Primary Biliary Cholangitis: A Comprehensive Review".
3838:"Role of the bicarbonate-responsive soluble adenylyl cyclase in cholangiocyte apoptosis in primary biliary cholangitis; a new hypothesis"
1663:, representing bile that cannot get out of the cell. Pigmentation can involve regurgitation of bile into the sinusoidal spaces caused by
469:
with cholestatic potential include erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin, and prognosis is likewise favorable with these drugs.
9418:
2311:
Brady P (May 2016). "Commentary on "Prospective
Evaluation of the Clinical Features of Choledocholithiasis: Focus on Abdominal Pain"".
1978:
7024:
Lefkowitch JH (January 1982). "Bile ductular cholestasis: an ominous histopathologic sign related to sepsis and "cholangitis lenta"".
1792:
is placed by the endoscopist in the second portion of the duodenum. A catheter and guidewire is moved up into the common bile duct. A
837:
serves to protect the apical surface of cholangiocytes from damage by bile acids. On macrophages, activation of FXR and TGR5 inhibits
7306:"Primary Endoscopic Closure of Duodenal Perforation Secondary to Biliary Stent Migration: A Case Report and Review of the Literature"
1829:
1631:
1238:
1084:
1059:
The etiology of ICP is multifactorial and likely involves hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors. Several observations suggest
1959:
for PBC in 2016 after experiments found beneficial improvements for the liver in half of patients with inadequate response to UDCA.
1559:, where a greater proportion indicates a higher likelihood of cholestasis. Typically, aminotransferase enzymes are localized within
1316:
have been shown to inhibit both MDR3 and BSEP, thus giving them higher cholestatic potential. Other MDR3-inhibiting drugs are
6821:
Nagore N, Howe S, Boxer L, Scheuer PJ (February 1989). "Liver cell rosettes: structural differences in cholestasis and hepatitis".
4252:"The gut microbiota, bile acids and their correlation in primary sclerosing cholangitis associated with inflammatory bowel disease"
607:(AE2) on their apical membrane. The resulting bicarbonate "umbrella" that forms over cholangiocytes provides protection from toxic
7275:"[Performance of ASGE predictive criteria in diagnosis of choledocholithiasis in the Edgardo Rebagliati Martins Hospital]"
2086:
production protects hepatocytes from bile acid. The novel agent norUDCA (24-norursodeoxycholic acid) can be passively absorbed by
9273:
5638:"Insights on FXR selective modulation. Speculation on bile acid chemical space in the discovery of potent and selective agonists"
8256:
1439:
leading to constriction of bile canaliculi. Drugs that dilate canaliculi work by inhibiting MLCK or RhoA/Rho-kinase and include
623:-II and HLA-I, as well as adhesion and chemoattractant molecules, which recruit aid in recruitment of mononuclear immune cells.
8714:"Hypercholeresis induced by ursodeoxycholic acid and 7-ketolithocholic acid in the rat: possible role of bicarbonate transport"
497:
7770:"Oral S-adenosylmethionine in the symptomatic treatment of intrahepatic cholestasis. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study"
1075:. A weaker Na+ gradient results in diminished sodium-dependent uptake of bile acids from venous blood into hepatocytes by the
1056:(UDCA), a minor secondary bile acid in humans, is the most effective drug for reducing pruritus and improving liver function.
9646:
6399:
5924:
5702:
5462:
5249:
4299:
Sugita, Tomonori; Amano, Katsushi; Nakano, Masanori; Masubuchi, Noriko; Sugihara, Masahiro; Matsuura, Tomokazu (2015-03-03).
2958:
2922:
2735:
2200:
1021:
1016:
545:
362:
9558:
9298:
7809:
Hirvioja ML, Tuimala R, Vuori J (February 1992). "The treatment of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy by dexamethasone".
5837:
626:
Both genetic and environmental factors probably contribute to PBC pathogenesis. Genetic predisposition is suggested by high
3635:
Gulamhusein AF, Hirschfield GM (February 2020). "Primary biliary cholangitis: pathogenesis and therapeutic opportunities".
1201:
One of the most common causes of extrahepatic, or obstructive cholestasis, is biliary obstruction. This is better known as
822:
806:
8025:
7933:"Excellent long-term survival in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and biochemical response to ursodeoxycholic Acid"
7355:"Advances in Biliary Tract Disorders: Novel Biomarkers, Pharmacotherapies, Endoscopic Techniques, and Surgical Management"
8208:"Pilot study: fenofibrate for patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and an incomplete response to ursodeoxycholic acid"
2982:
Hussain, Nazneen; Igbinedion, Samuel O.; Diaz, Richie; Alexander, J. S.; Boktor, Moheb; Knowles, Kurt (22 October 2018).
358:
9084:"Randomised clinical trial: vancomycin or metronidazole in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis - a pilot study"
4197:"The Role of the Intestine in the Pathogenesis of Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: Evidence and Therapeutic Implications"
1865:
can also be used to treat pruritus caused by chronic liver disease and was recently approved in Japan for this purpose.
9859:
9266:
8986:"Review article: the gut microbiome as a therapeutic target in the pathogenesis and treatment of chronic liver disease"
8573:"Long-term clinical impact and cost-effectiveness of obeticholic acid for the treatment of primary biliary cholangitis"
2054:
with experiments showing it has very strong affinity. A worry though is despite benefits in the biochemical pathways,
1993:
and in the clinical trials, there was a significant biochemical response in most patients. A combination therapy with
10531:
10378:
6001:
5959:
5807:
5762:
1623:
provide similar information to CT scans but are more prone to interference from breathing or other bodily functions.
1293:
drugs that inhibit both MRP3/4 and BSEP (e.g., rifampicin, troglitazone, bosentan) pose greater risk for cholestasis
986:(GGT), and conjugated bilirubin. Without appropriate intervention, symptoms can quickly exacerbate, leading to liver
1711:, stains made for staining copper-associated protein can be used to visualize bile accumulation in the hepatocytes.
1296:
MDR3 is another key canalicular efflux transporter that is the target of inhibition by certain drugs. MDR3 secretes
10568:
10276:
8068:"Ursodiol for primary sclerosing cholangitis. Mayo Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis-Ursodeoxycholic Acid Study Group"
2751:
Sokol RJ (December 1994). "Fat-soluble vitamins and their importance in patients with cholestatic liver diseases".
1738:, among others. Cholangitis lenta can also cause changes to the portal tracts. This occurs during chronic cases of
1723:, hepatocyte degeneration is uncommon. However, there may be a small amount of apoptosis and enlarged hepatocytes.
1088:
684:
392:
113:
5054:
1965:
is a challenging liver disease as treatment options are limited. There is still uncertainty about the efficacy of
10417:
10029:
10012:
9517:
9512:
9389:
4627:"Review article: liver disease in adults with variants in the cholestasis-related genes ABCB11, ABCB4 and ATP8B1"
1388:
485:(ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin), which have been linked to cholestatic hepatitis and vanishing bile duct syndrome.
2846:"Diversity of disorders causing neonatal cholestasis - the experience of a tertiary pediatric center in Germany"
1929:(PSC) is one of the most common cholestatic liver diseases, yet treatment options remain limited. Treatment for
10271:
10227:
10121:
9943:
9542:
7490:"Quality of life among patients suffering from cholestatic liver disease-induced pruritus: A systematic review"
7273:
Benites Goñi HE, Palacios Salas FV, Asencios
Cusihuallpa JL, Aguilar Morocco R, Segovia Valle NS (April 2017).
2152:
1962:
1926:
1476:
1428:
1242:
1170:, which themselves join to form small bile ductules that have an epithelial surface. The ductules join to form
1076:
809:
but 5% enter the colon and are converted by gut microbes into deconjugated secondary bile acids, predominantly
658:
616:
575:
517:
516:
The causes of cholestasis are diverse, and some feature more prominently than others. Some rare causes include
261:
84:
obstructive type of cholestasis, where there is a mechanical blockage in the duct system that can occur from a
8026:"EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: The diagnosis and management of patients with primary biliary cholangitis"
5003:
Jeejeebhoy KN (February 2006). "Management of short bowel syndrome: avoidance of total parenteral nutrition".
10482:
10328:
7174:
de
Clemente Junior CC, Bernardo WM, Franzini TP, Luz GO, Dos Santos ME, Cohen JM, et al. (August 2018).
474:
470:
454:
3282:
3232:
1849:
or a 5-D itch scale will be useful to identify an appropriate treatment. Possible treatment options include
1730:
surround the portal ducts and obstruct them. Neutrophilic pericholangitis has a variety of causes including
10237:
9756:
9364:
5488:"miR-148a-mediated estrogen-induced cholestasis in intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: Role of PXR/MRP3"
1956:
396:
95:
metabolic type of cholestasis, in which there are disturbances in bile formation that can occur because of
6150:
Pérez Fernández T, López
Serrano P, Tomás E, Gutiérrez ML, Lledó JL, Cacho G, et al. (January 2004).
5836:
Andrade RJ, Chalasani N, Björnsson ES, Suzuki A, Kullak-Ublick GA, Watkins PB, et al. (August 2019).
341:) are known to cause DILI in a predictable dose-dependent manner (intrinsic DILI), most cases of DILI are
9451:
9035:"Review article: the evidence that vancomycin is a therapeutic option for primary sclerosing cholangitis"
2148:
1941:
1930:
1691:
limited degeneration occurs, however, there may be a small amount of apoptosis and enlarged hepatocytes.
1308:
as well as protect hepatocyte and cholangiocytes from damage by bile salts. MDR3 inhibition leads to low
723:
571:
563:
557:
521:
458:
342:
156:
8802:
Van de Water J, Ansari A, Prindiville T, Coppel RL, Ricalton N, Kotzin BL, et al. (February 1995).
189:
9817:
9746:
9347:
8751:
Fickert P, Hirschfield GM, Denk G, Marschall HU, Altorjay I, Färkkilä M, et al. (September 2017).
4301:"Analysis of the Serum Bile Acid Composition for Differential Diagnosis in Patients with Liver Disease"
1824:, thereby bypassing the blockage. In cases where a patient is not a suitable candidate for surgery, an
1682:
is not a significant feature of cholestasis; however, apoptosis may often occur. Under the microscope,
1620:
1536:
1459:. Constriction is more serious than dilation, as the former causes irreversible cell damage and death.
1359:
into bile. However, MRP2 is also the preferential route of export for certain sulfated conjugated BAs (
946:(ALP) elevation but not to extreme levels. Sepsis-induced cholestasis may occur due to increased serum
665:
265:
4359:
3583:
Yokoda RT, Carey EJ (October 2019). "Primary Biliary Cholangitis and Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis".
10090:
10046:
9999:
9805:
9423:
6856:
Morotti RA, Jain D (June 2013). "Pediatric Cholestatic Disorders: Approach to Pathologic Diagnosis".
5550:
Dixon PH, Williamson C (April 2016). "The pathophysiology of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy".
1776:
In cases involving obstructive cholestasis, the primary treatment includes biliary decompression. If
1577:
1436:
983:
729:
PSC is associated with increased risk of several cancers, most notably, a 400 times greater risk for
683:
Though 40-50% of patients are asymptomatic, commonly reported symptoms include abdominal pain in the
255:
8255:
Corpechot C, Chazouillères O, Rousseau A, Guyader D, Habersetzer F, Mathurin P, et al. (2017).
6766:
1832:
and percutaneous biliary drainage can be used to visualize the blockage and re-establish bile flow.
1312:
concentrations in bile that damages cholangiocytes and leads to cholestasis. Antifungal azoles such
384:, fatigue, and dark urine, which usually resolve after discontinuation of the offending medication.
10436:
10116:
9751:
9709:
9522:
9397:
9384:
9354:
9325:
9184:
4829:"NOTCH2 mutations cause Alagille syndrome, a heterogeneous disorder of the notch signaling pathway"
830:
775:
604:
493:
428:
7975:
Nevens F, Andreone P, Mazzella G, Strasser SI, Bowlus C, Invernizzi P, et al. (August 2016).
4533:
Davit-Spraul A, Fabre M, Branchereau S, Baussan C, Gonzales E, Stieger B, et al. (May 2010).
1715:
pigmented spongy appearance. Giant cell formation is likely caused by the detergent properties of
10361:
10138:
9879:
9671:
9330:
8528:
Eslam M, Alvani R, Shiha G (December 2019). "Obeticholic acid: towards first approval for NASH".
8481:"A randomized trial of obeticholic acid monotherapy in patients with primary biliary cholangitis"
8024:
Hirschfield GM, Beuers U, Corpechot C, Invernizzi P, Jones D, Marzioni M, Schramm C (July 2017).
6074:
Hill PG, Sammons HG (October 1967). "An assessment of 5'-nucleotidase as a liver-function test".
2194:
2067:
1896:
919:
783:
632:
620:
5343:
4827:
McDaniell R, Warthen DM, Sanchez-Lara PA, Pai A, Krantz ID, Piccoli DA, Spinner NB (July 2006).
4030:
Dyson JK, Beuers U, Jones DE, Lohse AW, Hudson M (June 2018). "Primary sclerosing cholangitis".
1028:
of pregnancy. It affects 0.5–1.5% of pregnancies in Europe and the US and up to 28% in women of
711:. Prolonged cholestasis in PSC may cause fat-soluble vitamin deficiency leading to osteoporosis
10441:
10165:
10148:
9532:
9408:
9359:
9320:
9290:
9082:
Tabibian JH, Weeding E, Jorgensen RA, Petz JL, Keach JC, Talwalkar JA, Lindor KD (March 2013).
8479:
Kowdley KV, Luketic V, Chapman R, Hirschfield GM, Poupon R, Schramm C, et al. (May 2018).
3736:
Muratori P, Granito A, Pappas G, Muratori L, Quarneti C, De Molo C, et al. (August 2007).
2843:
2034:
1907:
are generally used as lipid lowering therapy to treat patients with cholestatic liver disease.
1813:
1598:
1590:
1463:
1249:
627:
369:
drugs. The exact pathomechanism may vary for different drugs and requires further elucidation.
121:
9224:
8851:
Tsuda M, Moritoki Y, Lian ZX, Zhang W, Yoshida K, Wakabayashi K, et al. (February 2012).
2359:
1638:
may also be useful, particularly in cases where additional interventions are not anticipated.
1519:
enzymes. With a few exceptions, the optimal test for cholestasis would be elevations of serum
10373:
10292:
10281:
10242:
10170:
9473:
8620:
Assis DN, Abdelghany O, Cai SY, Gossard AA, Eaton JE, Keach JC, et al. (February 2017).
8571:
Samur S, Klebanoff M, Banken R, Pratt DS, Chapman R, Ollendorf DA, et al. (March 2017).
8383:"New therapeutic concepts in bile acid transport and signaling for management of cholestasis"
7272:
6506:
6275:
Ladd ME, Bachert P, Meyerspeer M, Moser E, Nagel AM, Norris DG, et al. (December 2018).
3231:
Gijbels E, Vilas-Boas V, Deferm N, Devisscher L, Jaeschke H, Annaert P, Vinken M (May 2019).
2889:
2210:
2115:
1911:
1846:
1360:
1352:
1080:
1025:
865:
802:
779:
404:
7852:
Floreani A, Mangini C (January 2018). "Primary biliary cholangitis: Old and novel therapy".
5055:"Genetic determinants of drug-induced cholestasis and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy"
4973:
1695:
degeneration. Under the microscope, this is evident as a lucent cell periphery and enlarged
1208:
10412:
10356:
10177:
10073:
9656:
9651:
9485:
9403:
9369:
7640:
6027:"The past and present of serum aminotransferases and the future of liver injury biomarkers"
5649:
5499:
5292:
Deferm N, De Vocht T, Qi B, Van Brantegem P, Gijbels E, Vinken M, et al. (July 2019).
3777:
Smyk DS, Rigopoulou EI, Pares A, Billinis C, Burroughs AK, Muratori L, et al. (2012).
2648:
Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacky, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
2185:
2046:
1998:
1966:
1945:
1934:
1854:
1735:
1594:
1516:
1289:
1136:
1064:
1053:
1049:
1004:
979:
943:
818:
745:
715:
585:
579:
537:
424:
7627:
Kamimura K, Yokoo T, Kamimura H, Sakamaki A, Abe S, Tsuchiya A, et al. (2017-06-12).
5745:
Hu T, Wang H (August 2021). "Hepatic Bile Acid Transporters in Drug-Induced Cholestasis".
103:
Classification is further divided into acute or chronic and extrahepatic or intrahepatic.
8:
10573:
10506:
10316:
10209:
10192:
10153:
10126:
10078:
9921:
9898:
9891:
9840:
9812:
9734:
9729:
9724:
9641:
9258:
9173:
8112:"New paradigms in the treatment of hepatic cholestasis: from UDCA to FXR, PXR and beyond"
6087:
5293:
3550:, Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012,
3519:, Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012,
3417:. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. 2012.
2914:
2484:
Gordon SC (September 1991). "Jaundice and cholestasis. Some common and uncommon causes".
2239:
2131:
1825:
1817:
1297:
1202:
1175:
1119:
1096:
354:
7644:
5653:
5636:
Sepe V, Festa C, Renga B, Carino A, Cipriani S, Finamore C, et al. (January 2016).
5503:
1707:
may also be found in the periportal areas. Due to the retention of bile, which contains
1351:
Another target for inhibition, MRP2 is an apical efflux transporter that mainly exports
744:
No drugs are currently approved for treating PSC specifically. Although commonly given,
10518:
10383:
10366:
10351:
10338:
10321:
10187:
9822:
9714:
9686:
9620:
9446:
9342:
9307:
9113:
9064:
9015:
8926:
8901:
8882:
8828:
8803:
8694:
8646:
8621:
8602:
8553:
8505:
8480:
8456:
8431:
8412:
8363:
8319:
8237:
8185:
8006:
7913:
7834:
7822:
7745:
7728:
7663:
7628:
7604:
7579:
7555:
7530:
7430:
7405:
7381:
7354:
7330:
7305:
7255:
7206:
7175:
7090:
7006:
6917:
6892:
6834:
6798:
6781:
6754:
6706:
6681:
6662:
6593:
6566:
6489:
6464:
6409:
6350:
6325:
6306:
6217:
6192:
6127:
6110:
6051:
6026:
5868:
5813:
5768:
5670:
5637:
5613:
5586:
5522:
5487:
5425:
5398:
5374:
5324:
5220:
5131:
5085:
4985:
4907:
4853:
4828:
4809:
4762:
4713:
4664:
4625:
Nayagam, Jeremy S.; Williamson, Catherine; Joshi, Deepak; Thompson, Richard J. (2020).
4607:
4564:
4472:
4445:
4395:
4335:
4300:
4276:
4251:
4232:
4118:
4091:
4055:
3984:
3959:
3906:
3881:
3813:
3778:
3718:
3660:
3608:
3489:
3464:
3389:
3330:
3305:
3263:
3189:
3172:
3145:
3120:
3061:
3034:
3010:
2983:
2872:
2845:
2826:
2624:
2576:
2551:
2461:
2434:
2412:
1977:
An important regulator in bile acid homeostasis is the alpha and delta isoforms of the
1585:
1572:
1512:
1432:
951:
947:
906:
757:(a monoclonal antibody), and 24-norursodeoxycholic acid (a synthetic bile acid).
730:
673:
669:
242:
9178:
9033:
Damman JL, Rodriguez EA, Ali AH, Buness CW, Cox KL, Carey EJ, Lindor KD (April 2018).
8541:
8272:
7768:
Frezza M, Surrenti C, Manzillo G, Fiaccadori F, Bortolini M, Di Padova C (July 1990).
7704:
7687:
7037:
6543:
6253:
5173:
4780:
Oda T, Elkahloun AG, Pike BL, Okajima K, Krantz ID, Genin A, et al. (July 1997).
4508:
4043:
3097:
2764:
2696:
1079:. More recent evidence suggests that estrogen promotes cholestasis via its metabolite
10496:
10477:
9850:
9195:
9105:
9056:
9007:
8966:
8931:
8874:
8833:
8784:
8733:
8729:
8686:
8651:
8594:
8557:
8545:
8510:
8461:
8416:
8404:
8355:
8351:
8323:
8311:
8276:
8229:
8224:
8207:
8206:
Levy C, Peter JA, Nelson DR, Keach J, Petz J, Cabrera R, et al. (January 2011).
8177:
8133:
8089:
8048:
8010:
7998:
7954:
7905:
7869:
7826:
7791:
7786:
7769:
7750:
7729:"Risk of incident coronary artery disease in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis"
7709:
7668:
7609:
7595:
7560:
7511:
7470:
7466:
7435:
7386:
7335:
7286:
7247:
7211:
7156:
7121:
7082:
7041:
6998:
6957:
6953:
6922:
6873:
6838:
6803:
6736:
6711:
6666:
6654:
6598:
6547:
6494:
6480:
6442:
6395:
6355:
6298:
6257:
6222:
6173:
6132:
6091:
6056:
6007:
5997:
5965:
5955:
5930:
5920:
5872:
5860:
5817:
5803:
5772:
5758:
5698:
5675:
5618:
5567:
5527:
5468:
5458:
5430:
5366:
5328:
5316:
5255:
5245:
5224:
5212:
5177:
5123:
5089:
5077:
5020:
4977:
4942:
4899:
4858:
4801:
4754:
4705:
4668:
4656:
4648:
4611:
4599:
4556:
4512:
4477:
4399:
4387:
4379:
4340:
4322:
4281:
4236:
4224:
4216:
4164:
4123:
4047:
3989:
3911:
3859:
3818:
3800:
3759:
3722:
3710:
3664:
3652:
3612:
3600:
3551:
3520:
3494:
3418:
3381:
3335:
3267:
3255:
3194:
3150:
3101:
3066:
3015:
2964:
2954:
2918:
2877:
2844:
Hoerning A, Raub S, Dechêne A, Brosch MN, Kathemann S, Hoyer PF; et al. (2014).
2830:
2818:
2768:
2731:
2700:
2665:
2616:
2581:
2532:
2501:
2466:
2404:
2363:
2328:
2287:
1751:
1720:
1688:
1556:
1475:, which maintains the inwardly-directed Na+ gradient that drives BA uptake by apical
1226:
901:
896:
789:
Another theory postulates that increased intestinal permeability contributes to PSC.
738:
734:
646:
529:
366:
297:
160:
52:
9117:
9019:
8886:
8698:
8606:
8367:
8189:
7917:
7259:
7094:
7010:
6310:
6168:
6151:
5378:
4989:
4766:
3393:
2628:
2416:
10543:
10463:
10458:
10448:
10310:
10182:
10110:
9928:
9835:
9830:
9760:
9719:
9527:
9492:
9095:
9068:
9046:
8997:
8958:
8921:
8913:
8864:
8823:
8815:
8774:
8764:
8725:
8678:
8641:
8633:
8584:
8537:
8500:
8492:
8451:
8443:
8394:
8347:
8303:
8268:
8241:
8219:
8167:
8123:
8079:
8040:
7988:
7944:
7897:
7861:
7838:
7818:
7781:
7740:
7699:
7658:
7648:
7599:
7591:
7550:
7542:
7501:
7462:
7425:
7417:
7376:
7366:
7325:
7317:
7239:
7201:
7191:
7148:
7072:
7033:
6988:
6949:
6912:
6904:
6865:
6830:
6793:
6701:
6693:
6646:
6588:
6578:
6539:
6484:
6476:
6387:
6345:
6337:
6288:
6249:
6240:
Reddy SI, Grace ND (February 2002). "Liver imaging. A hepatologist's perspective".
6212:
6204:
6163:
6122:
6083:
6046:
6038:
5852:
5795:
5750:
5665:
5657:
5608:
5598:
5559:
5517:
5507:
5420:
5410:
5358:
5308:
5204:
5169:
5135:
5115:
5069:
5012:
4969:
4934:
4889:
4848:
4840:
4813:
4793:
4744:
4717:
4695:
4684:"Features of Alagille syndrome in 92 patients: frequency and relation to prognosis"
4638:
4591:
4568:
4546:
4504:
4467:
4457:
4371:
4358:
Xie, Ai-jin; Mai, Chu-tian; Zhu, Yi-Zhun; Liu, Xian-Cheng; Xie, Ying (2021-12-15).
4330:
4312:
4271:
4263:
4208:
4154:
4113:
4103:
4059:
4039:
3979:
3971:
3901:
3893:
3849:
3808:
3790:
3749:
3702:
3644:
3592:
3484:
3476:
3373:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3247:
3184:
3140:
3132:
3093:
3084:
Mohi-ud-din R, Lewis JH (February 2004). "Drug- and chemical-induced cholestasis".
3056:
3046:
3005:
2995:
2867:
2857:
2808:
2760:
2723:
2692:
2655:
2608:
2571:
2563:
2497:
2493:
2456:
2446:
2394:
2355:
2320:
2051:
1952:
1801:
1797:
1781:
1672:
1564:
1548:
1484:
1281:
1222:
1191:
1187:
1167:
1092:
1087:
was found to repress the transcription of bile salt export pump (BSEP), the apical
814:
810:
750:
641:
is a particularly strong risk factor for PBC. A possible explanation is that
636:
589:
400:
313:
96:
57:
9235:
5312:
4911:
4682:
Emerick KM, Rand EB, Goldmuntz E, Krantz ID, Spinner NB, Piccoli DA (March 1999).
3596:
2324:
1997:
showed remarkable biochemical improvement, with 67% of patients normalizing their
1719:
causing a loss of the lateral membrane and joining of hepatocytes. In the case of
1492:
1427:, cyclosporin A. These drugs activate the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway, which inhibits
1091:
responsible for exporting monoanionic conjugated bile acids from hepatocytes into
942:
may cause cholestasis. Typically, patients have conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and
387:
Clinically, DIC can manifest as acute bland (pure) cholestasis, acute cholestatic
10501:
10431:
10297:
10232:
10197:
10068:
9933:
9869:
9771:
9690:
9681:
9631:
9571:
9456:
9433:
9189:
8637:
7949:
7932:
7653:
7139:
Wang L, Yu WF (March 2014). "Obstructive jaundice and perioperative management".
6465:"Inflammation and Cell Death During Cholestasis: The Evolving Role of Bile Acids"
6391:
5563:
5512:
5208:
5119:
5016:
4749:
4732:
3854:
3837:
3033:
Huang, Jiaofeng; Lin, Su; Wang, Mingfang; Wan, Bo; Zhu, Yueyong (December 2019).
2813:
2796:
2214:
1821:
1784:, an endoscopic sphincterotomy can be conducted either with or without placing a
1635:
1627:
1524:
1472:
1159:
1072:
1024:(ICP) is an acute cause of cholestasis that manifests most commonly in the third
733:
compared to the general population. Patients with PSC also face elevated risk of
719:
541:
247:
229:
8753:"norUrsodeoxycholic acid improves cholestasis in primary sclerosing cholangitis"
8084:
8067:
6293:
6276:
5787:
4360:"Bile acids as regulatory molecules and potential targets in metabolic diseases"
1807:
The treatment approach for patients with obstructive cholestasis resulting from
1010:
407:
contraceptive use, while many drugs may cause cholestatic hepatitis, including
10538:
10453:
10007:
9980:
9845:
9780:
9776:
9666:
9636:
8962:
8769:
8752:
8447:
8128:
8111:
8044:
7977:"A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Obeticholic Acid in Primary Biliary Cholangitis"
7865:
7506:
7489:
7406:"Endoscopic stent placement in the palliation of malignant biliary obstruction"
6869:
6782:"The significance of variations in the distribution of copper in liver disease"
6730:
6109:
Gowda S, Desai PB, Hull VV, Math AA, Vernekar SN, Kulkarni SS (November 2009).
5799:
5754:
4495:
Jacquemin E (September 2012). "Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis".
4159:
4142:
3543:
3512:
3410:
3251:
2346:
Schirmer BD, Winters KL, Edlich RF (2005). "Cholelithiasis and cholecystitis".
2279:
2144:
2123:
2119:
1793:
1671:, an accumulation of bilirubin within hepatocytes, and inspissated bile in the
1601:
may be elevated due to hepatocyte damage as a secondary effect of cholestasis.
1488:
1480:
1467:
1456:
1392:
1363:
and glycolithocholic acid), so its inhibition could contribute to cholestasis.
1317:
1068:
790:
489:
462:
305:
293:
271:
215:
9200:
9163:
9159:
8682:
7243:
7152:
6697:
5856:
5472:
5362:
4938:
4375:
3648:
3377:
3051:
1114:
in ICP, which respectively encode the canalicular transport proteins BSEP and
1095:. E2 was also found to upregulate miR-148a, which represses expression of the
504:, which has been reported to cause fatal cholestatic hepatitis, and the NSAID
481:, notable for its potential to cause life-threatening cholestatic injury, and
10562:
10471:
10424:
10217:
10160:
10143:
10055:
9800:
9627:
9502:
9468:
9413:
8280:
7321:
6961:
5934:
5259:
4652:
4462:
4383:
4326:
4267:
4220:
4108:
3804:
2968:
2451:
2190:
2087:
1915:
1869:
1858:
1850:
1404:
1265:
1221:
Drugs may induce cholestasis by interfering with 1) hepatic transporters, 2)
771:
762:
718:
persisting for at least 6 months and the presence of bile duct strictures on
611:. However, in PBC there is repression of AE2 activity due to upregulation of
600:
420:
281:
117:
8902:"Primary biliary cirrhosis associated with HLA, IL12A, and IL12RB2 variants"
7421:
7274:
7196:
6940:
Crawford JM (1997). "Cellular and molecular biology of the inflamed liver".
6011:
5969:
2862:
2520:
959:
liver injury resulting from sepsis can also cause cholestasis. Importantly,
10346:
10258:
10131:
10034:
9985:
9970:
9965:
9961:
9874:
9699:
9615:
9507:
9497:
9463:
9109:
9060:
9011:
8970:
8935:
8878:
8788:
8713:
8690:
8655:
8598:
8549:
8514:
8465:
8408:
8359:
8315:
8233:
8181:
8137:
8052:
8002:
7958:
7909:
7873:
7754:
7672:
7613:
7564:
7515:
7439:
7390:
7371:
7339:
7290:
7251:
7215:
7160:
7125:
7109:
7077:
7060:
6926:
6877:
6740:
6715:
6658:
6602:
6498:
6430:
6359:
6302:
6261:
6226:
6177:
6136:
6060:
6042:
5864:
5679:
5622:
5571:
5531:
5452:
5434:
5415:
5370:
5320:
5216:
5181:
5127:
5081:
5073:
5024:
4981:
4946:
4903:
4862:
4782:"Mutations in the human Jagged1 gene are responsible for Alagille syndrome"
4758:
4709:
4660:
4603:
4595:
4560:
4516:
4481:
4391:
4344:
4285:
4228:
4168:
4127:
4051:
3993:
3915:
3863:
3822:
3763:
3754:
3737:
3714:
3706:
3656:
3604:
3555:
3524:
3498:
3422:
3385:
3339:
3259:
3198:
3154:
3105:
3070:
3019:
3000:
2950:
2881:
2822:
2669:
2620:
2585:
2567:
2536:
2470:
2408:
2367:
2332:
2291:
1892:
1789:
1755:
1704:
1700:
1668:
1664:
1368:
1345:
1337:
1329:
1313:
1309:
1269:
1183:
1045:
708:
704:
501:
309:
275:
168:
44:
9246:
8917:
8837:
8819:
8737:
8093:
7993:
7976:
7830:
7795:
7713:
7474:
7086:
7045:
7002:
6993:
6976:
6842:
6807:
6650:
6583:
6446:
6208:
6149:
6095:
5914:
5294:"Current insights in the complexities underlying drug-induced cholestasis"
5239:
4805:
4700:
4683:
4317:
3975:
3897:
3795:
2772:
2727:
2704:
2505:
913:, and jaundice. Bile duct obliteration usually worsens over time, causing
10526:
10266:
10097:
10017:
9661:
9562:
9315:
9219:
8900:
Hirschfield GM, Liu X, Xu C, Lu Y, Xie G, Lu Y, et al. (June 2009).
8307:
6551:
5195:
Smith DD, Rood KM (March 2020). "Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy".
2797:"Cholestatic Liver Diseases: A Primer for Generalists and Subspecialists"
2127:
2083:
1994:
1862:
1840:
A significant portion of patients with cholestasis (80%) will experience
1731:
1420:
1372:
1356:
1325:
1305:
1253:
1179:
991:
834:
798:
478:
412:
338:
193:
Relative incidences of causes of neonatal cholestasis (data from Germany)
148:
144:
9142:
3548:
LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury
3517:
LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury
3415:
LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury
2718:
Rods J, Benhamou JP, Blei AT, Reichen J, Rizzetto M, eds. (2007-06-18).
2660:
2643:
2126:. This was what motivated researches to look at the viability of
1563:
and leak across the membrane upon damage. However, measurement of serum
1503:
1276:. BSEP is the main transporter in hepatocytes responsible for exporting
645:
possess a similar PDC-E2 as humans which could trigger autoimmunity via
10302:
9975:
9953:
9598:
9537:
9241:
8779:
7686:
Kaplan MM, Elta GH, Furie B, Sadowski JA, Russell RM (September 1988).
5603:
4797:
4196:
3836:
Chang JC, Go S, Verhoeven AJ, Beuers U, Oude Elferink RP (April 2018).
2984:"Liver Cholestasis Secondary to Syphilis in an Immunocompetent Patient"
2164:
2156:
2030:
2022:
1881:
1873:
1727:
1683:
1652:
1648:
1610:
1560:
1532:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1416:
1380:
1376:
1333:
1321:
1261:
1257:
1195:
1163:
971:, thereby overwhelming bilirubin reabsorption and excretion mechanism.
766:
754:
505:
446:
442:
438:
432:
416:
408:
350:
346:
317:
289:
36:
28:
9100:
9083:
9051:
9034:
9002:
8985:
8869:
8852:
8589:
8572:
8496:
8399:
8382:
8172:
8155:
7901:
5661:
5457:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 322–323.
4894:
4877:
4643:
4626:
4551:
4534:
4212:
3738:"Clinical and serological profile of primary biliary cirrhosis in men"
3480:
3136:
2612:
2399:
2382:
1918:
is a viable treatment in regards to the symptom of intensive itching.
457:, and tetracyclines. Due to its clavulanic acid component, penicillin
10252:
10222:
10085:
10063:
9916:
9767:
9741:
9603:
9593:
9480:
9441:
9374:
9230:
8984:
Woodhouse CA, Patel VC, Singanayagam A, Shawcross DL (January 2018).
8254:
7173:
2163:
for new treatment options. Some antibiotics examined for PSC include
2160:
2114:
antigen on the B cells, and is already used in a wide array of other
2107:
2060:
2014:
1777:
1716:
1696:
1660:
1656:
1520:
1424:
1408:
1384:
1341:
1277:
1225:
dynamics, and/or 3) cell structure and protein localization. Hepatic
1171:
1151:
1041:
1007:
and decreased breakdown, which facilitates the accumulation of fats.
995:
987:
968:
964:
914:
842:
608:
482:
466:
450:
388:
237:
89:
85:
8023:
7546:
6908:
6637:
Li MK, Crawford JM (February 2004). "The pathology of cholestasis".
6341:
6193:"The role of intestinal ultrasound in diagnostics of bowel diseases"
5991:
5949:
4781:
4581:
324:, and statins can cause cholestasis and may result in damage to the
9886:
9864:
9576:
8983:
8801:
4844:
4532:
4090:
Little R, Wine E, Kamath BM, Griffiths AM, Ricciuto A (June 2020).
2180:
2055:
2003:
1877:
1841:
1760:
1679:
1273:
1060:
960:
956:
880:
gene encodes for the bile salt export pump (BSEP) protein, and the
861:
692:
612:
377:
321:
301:
204:
164:
132:
77:
6152:"Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to cholestatic liver disease"
4141:
Karlsen TH, Folseraas T, Thorburn D, Vesterhus M (December 2017).
3035:"Syphilitic hepatitis: a case report and review of the literature"
1986:
1982:
1891:
Cholestatic liver disease can impact lipids, and possibly lead to
838:
171:. Physical symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
9938:
9704:
9608:
9580:
8380:
6277:"Pros and cons of ultra-high-field MRI/MRS for human application"
5587:"Intrahepatic Cholestasis in Pregnancy: Review of the Literature"
5399:"Molecular Pathogenesis of Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy"
4140:
3363:
3230:
2026:
2010:
1990:
1904:
1615:
1528:
1301:
1127:
1029:
927:
696:
178:
152:
8668:
8478:
7886:
7767:
7304:
Ferm S, Fisher C, Hassam A, Rubin M, Kim SH, Hussain SA (2018).
6977:"Clinicopathology conferences: inflammation-induced cholestasis"
6528:
3842:
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease
1511:
Cholestasis can be suspected when there is an elevation of both
10404:
10022:
9908:
9154:
8750:
8381:
Trauner M, Fuchs CD, Halilbasic E, Paumgartner G (April 2017).
6682:"Drug-induced Liver Injury: The Hepatic Pathologist's Approach"
5835:
4826:
2103:
2099:
1900:
1808:
1739:
1708:
1507:
The diagnosis approach for identifying the cause of cholestasis
1466:
permeability, membrane fluidity, and transporter localization.
1230:
1104:
1071:
membrane, leading to a decrease in the activity of basolateral
939:
876:
869:
596:
540:-based cholestasis, benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis,
533:
381:
219:
8432:"Bile acid nuclear receptor FXR and digestive system diseases"
7974:
4924:
4624:
2981:
1212:
Hepatocyte transporters implicated in drug-induced cholestasis
9854:
9584:
7626:
5291:
3735:
2018:
1785:
1746:
1462:
Minor mechanisms that may contribute to DIC include aberrant
1234:
1131:
mutations in at least 5% of cases. The V444A polymorphism of
1123:
1115:
1110:
1033:
1011:
Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (obstetric cholestasis)
1000:
882:
700:
325:
73:
9081:
8336:
7688:"Fat-soluble vitamin nutriture in primary biliary cirrhosis"
5397:
Xiao J, Li Z, Song Y, Sun Y, Shi H, Chen D, Zhang Y (2021).
5159:
4092:"Gut microbiome in primary sclerosing cholangitis: A review"
3692:
3233:"Mechanisms and in vitro models of drug-induced cholestasis"
2552:"Fatigue in cholestatic liver disease--a perplexing symptom"
2432:
680:
disease, with a mean transplant-free survival of 21.3 year.
7733:
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
7494:
Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan Yi Zhi
7352:
6567:"Diagnostic approach to patients with cholestatic jaundice"
5747:
Transporters and Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes in Drug Toxicity
3779:"Sex differences associated with primary biliary cirrhosis"
3776:
2111:
1552:
1395:
relies on its inhibition of both NTCP and the compensatory
1147:
1037:
923:
910:
688:
373:
174:
140:
127:
69:
40:
9288:
7310:
Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case Reports
6779:
6274:
5105:
4681:
4298:
2013:
are associated with a number of adverse effects including
1407:
and protein following long-term exposure to metformin and
963:
is not indicative of cholestasis in all cases. Widespread
8619:
8570:
8109:
6190:
4143:"Primary sclerosing cholangitis - a comprehensive review"
4089:
1944:, current guidelines recommend about 13–15 mg/kg of
1216:
1155:
592:(OCA) is approved by the FDA as a second-line treatment.
9032:
7531:"Managing the Symptoms and Complications of Cholestasis"
5052:
4195:
Dean, Gregory; Hanauer, Stephen; Levitsky, Josh (2020).
1828:
can be placed. If this is not possible or successful, a
1655:, the individual hepatocytes will have a brownish-green
1162:
that form between two adjacent surfaces of liver cells (
461:
is the most common culprit of cholestatic liver injury.
7685:
6435:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pathologie
5552:
Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology
4959:
4779:
4497:
Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology
3359:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3119:
Padda MS, Sanchez M, Akhtar AJ, Boyer JL (April 2011).
3118:
2717:
1205:
where gallstones become stuck in the common bile duct.
1126:
component of bile, into bile canaliculi where it forms
829:
to secrete chloride into bile ducts, which then drives
8850:
8110:
Beuers U, Trauner M, Jansen P, Poupon R (April 2015).
6820:
6524:
6522:
3882:"Current understanding of primary biliary cholangitis"
3835:
3634:
2644:"Xanthomas: clinical and pathophysiological relations"
7577:
7353:
Imam MH, Tejaswi S, Quraishi MN, Tabibian JH (2016).
7303:
7228:
5403:
Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology
4249:
4029:
2435:"Cholestasis-Associated Pruritus and Its Pruritogens"
2345:
1820:
can be used. This can reestablish bile flow into the
1759:
tract fibrosis can result. Even with treatment, some
741:
cancer. Therefore, regular screening is recommended.
9132:
8711:
8205:
7930:
7808:
7578:
Elman S, Hynan LS, Gabriel V, Mayo MJ (March 2010).
6564:
5635:
5048:
5046:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5034:
4528:
4526:
3346:
2240:"Cholestasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology"
1367:
Therefore, NTCP inhibitors, such as cyclosporine A,
926:
gene, while a small minority have a mutation of the
848:
6519:
6281:
Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
5989:
5244:(3rd ed.). Heidelberg: Springer. p. 237.
4737:
Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition
4730:
4443:
4194:
2794:
676:), suggesting there exists a link between the two.
43:(yellow) stasis in liver tissue, i.e. cholestasis.
8899:
7452:
6780:Goldfischer S, Popper H, Sternlieb I (June 1980).
6462:
6108:
2683:Parker F (1985). "Xanthomas and hyperlipidemias".
2641:
2598:
2433:Langedijk JA, Beuers UH, Oude Elferink RP (2021).
1194:. In cholestasis, bile accumulates in the hepatic
8948:
8429:
7058:
5031:
4523:
3637:Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology
3462:
3458:
2911:Liver Pathology : An Atlas and Concise Guide
2795:Hilscher MB, Kamath PS, Eaton JE (October 2020).
2518:
652:
99:or acquired as a side effect of many medications.
10560:
8527:
6565:Assy N, Jacob G, Spira G, Edoute Y (June 1999).
6382:Crawford JM (2004). "Pathology of Cholestasis".
6326:"Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography"
5485:
5053:Pauli-Magnus C, Meier PJ, Stieger B (May 2010).
4731:Kamath BM, Schwarz KB, Hadzić N (January 2010).
3957:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3171:David, Stefan; Hamilton, James P. (2010-01-01).
3083:
2908:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2348:Journal of Long-Term Effects of Medical Implants
2066:Another target that is being looked into is the
1972:
1910:For intrahepatic cholestasis in pregnant women,
1687:hepatocyte degeneration is uncommon. E.g., with
7851:
7580:"The 5-D itch scale: a new measure of pruritus"
7110:"Correlation between cholestasis and infection"
6893:"Histopathology of granulomatous liver disease"
6735:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
6728:
5912:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5831:
5829:
5827:
5692:
5549:
5344:"The sodium bile salt cotransport family SLC10"
5341:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5145:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4429:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3032:
2519:Fargo MV, Grogan SP, Saguil A (February 2017).
2286:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
2040:
1411:, neither of which are direct BSEP inhibitors.
8430:Ding L, Yang L, Wang Z, Huang W (March 2015).
8153:
7176:"Comparison between endoscopic sphincterotomy
5900:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5892:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5695:Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease
5584:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5273:
5271:
5269:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4409:
2685:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology
2642:Zak A, Zeman M, Slaby A, Vecka M (June 2014).
2093:
551:
9274:
8293:
7931:Parés A, Caballería L, Rodés J (March 2006).
7811:British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
6974:
6386:. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 149–169.
6111:"A review on laboratory liver function tests"
5985:
5983:
5981:
5979:
5545:
5543:
5541:
5446:
5444:
5396:
4733:"Alagille syndrome and liver transplantation"
4444:Nguyen KD, Sundaram V, Ayoub WS (July 2014).
3435:
3170:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2779:
2206:Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis
2077:
855:Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis
833:to secrete bicarbonate into bile canaliculi.
511:
80:is impaired. The two basic distinctions are:
9380:Esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction
8712:Dumont M, Erlinger S, Uchman S (July 1980).
7528:
6511:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
6414:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
6323:
5824:
5788:"Bile Acid Metabolism in Health and Disease"
5697:(9th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 821–881.
5392:
5390:
5388:
5142:
5101:
5099:
4357:
3303:
3205:
2894:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1547:ALP enzymes are found abundantly within the
1190:. This duct then enters the duodenum at the
155:. This is likely a result of defects in the
8156:"Management of cholestatic disease in 2017"
7726:
7184:World Journal of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
6855:
6463:Woolbright BL, Jaeschke H (November 2019).
6156:Revista Espanola de Enfermedades Digestivas
6073:
5879:
5740:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5486:Rao ZZ, Zhang XW, Ding YL, Yang MY (2017).
5266:
4875:
4406:
3958:Lazaridis KN, LaRusso NF (September 2016).
3582:
3405:
3403:
3177:US Gastroenterology & Hepatology Review
2944:
2549:
331:
9419:Esophageal intramural pseudodiverticulosis
9281:
9267:
9088:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
9039:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
8990:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
8212:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
7023:
6636:
6239:
5976:
5732:
5730:
5728:
5726:
5724:
5722:
5720:
5718:
5716:
5714:
5538:
5441:
5237:
5002:
4631:Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
2931:
1979:peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
1118:(MDR3). MDR3 is responsible for exporting
994:function is greatly inhibited, leading to
874:, which encodes for the FIC1 protein. The
27:
9099:
9050:
9001:
8925:
8868:
8827:
8778:
8768:
8645:
8588:
8504:
8455:
8398:
8223:
8171:
8127:
8083:
7992:
7948:
7785:
7744:
7703:
7662:
7652:
7603:
7554:
7505:
7429:
7380:
7370:
7329:
7205:
7195:
7107:
7076:
6992:
6916:
6797:
6705:
6686:Gastroenterology Clinics of North America
6592:
6582:
6488:
6349:
6292:
6216:
6167:
6126:
6050:
5669:
5612:
5602:
5521:
5511:
5424:
5414:
5385:
5194:
5096:
4893:
4852:
4748:
4699:
4642:
4550:
4494:
4471:
4461:
4334:
4316:
4275:
4158:
4117:
4107:
3983:
3905:
3853:
3812:
3794:
3753:
3488:
3463:Sundaram V, Björnsson ES (October 2017).
3329:
3274:
3188:
3144:
3060:
3050:
3009:
2999:
2871:
2861:
2812:
2753:Gastroenterology Clinics of North America
2659:
2575:
2460:
2450:
2398:
2360:10.1615/JLongTermEffMedImplants.v15.i3.90
1914:has proven to be an effective treatment.
1632:percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography
1083:(E2). E2 secreted into the canaliculi by
492:is known to cause cholestatic hepatitis.
234:congenital anomalies of the biliary tract
159:hormone axis or other abnormalities with
8296:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
6939:
6381:
6191:Andrzejewska M, Grzymisławski M (2018).
5990:Cecil RL, Goldman L, Bennett JC (2000).
5947:
5785:
4256:United European Gastroenterology Journal
3585:The American Journal of Gastroenterology
3400:
3283:"Drug-induced liver injury: An overview"
2722:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
2277:
1502:
1207:
974:
188:
7487:
6679:
6632:
5711:
5686:
5342:Hagenbuch B, Dawson P (February 2004).
4974:10.7326/0003-4819-132-7-200004040-00003
3783:Clinical & Developmental Immunology
2380:
2143:In several chronic liver diseases, the
1830:percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram
1150:is secreted by the liver to aid in the
797:gut-liver axis. The primary bile acids
10561:
8201:
8199:
8149:
8147:
8105:
8103:
8065:
7970:
7968:
7359:Gastroenterology Research and Practice
7138:
6630:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6622:
6620:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6612:
6428:
6024:
5951:Oxford textbook of clinical hepatology
5744:
5108:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
4305:Gastroenterology Research and Practice
4190:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4178:
4085:
4083:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4025:
4023:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3879:
3875:
3873:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3166:
3164:
2682:
2483:
2037:were also found over a long term use.
1921:
1771:
1491:. Lastly, some agents (rimpaficin and
1217:Mechanisms of drug-induced cholestasis
10403:
9647:Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
9262:
8154:de Vries E, Beuers U (January 2017).
7854:European Journal of Internal Medicine
7279:Revista de Gastroenterologia del Peru
6890:
6458:
6456:
6384:Molecular Pathogenesis of Cholestasis
6377:
6375:
6373:
6371:
6369:
5450:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4015:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3943:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3570:
2750:
2428:
2426:
2310:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2233:
2231:
2201:Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
1835:
1022:Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
1017:Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
938:A variety of factors associated with
546:intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
124:, which can progress to cholestasis.
106:
8808:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
8626:Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology
7114:Romanian Journal of Gastroenterology
6324:Singla S, Piraka C (December 2014).
6088:10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a067123
5693:Kumar A, Abbas AK, Aster JC (2015).
3304:Katarey D, Verma S (December 2016).
3280:
2383:"The pruritus of cholestasis: facts"
2045:A new novel treatment option is the
1300:into bile canaliculi, where it form
1252:of BSEP by several drugs, including
890:
8906:The New England Journal of Medicine
8196:
8144:
8100:
8072:The New England Journal of Medicine
7981:The New England Journal of Medicine
7965:
7529:Pedersen MR, Mayo MJ (March 2020).
7403:
6975:Crawford JM, Boyer JL (July 1998).
6942:Current Opinion in Gastroenterology
6609:
5454:The liver: biology and pathobiology
4876:Chand N, Sanyal AJ (January 2007).
4175:
4066:
3964:The New England Journal of Medicine
3870:
3671:
3161:
2237:
2217:finding associated with cholestasis
823:Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5
13:
7823:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14465.x
7584:The British Journal of Dermatology
7488:Jin XY, Khan TM (September 2016).
6835:10.1111/j.1600-0676.1989.tb00377.x
6453:
6366:
5197:Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology
4833:American Journal of Human Genetics
4000:
3922:
3619:
3567:
2521:"Evaluation of Jaundice in Adults"
2423:
2256:
2228:
967:resulting from sepsis may release
714:Diagnosis requires elevated serum
177:is required for the absorption of
14:
10585:
10532:Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
10379:Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
9128:
8671:Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift
6786:The American Journal of Pathology
6571:World Journal of Gastroenterology
6076:The Quarterly Journal of Medicine
5585:Piechota J, Jelski W (May 2020).
4450:World Journal of Gastroenterology
4096:World Journal of Gastroenterology
3886:Clinical and Molecular Hepatology
2949:(Second ed.). New York, NY:
2909:Suriawinata AA, Thung SN (2011).
2138:
2098:In PBC, the liver is filled with
2063:and liver transplants decreases.
1641:
1036:. ICP is characterized by severe
849:Familial intrahepatic cholestasis
526:familial intrahepatic cholestasis
395:(involving bile duct injury), or
68:is a condition where the flow of
10277:Secondary sclerosing cholangitis
9075:
9026:
8977:
8942:
8893:
8844:
8795:
8744:
8705:
8662:
8613:
8564:
8521:
8472:
8423:
8374:
8352:10.1111/j.1872-034X.2007.00305.x
8330:
8287:
8248:
8225:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04512.x
8059:
8017:
7924:
7880:
7845:
7802:
7761:
7720:
7679:
7620:
7596:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09586.x
7571:
7522:
7481:
7446:
7397:
7346:
7297:
7266:
7222:
7167:
7141:Acta Anaesthesiologica Taiwanica
7132:
7101:
7059:Tavoloni N, Schaffner F (1985).
7052:
7017:
6968:
6954:10.1097/00001574-199705000-00002
6933:
6481:10.3727/105221619x15614873062730
5913:Lindor KD, Talwalker JA (2008).
4446:"Atypical causes of cholestasis"
3960:"Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis"
2550:Kumar D, Tandon RK (July 2002).
1280:across the apical membrane into
496:(imipramine, amitriptyline) and
393:secondary sclerosing cholangitis
372:Typical symptoms of DIC include
9518:Gastric antral vascular ectasia
9513:Portal hypertensive gastropathy
9390:Gastroesophageal reflux disease
6884:
6849:
6814:
6773:
6722:
6673:
6558:
6431:"Histopathology of cholestasis"
6422:
6317:
6268:
6233:
6184:
6169:10.4321/S1130-01082004000100008
6143:
6115:The Pan African Medical Journal
6102:
6067:
6018:
5941:
5845:Nature Reviews. Disease Primers
5779:
5629:
5578:
5479:
5335:
5231:
5188:
4996:
4953:
4918:
4869:
4820:
4773:
4724:
4675:
4618:
4575:
4488:
4351:
4292:
4243:
4134:
3829:
3770:
3729:
3536:
3505:
3297:
3112:
3077:
3026:
2975:
2902:
2837:
2744:
2711:
2676:
2635:
2592:
1895:, which may present a risk for
1431:(MLCP), and in turn, increases
10272:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
10122:Hepatic veno-occlusive disease
9944:Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome
7727:Wang C, Zhao P, Liu W (2014).
6729:Kurtovic E, Limaiem F (2021).
5786:Li T, Chiang JY (2020-01-24).
5301:Critical Reviews in Toxicology
3513:"Vanishing Bile Duct Syndrome"
3322:10.7861/clinmedicine.16-6-s104
2543:
2512:
2498:10.1080/00325481.1991.11701060
2477:
2374:
2339:
2304:
1963:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
1927:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
1868:Bile acid binding resins like
1429:myosin light chain phosphatase
1116:multidrug resistance protein 3
1077:sodium/bile acid cotransporter
922:. Most have a mutation of the
659:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
653:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
562:Chronic cholestasis occurs in
518:primary sclerosing cholangitis
262:primary sclerosing cholangitis
163:. Some patients may also have
1:
10329:Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction
8542:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32963-0
8273:10.1016/S0168-8278(17)30442-7
7705:10.1016/s0016-5085(88)80029-5
7038:10.1016/s0046-8177(82)80134-2
6544:10.1016/s0022-3476(75)80706-2
6254:10.1016/s1089-3261(03)00077-1
6197:Przeglad Gastroenterologiczny
5313:10.1080/10408444.2019.1635081
5241:Hepatology textbook and atlas
5174:10.1016/s0168-8278(00)80139-7
4509:10.1016/s2210-7401(12)70018-9
4044:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30300-3
3597:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000268
3098:10.1016/S1089-3261(03)00124-7
2765:10.1016/s0889-8553(21)00165-5
2697:10.1016/S0190-9622(85)70139-9
2325:10.14423/smj.0000000000000462
2221:
1973:Peroxisomes receptor agonists
1766:
1634:may be used. CT or MRI-based
1542:
1040:and elevated serum levels of
455:trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
212:antibiotics (such as TMP/SMX)
10238:Postcholecystectomy syndrome
9757:Intestinal pseudoobstruction
9365:Esophageal motility disorder
8730:10.1016/0016-5085(80)90078-5
8638:10.1097/MCG.0000000000000591
7950:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.12.029
7787:10.1016/0016-5085(90)91250-A
7654:10.1371/journal.pone.0178991
7467:10.1016/0002-9610(85)90129-1
6392:10.1007/978-1-4419-9034-1_12
5591:Journal of Clinical Medicine
5564:10.1016/j.clinre.2015.12.008
5513:10.1371/journal.pone.0178702
5209:10.1097/GRF.0000000000000495
5120:10.1097/OGX.0000000000000524
5017:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.10.065
4878:"Sepsis-induced cholestasis"
4750:10.1097/mpg.0b013e3181c1601f
3855:10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.09.022
3366:Food and Chemical Toxicology
2945:Carey EJ, Lindor KD (2014).
2814:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.01.015
2556:Postgraduate Medical Journal
2041:Farnesoid X-receptor agonist
1957:Food and Drug Administration
1955:has been approved by the US
1498:
1304:with bile salts to dissolve
1248:Cholestasis can result from
1158:. Bile formation begins in
1142:
1081:estradiol-17-β-D-glucuronide
703:. The most common signs are
445:that commonly cause DIC are
397:vanishing bile duct syndrome
7:
8436:Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B
8085:10.1056/NEJM199703063361003
7455:American Journal of Surgery
6294:10.1016/j.pnmrs.2018.06.001
5954:. Oxford University Press.
5838:"Drug-induced liver injury"
4962:Annals of Internal Medicine
3306:"Drug-induced liver injury"
3173:"Drug-induced Liver Injury"
2238:Lin, Henry C (2024-08-05).
2174:
2094:Immunomodulatory treatments
1942:primary biliary cholangitis
1931:primary biliary cholangitis
1471:the activity of hepatocyte
724:primary biliary cholangitis
572:anti-mitochondrial antibody
564:primary biliary cholangitis
558:Primary biliary cholangitis
552:Primary biliary cholangitis
522:primary biliary cholangitis
256:primary biliary cholangitis
10:
10590:
10223:Gallstone / Cholelithiasis
9747:Functional colonic disease
9543:Zollinger–Ellison syndrome
8963:10.1016/j.cyto.2013.07.005
8770:10.1016/j.jhep.2017.05.009
8448:10.1016/j.apsb.2015.01.004
8129:10.1016/j.jhep.2015.02.023
8045:10.1016/j.jhep.2017.03.022
7866:10.1016/j.ejim.2017.06.020
7507:10.1016/j.jfma.2016.05.006
7108:Tănăsescu C (March 2004).
6870:10.1016/j.path.2013.03.001
6858:Surgical Pathology Clinics
5993:Cecil textbook of medicine
5800:10.1002/9781119436812.ch23
5755:10.1002/9781119171003.ch10
5238:Kuntz E, Kuntz HD (2008).
4160:10.1016/j.jhep.2017.07.022
3465:"Drug-induced cholestasis"
3293:(12). Somerset, New: 30–4.
3252:10.1007/s00204-019-02437-2
3121:"Drug-induced cholestasis"
2988:Case Reports in Hepatology
2078:24-norursodeoxycholic acid
1604:
1537:magnetic resonance imaging
1178:, which in turn joins the
1014:
980:Total parenteral nutrition
894:
852:
666:inflammatory bowel disease
656:
582:persisting for 6+ months.
555:
538:total parenteral nutrition
512:Rare causes of cholestasis
488:Among psychotropic drugs,
266:inflammatory bowel disease
10517:
10396:
10337:
10251:
10208:
10054:
10045:
9998:
9952:
9907:
9793:
9680:
9570:
9557:
9432:
9424:Acute esophageal necrosis
9306:
9297:
9210:
9136:
8683:10.1007/s10354-008-0592-1
7244:10.1007/s00464-017-5856-7
7153:10.1016/j.aat.2014.03.002
6698:10.1016/j.gtc.2017.01.004
6639:Seminars in Liver Disease
6532:The Journal of Pediatrics
5916:Cholestatic liver disease
5857:10.1038/s41572-019-0105-0
5363:10.1007/s00424-003-1130-z
5062:Seminars in Liver Disease
4939:10.1016/j.cld.2007.11.004
4584:Seminars in Liver Disease
4376:10.1016/j.lfs.2021.120152
3880:Tanaka A (January 2021).
3695:Seminars in Liver Disease
3649:10.1038/s41575-019-0226-7
3469:Hepatology Communications
3378:10.1016/j.fct.2018.07.017
3281:Lisi DM (December 2016).
3052:10.1186/s12876-019-1112-z
2947:Cholestatic liver disease
2525:American Family Physician
1933:(PBC) is often done with
1863:Nalfurafine hydrochloride
984:gamma-glutamyltransferase
933:
780:proinflammatory cytokines
494:Tricyclic antidepressants
184:
51:
35:
26:
21:
9523:Gastric dumping syndrome
9398:Laryngopharyngeal reflux
9385:Diffuse esophageal spasm
8066:Lindor KD (March 1997).
7404:Kim JH (December 2011).
7322:10.1177/2324709618792031
6680:Kleiner DE (June 2017).
6242:Clinics in Liver Disease
6025:McGill MR (2016-12-15).
5919:. Totowa, N.J.: Humana.
4927:Clinics in Liver Disease
4463:10.3748/wjg.v20.i28.9418
4268:10.1177/2050640617708953
4109:10.3748/wjg.v26.i21.2768
3086:Clinics in Liver Disease
2452:10.3389/fmed.2021.639674
2381:Bergasa NV (June 2015).
2313:Southern Medical Journal
1584:Importantly, conjugated
753:(a bile acid analogue),
332:Drug-induced cholestasis
258:, an autoimmune disorder
225:pediatric liver diseases
10569:Biliary tract disorders
10139:Alcoholic liver disease
9672:Bile acid malabsorption
9616:Peptic (duodenal) ulcer
7422:10.5946/ce.2011.44.2.76
7197:10.4253/wjge.v10.i8.130
6483:(inactive 2024-06-22).
6394:(inactive 2024-06-22).
3411:"Cholestatic Hepatitis"
2863:10.3389/fped.2014.00065
2801:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
2278:Shah R, John S (2021).
2195:low density lipoprotein
1897:coronary artery disease
920:Notch signaling pathway
784:human leukocyte antigen
633:Urinary tract infection
459:amoxicillin-clavulanate
10149:Hepatic encephalopathy
9533:Buried bumper syndrome
9464:Peptic (gastric) ulcer
9348:Mallory–Weiss syndrome
9291:human digestive system
7535:Clinical Liver Disease
7078:10.1002/hep.1840050424
6897:Clinical Liver Disease
6891:Lewis J (March 2018).
6330:Clinical Liver Disease
6043:10.17179/excli2016-800
5074:10.1055/s-0030-1253224
5011:(2 Suppl 1): S60–S66.
4596:10.1055/s-0030-1253223
3707:10.1055/s-0039-1697617
3316:(Suppl 6): s104–s109.
3240:Archives of Toxicology
2720:Textbook of Hepatology
2568:10.1136/pmj.78.921.404
2280:"Cholestatic Jaundice"
2116:rheumatologic diseases
2035:creatine phosphokinase
1659:appearance within the
1599:unconjugated bilirubin
1591:aspartate transaminase
1508:
1250:competitive inhibition
1213:
194:
10374:Pancreatic pseudocyst
10243:Porcelain gallbladder
9355:Zenker's diverticulum
8918:10.1056/NEJMoa0810440
8820:10.1084/jem.181.2.723
8757:Journal of Hepatology
8261:Journal of Hepatology
8116:Journal of Hepatology
8033:Journal of Hepatology
7994:10.1056/NEJMoa1509840
6994:10.1002/hep.510280133
6651:10.1055/s-2004-823099
6584:10.3748/wjg.v5.i3.252
6209:10.5114/pg.2018.74554
5162:Journal of Hepatology
4701:10.1002/hep.510290331
4147:Journal of Hepatology
3976:10.1056/NEJMra1506330
3898:10.3350/cmh.2020.0028
3848:(4 Pt B): 1232–1239.
2728:10.1002/9780470691861
2601:Pediatric Dermatology
2486:Postgraduate Medicine
2439:Frontiers in Medicine
2211:Feathery degeneration
1847:visual analogue scale
1796:can then enlarge the
1506:
1361:taurolithocholic acid
1353:bilirubin glucuronide
1211:
975:TPN-based cholestasis
803:chenodeoxycholic acid
192:
116:can be indicative of
10178:Hepatorenal syndrome
10117:Budd–Chiari syndrome
10074:Autoimmune hepatitis
9899:Intestinal adhesions
9657:Short bowel syndrome
9486:Functional dyspepsia
9404:Esophageal stricture
9370:Nutcracker esophagus
8536:(10215): 2131–2133.
8308:10.1038/ajg.2017.287
8166:(Suppl 1): 123–129.
8122:(1 Suppl): S25–S37.
7372:10.1155/2016/1583486
7316:: 2324709618792031.
5416:10.1155/2021/6679322
4637:(11–12): 1628–1639.
4503:(Suppl 1): S26–S35.
4038:(10139): 2547–2559.
3755:10.1093/qjmed/hcm059
3039:BMC Gastroenterology
3001:10.1155/2018/8645068
2197:found in cholestasis
2186:Liver function tests
2047:farnesoid X receptor
1999:alkaline phosphatase
1967:ursodeoxycholic acid
1946:ursodeoxycholic acid
1935:ursodeoxycholic acid
1912:S-adenosylmethionine
1855:ursodeoxycholic acid
1595:alanine transaminase
1290:basolateral membrane
1137:farnesoid X receptor
1065:multiple pregnancies
1054:ursodeoxycholic acid
1050:alkaline phosphatase
1005:fatty acid synthesis
944:alkaline phosphatase
819:farnesoid X receptor
746:ursodeoxycholic acid
716:alkaline phosphatase
685:right upper quadrant
586:Ursodeoxycholic acid
580:alkaline phosphatase
363:cardiovascular drugs
179:fat-soluble vitamins
114:upper right quadrant
10317:Choledocholithiasis
10188:Metabolic disorders
10154:Acute liver failure
10127:Portal hypertension
10079:Alcoholic hepatitis
9922:Radiation proctitis
9841:Mesenteric ischemia
9813:Gastroenterocolitis
9642:Blind loop syndrome
9452:Ménétrier's disease
9360:Barrett's esophagus
8340:Hepatology Research
8160:Liver International
7645:2017PLoSO..1278991K
5948:McIntyre N (1991).
5654:2016NatSR...619008S
5504:2017PLoSO..1278702R
4933:(1): 97–110, viii.
4318:10.1155/2015/717431
3796:10.1155/2012/610504
3544:"Bland Cholestasis"
2661:10.5507/bp.2014.016
2132:monoclonal antibody
1922:Research directions
1818:hepaticojejunostomy
1780:are present in the
1772:Surgical management
1529:computed tomography
1435:phosphorylation by
1298:phosphatidylcholine
1203:choledocholithiasis
1176:common hepatic duct
1120:phosphatidylcholine
1097:pregnane X receptor
952:Lipopolysaccharides
776:hepatic macrophages
631:infectious agents.
209:birth control pills
122:choledocholithiasis
10492:Undefined location
10483:Grynfeltt–Lesshaft
10384:Pancreatic fistula
10367:Pancreatic abscess
10322:Biliary dyskinesia
10293:Mirizzi's syndrome
9794:Large and/or small
9474:Dieulafoy's lesion
9343:Boerhaave syndrome
9211:External resources
8677:(19–20): 542–548.
7410:Clinical Endoscopy
7232:Surgical Endoscopy
6429:Desmet VJ (1995).
6248:(1): 297–310, ix.
5642:Scientific Reports
5604:10.3390/jcm9051361
4798:10.1038/ng0797-235
3092:(1): 95–132, vii.
2244:Medscape Reference
1940:For patients with
1836:Medical management
1586:hyperbilirubinemia
1509:
1433:myosin light chain
1214:
948:lipopolysaccharide
907:hyperbilirubinemia
731:cholangiocarcinoma
670:ulcerative colitis
282:secondary syphilis
264:, associated with
243:biliary dyskinesia
195:
107:Signs and symptoms
10556:
10555:
10552:
10551:
10392:
10391:
9994:
9993:
9851:Bowel obstruction
9553:
9552:
9256:
9255:
9101:10.1111/apt.12232
9052:10.1111/apt.14540
9003:10.1111/apt.14397
8912:(24): 2544–2555.
8870:10.1002/hep.24748
8590:10.1002/hep.28932
8497:10.1002/hep.29569
8400:10.1002/hep.28991
8173:10.1111/liv.13306
7902:10.1002/hep.22428
6401:978-1-4613-4767-5
5996:. W.B. Saunders.
5926:978-1-59745-118-5
5704:978-0-323-29639-7
5662:10.1038/srep19008
5464:978-1-119-43684-3
5451:Arias IM (2020).
5251:978-3-540-76839-5
4895:10.1002/hep.21480
4644:10.1111/apt.16118
4552:10.1002/hep.23539
4456:(28): 9418–9426.
4213:10.1002/hep.31311
4102:(21): 2768–2780.
3970:(12): 1161–1170.
3591:(10): 1593–1605.
3481:10.1002/hep4.1088
3310:Clinical Medicine
3137:10.1002/hep.24229
2960:978-1-4939-1013-7
2924:978-1-935281-48-1
2807:(10): 2263–2279.
2737:978-0-470-69186-1
2613:10.1111/pde.13306
2400:10.1002/hep.27582
1736:Hodgkin's disease
1721:Alagille syndrome
1689:Alagille syndrome
1557:aminotransferases
902:Alagille syndrome
897:Alagille syndrome
891:Alagille syndrome
831:anion exchanger 2
647:molecular mimicry
605:anion exchanger 2
530:Alagille syndrome
401:anabolic steroids
359:anti-inflammatory
298:anabolic steroids
270:some drugs (e.g.
197:Possible causes:
161:neurotransmission
63:
62:
16:Medical condition
10581:
10544:Pneumoperitoneum
10401:
10400:
10311:Common bile duct
10193:Wilson's disease
10183:Peliosis hepatis
10052:
10051:
9929:Proctalgia fugax
9836:Abdominal angina
9761:Ogilvie syndrome
9710:Pseudomembranous
9568:
9567:
9528:Gastric volvulus
9493:Pyloric stenosis
9304:
9303:
9289:Diseases of the
9283:
9276:
9269:
9260:
9259:
9134:
9133:
9122:
9121:
9103:
9079:
9073:
9072:
9054:
9030:
9024:
9023:
9005:
8981:
8975:
8974:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8929:
8897:
8891:
8890:
8872:
8848:
8842:
8841:
8831:
8799:
8793:
8792:
8782:
8772:
8748:
8742:
8741:
8718:Gastroenterology
8709:
8703:
8702:
8666:
8660:
8659:
8649:
8617:
8611:
8610:
8592:
8568:
8562:
8561:
8525:
8519:
8518:
8508:
8491:(5): 1890–1902.
8476:
8470:
8469:
8459:
8427:
8421:
8420:
8402:
8393:(4): 1393–1404.
8378:
8372:
8371:
8334:
8328:
8327:
8291:
8285:
8284:
8252:
8246:
8245:
8227:
8203:
8194:
8193:
8175:
8151:
8142:
8141:
8131:
8107:
8098:
8097:
8087:
8063:
8057:
8056:
8030:
8021:
8015:
8014:
7996:
7972:
7963:
7962:
7952:
7937:Gastroenterology
7928:
7922:
7921:
7884:
7878:
7877:
7849:
7843:
7842:
7806:
7800:
7799:
7789:
7774:Gastroenterology
7765:
7759:
7758:
7748:
7739:(9): 2921–2924.
7724:
7718:
7717:
7707:
7692:Gastroenterology
7683:
7677:
7676:
7666:
7656:
7624:
7618:
7617:
7607:
7575:
7569:
7568:
7558:
7526:
7520:
7519:
7509:
7485:
7479:
7478:
7450:
7444:
7443:
7433:
7401:
7395:
7394:
7384:
7374:
7350:
7344:
7343:
7333:
7301:
7295:
7294:
7270:
7264:
7263:
7238:(4): 1740–1748.
7226:
7220:
7219:
7209:
7199:
7171:
7165:
7164:
7136:
7130:
7129:
7105:
7099:
7098:
7080:
7056:
7050:
7049:
7021:
7015:
7014:
6996:
6972:
6966:
6965:
6937:
6931:
6930:
6920:
6888:
6882:
6881:
6853:
6847:
6846:
6818:
6812:
6811:
6801:
6777:
6771:
6770:
6764:
6760:
6758:
6750:
6748:
6747:
6726:
6720:
6719:
6709:
6677:
6671:
6670:
6634:
6607:
6606:
6596:
6586:
6562:
6556:
6555:
6526:
6517:
6516:
6510:
6502:
6492:
6460:
6451:
6450:
6426:
6420:
6419:
6413:
6405:
6379:
6364:
6363:
6353:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6296:
6272:
6266:
6265:
6237:
6231:
6230:
6220:
6188:
6182:
6181:
6171:
6147:
6141:
6140:
6130:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6082:(144): 457–468.
6071:
6065:
6064:
6054:
6022:
6016:
6015:
5987:
5974:
5973:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5910:
5877:
5876:
5842:
5833:
5822:
5821:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5742:
5709:
5708:
5690:
5684:
5683:
5673:
5633:
5627:
5626:
5616:
5606:
5582:
5576:
5575:
5547:
5536:
5535:
5525:
5515:
5483:
5477:
5476:
5448:
5439:
5438:
5428:
5418:
5394:
5383:
5382:
5348:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5298:
5289:
5264:
5263:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5192:
5186:
5185:
5168:(6): 1012–1021.
5157:
5140:
5139:
5103:
5094:
5093:
5059:
5050:
5029:
5028:
5005:Gastroenterology
5000:
4994:
4993:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4897:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4856:
4824:
4818:
4817:
4777:
4771:
4770:
4752:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4703:
4679:
4673:
4672:
4646:
4622:
4616:
4615:
4579:
4573:
4572:
4554:
4545:(5): 1645–1655.
4530:
4521:
4520:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4475:
4465:
4441:
4404:
4403:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4338:
4320:
4296:
4290:
4289:
4279:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4207:(3): 1127–1138.
4192:
4173:
4172:
4162:
4153:(6): 1298–1323.
4138:
4132:
4131:
4121:
4111:
4087:
4064:
4063:
4027:
3998:
3997:
3987:
3955:
3920:
3919:
3909:
3877:
3868:
3867:
3857:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3816:
3798:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3757:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3690:
3669:
3668:
3632:
3617:
3616:
3580:
3565:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3492:
3460:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3407:
3398:
3397:
3361:
3344:
3343:
3333:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3246:(5): 1169–1186.
3237:
3228:
3203:
3202:
3192:
3168:
3159:
3158:
3148:
3131:(4): 1377–1387.
3116:
3110:
3109:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3064:
3054:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3013:
3003:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2942:
2929:
2928:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2893:
2885:
2875:
2865:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2816:
2792:
2777:
2776:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2607:(6): e305–e308.
2596:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2562:(921): 404–407.
2547:
2541:
2540:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2464:
2454:
2430:
2421:
2420:
2402:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2275:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2235:
2052:obeticholic acid
2029:. Elevations of
1953:Obeticholic acid
1826:endoscopic stent
1802:balloon catheter
1798:ampulla of Vater
1788:. To do this, a
1782:common bile duct
1565:aminotransferase
1485:ethinylestradiol
1419:, troglitazone,
1192:ampulla of Vater
1188:common bile duct
1168:canals of Hering
866:liver transplant
815:lithocholic acid
811:deoxycholic acid
751:obeticholic acid
590:obeticholic acid
475:sulfamethoxazole
435:, among others.
425:fluoroquinolones
314:prochlorperazine
58:Gastroenterology
31:
19:
18:
10589:
10588:
10584:
10583:
10582:
10580:
10579:
10578:
10559:
10558:
10557:
10548:
10513:
10502:Internal hernia
10388:
10333:
10298:Biliary fistula
10256:
10247:
10233:Adenomyomatosis
10228:Cholesterolosis
10204:
10198:Hemochromatosis
10069:Viral hepatitis
10041:
9990:
9948:
9934:Rectal prolapse
9903:
9870:Fecal impaction
9860:Intussusception
9823:Crohn's disease
9789:
9772:Toxic megacolon
9684:
9682:Large intestine
9676:
9621:Curling's ulcer
9574:
9572:Small intestine
9561:
9549:
9457:Gastroenteritis
9428:
9293:
9287:
9257:
9252:
9251:
9206:
9205:
9145:
9131:
9126:
9125:
9080:
9076:
9031:
9027:
8982:
8978:
8947:
8943:
8898:
8894:
8849:
8845:
8800:
8796:
8749:
8745:
8710:
8706:
8667:
8663:
8618:
8614:
8569:
8565:
8526:
8522:
8477:
8473:
8428:
8424:
8379:
8375:
8335:
8331:
8292:
8288:
8253:
8249:
8204:
8197:
8152:
8145:
8108:
8101:
8078:(10): 691–695.
8064:
8060:
8028:
8022:
8018:
7973:
7966:
7929:
7925:
7885:
7881:
7850:
7846:
7807:
7803:
7766:
7762:
7725:
7721:
7684:
7680:
7639:(6): e0178991.
7625:
7621:
7576:
7572:
7547:10.1002/cld.901
7527:
7523:
7486:
7482:
7451:
7447:
7402:
7398:
7351:
7347:
7302:
7298:
7271:
7267:
7227:
7223:
7172:
7168:
7137:
7133:
7106:
7102:
7057:
7053:
7026:Human Pathology
7022:
7018:
6973:
6969:
6938:
6934:
6909:10.1002/cld.695
6889:
6885:
6854:
6850:
6819:
6815:
6778:
6774:
6762:
6761:
6752:
6751:
6745:
6743:
6727:
6723:
6678:
6674:
6635:
6610:
6563:
6559:
6527:
6520:
6504:
6503:
6469:Gene Expression
6461:
6454:
6427:
6423:
6407:
6406:
6402:
6380:
6367:
6342:10.1002/cld.441
6322:
6318:
6273:
6269:
6238:
6234:
6189:
6185:
6148:
6144:
6107:
6103:
6072:
6068:
6023:
6019:
6004:
5988:
5977:
5962:
5946:
5942:
5927:
5911:
5880:
5840:
5834:
5825:
5810:
5784:
5780:
5765:
5743:
5712:
5705:
5691:
5687:
5634:
5630:
5583:
5579:
5548:
5539:
5498:(6): e0178702.
5484:
5480:
5465:
5449:
5442:
5395:
5386:
5351:Pflügers Archiv
5346:
5340:
5336:
5296:
5290:
5267:
5252:
5236:
5232:
5193:
5189:
5158:
5143:
5104:
5097:
5057:
5051:
5032:
5001:
4997:
4958:
4954:
4923:
4919:
4874:
4870:
4825:
4821:
4786:Nature Genetics
4778:
4774:
4729:
4725:
4680:
4676:
4623:
4619:
4580:
4576:
4531:
4524:
4493:
4489:
4442:
4407:
4356:
4352:
4297:
4293:
4248:
4244:
4193:
4176:
4139:
4135:
4088:
4067:
4028:
4001:
3956:
3923:
3878:
3871:
3834:
3830:
3775:
3771:
3734:
3730:
3691:
3672:
3633:
3620:
3581:
3568:
3560:
3558:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3527:
3511:
3510:
3506:
3461:
3436:
3427:
3425:
3409:
3408:
3401:
3362:
3347:
3302:
3298:
3279:
3275:
3235:
3229:
3206:
3169:
3162:
3117:
3113:
3082:
3078:
3031:
3027:
2980:
2976:
2961:
2943:
2932:
2925:
2907:
2903:
2887:
2886:
2842:
2838:
2793:
2780:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2716:
2712:
2681:
2677:
2640:
2636:
2597:
2593:
2548:
2544:
2517:
2513:
2482:
2478:
2431:
2424:
2379:
2375:
2344:
2340:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2294:
2276:
2257:
2248:
2246:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2215:histopathologic
2177:
2141:
2096:
2080:
2043:
1975:
1924:
1838:
1822:small intestine
1774:
1769:
1644:
1636:cholangiography
1628:cholangiography
1607:
1573:5' nucleosidase
1571:Measurement of
1549:bile canaliculi
1545:
1525:imaging studies
1513:5'-nucleotidase
1501:
1468:Tight junctions
1282:bile canaliculi
1223:bile canaliculi
1219:
1160:bile canaliculi
1145:
1093:bile canaliculi
1089:ABC transporter
1019:
1013:
977:
936:
899:
893:
857:
851:
791:Tight junctions
674:Crohn's colitis
661:
655:
560:
554:
542:biliary atresia
514:
334:
284:, albeit rarely
252:cystic fibrosis
248:acute hepatitis
187:
109:
97:genetic defects
17:
12:
11:
5:
10587:
10577:
10576:
10571:
10554:
10553:
10550:
10549:
10547:
10546:
10541:
10539:Hemoperitoneum
10536:
10535:
10534:
10523:
10521:
10515:
10514:
10512:
10511:
10510:
10509:
10504:
10499:
10488:
10487:
10486:
10485:
10480:
10467:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10446:
10445:
10444:
10439:
10428:
10427:
10422:
10421:
10420:
10409:
10407:
10398:
10394:
10393:
10390:
10389:
10387:
10386:
10381:
10376:
10371:
10370:
10369:
10364:
10359:
10354:
10343:
10341:
10335:
10334:
10332:
10331:
10326:
10325:
10324:
10319:
10306:
10305:
10300:
10295:
10286:
10285:
10284:
10279:
10274:
10263:
10261:
10249:
10248:
10246:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10230:
10225:
10220:
10214:
10212:
10206:
10205:
10203:
10202:
10201:
10200:
10195:
10185:
10180:
10175:
10174:
10173:
10168:
10158:
10157:
10156:
10151:
10141:
10136:
10135:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10119:
10107:
10106:
10105:
10095:
10094:
10093:
10083:
10082:
10081:
10076:
10071:
10060:
10058:
10049:
10043:
10042:
10040:
10039:
10038:
10037:
10027:
10026:
10025:
10020:
10010:
10008:Blood in stool
10004:
10002:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9991:
9989:
9988:
9983:
9981:Anal dysplasia
9978:
9973:
9968:
9958:
9956:
9950:
9949:
9947:
9946:
9941:
9936:
9931:
9926:
9925:
9924:
9913:
9911:
9905:
9904:
9902:
9901:
9896:
9895:
9894:
9884:
9883:
9882:
9872:
9867:
9862:
9857:
9848:
9846:Angiodysplasia
9843:
9838:
9827:
9826:
9825:
9815:
9810:
9809:
9808:
9797:
9795:
9791:
9790:
9788:
9787:
9781:Diverticulosis
9777:Diverticulitis
9774:
9765:
9764:
9763:
9754:
9744:
9739:
9738:
9737:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9717:
9712:
9702:
9696:
9694:
9678:
9677:
9675:
9674:
9669:
9667:Milroy disease
9664:
9659:
9654:
9649:
9644:
9639:
9637:Tropical sprue
9634:
9625:
9624:
9623:
9613:
9612:
9611:
9606:
9601:
9590:
9588:
9565:
9559:Lower GI tract
9555:
9554:
9551:
9550:
9548:
9547:
9546:
9545:
9535:
9530:
9525:
9520:
9515:
9510:
9505:
9500:
9495:
9490:
9489:
9488:
9478:
9477:
9476:
9471:
9461:
9460:
9459:
9454:
9449:
9438:
9436:
9430:
9429:
9427:
9426:
9421:
9416:
9411:
9406:
9401:
9395:
9394:
9393:
9387:
9382:
9377:
9372:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9351:
9350:
9345:
9335:
9334:
9333:
9328:
9323:
9312:
9310:
9301:
9299:Upper GI tract
9295:
9294:
9286:
9285:
9278:
9271:
9263:
9254:
9253:
9250:
9249:
9238:
9227:
9215:
9214:
9212:
9208:
9207:
9204:
9203:
9192:
9181:
9166:
9146:
9141:
9140:
9138:
9137:Classification
9130:
9129:External links
9127:
9124:
9123:
9094:(6): 604–612.
9074:
9045:(7): 886–895.
9025:
8996:(2): 192–202.
8976:
8957:(1): 172–180.
8941:
8892:
8863:(2): 512–521.
8843:
8814:(2): 723–733.
8794:
8763:(3): 549–558.
8743:
8704:
8661:
8632:(2): e11–e16.
8612:
8583:(3): 920–928.
8563:
8520:
8471:
8442:(2): 135–144.
8422:
8373:
8346:(6): 557–564.
8329:
8286:
8247:
8218:(2): 235–242.
8195:
8143:
8099:
8058:
8039:(1): 145–172.
8016:
7987:(7): 631–643.
7964:
7943:(3): 715–720.
7923:
7896:(3): 871–877.
7879:
7844:
7817:(2): 109–111.
7801:
7780:(1): 211–215.
7760:
7719:
7698:(3): 787–792.
7678:
7619:
7590:(3): 587–593.
7570:
7541:(3): 120–124.
7521:
7500:(9): 689–702.
7480:
7461:(2): 243–247.
7445:
7396:
7345:
7296:
7285:(2): 111–119.
7265:
7221:
7190:(8): 130–144.
7166:
7131:
7100:
7071:(4): 666–672.
7051:
7016:
6987:(1): 253–260.
6967:
6948:(3): 175–185.
6932:
6883:
6864:(2): 205–225.
6848:
6813:
6792:(3): 715–730.
6772:
6732:Mallory Bodies
6721:
6692:(2): 273–296.
6672:
6608:
6577:(3): 252–262.
6557:
6518:
6475:(3): 215–228.
6452:
6421:
6400:
6365:
6336:(6): 133–137.
6316:
6267:
6232:
6183:
6142:
6101:
6066:
6017:
6002:
5975:
5960:
5940:
5925:
5878:
5823:
5808:
5778:
5763:
5710:
5703:
5685:
5628:
5577:
5558:(2): 141–153.
5537:
5478:
5463:
5440:
5384:
5357:(5): 566–570.
5334:
5307:(6): 520–548.
5265:
5250:
5230:
5203:(1): 134–151.
5187:
5141:
5114:(2): 103–109.
5095:
5068:(2): 147–159.
5030:
4995:
4968:(7): 525–532.
4952:
4917:
4888:(1): 230–241.
4868:
4845:10.1086/505332
4839:(1): 169–173.
4819:
4792:(3): 235–242.
4772:
4723:
4694:(3): 822–829.
4674:
4617:
4590:(2): 134–146.
4574:
4522:
4487:
4405:
4350:
4291:
4262:(1): 112–122.
4242:
4174:
4133:
4065:
3999:
3921:
3869:
3828:
3769:
3748:(8): 534–535.
3728:
3670:
3618:
3566:
3535:
3504:
3475:(8): 726–735.
3434:
3399:
3345:
3296:
3273:
3204:
3160:
3111:
3076:
3025:
2974:
2959:
2930:
2923:
2917:. p. 47.
2901:
2836:
2778:
2759:(4): 673–705.
2743:
2736:
2710:
2675:
2654:(2): 181–188.
2634:
2591:
2542:
2531:(3): 164–168.
2511:
2476:
2422:
2373:
2354:(3): 329–338.
2338:
2319:(5): 294–295.
2303:
2255:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:– an abnormal
2188:
2183:
2176:
2173:
2145:gut microbiome
2140:
2139:Gut microbiome
2137:
2124:interleukin 23
2120:interleukin 12
2095:
2092:
2088:cholangiocytes
2079:
2076:
2059:incidence for
2042:
2039:
1974:
1971:
1923:
1920:
1870:cholestyramine
1851:antihistamines
1837:
1834:
1814:gastric bypass
1794:sphincterotome
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1705:Mallory bodies
1703:. Oftentimes,
1643:
1642:Histopathology
1640:
1606:
1603:
1544:
1541:
1500:
1497:
1489:chlorpromazine
1481:cyclosporine A
1457:flucloxacillin
1393:cyclosporine A
1318:chlorpromazine
1254:cyclosporine A
1218:
1215:
1186:, to give the
1144:
1141:
1015:Main article:
1012:
1009:
976:
973:
935:
932:
895:Main article:
892:
889:
853:Main article:
850:
847:
772:cholangiocytes
763:cholangiocytes
657:Main article:
654:
651:
601:cholangiocytes
574:(AMA) against
556:Main article:
553:
550:
513:
510:
490:chlorpromazine
463:Flucloxacillin
421:cephalosporins
355:anti-diabetics
333:
330:
306:chlorpromazine
294:nitrofurantoin
288:Drugs such as
286:
285:
279:
272:flucloxacillin
268:
259:
253:
250:
245:
240:
235:
232:
226:
223:
216:abdominal mass
213:
210:
207:
202:
186:
183:
157:corticotrophin
108:
105:
101:
100:
93:
61:
60:
55:
49:
48:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10586:
10575:
10572:
10570:
10567:
10566:
10564:
10545:
10542:
10540:
10537:
10533:
10530:
10529:
10528:
10525:
10524:
10522:
10520:
10516:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10498:
10495:
10494:
10493:
10490:
10489:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10475:
10474:
10473:
10469:
10468:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10443:
10440:
10438:
10435:
10434:
10433:
10430:
10429:
10426:
10423:
10419:
10416:
10415:
10414:
10413:Diaphragmatic
10411:
10410:
10408:
10406:
10402:
10399:
10395:
10385:
10382:
10380:
10377:
10375:
10372:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10349:
10348:
10345:
10344:
10342:
10340:
10336:
10330:
10327:
10323:
10320:
10318:
10315:
10314:
10313:
10312:
10308:
10307:
10304:
10301:
10299:
10296:
10294:
10290:
10287:
10283:
10280:
10278:
10275:
10273:
10270:
10269:
10268:
10265:
10264:
10262:
10260:
10254:
10250:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10236:
10234:
10231:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10218:Cholecystitis
10216:
10215:
10213:
10211:
10207:
10199:
10196:
10194:
10191:
10190:
10189:
10186:
10184:
10181:
10179:
10176:
10172:
10169:
10167:
10164:
10163:
10162:
10161:Liver abscess
10159:
10155:
10152:
10150:
10147:
10146:
10145:
10144:Liver failure
10142:
10140:
10137:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10118:
10115:
10114:
10113:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10101:
10100:
10099:
10096:
10092:
10089:
10088:
10087:
10084:
10080:
10077:
10075:
10072:
10070:
10067:
10066:
10065:
10062:
10061:
10059:
10057:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10044:
10036:
10033:
10032:
10031:
10028:
10024:
10021:
10019:
10016:
10015:
10014:
10011:
10009:
10006:
10005:
10003:
10001:
9997:
9987:
9984:
9982:
9979:
9977:
9974:
9972:
9969:
9967:
9963:
9960:
9959:
9957:
9955:
9951:
9945:
9942:
9940:
9937:
9935:
9932:
9930:
9927:
9923:
9920:
9919:
9918:
9915:
9914:
9912:
9910:
9906:
9900:
9897:
9893:
9890:
9889:
9888:
9885:
9881:
9878:
9877:
9876:
9873:
9871:
9868:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9856:
9852:
9849:
9847:
9844:
9842:
9839:
9837:
9833:
9832:
9828:
9824:
9821:
9820:
9819:
9816:
9814:
9811:
9807:
9804:
9803:
9802:
9801:Enterocolitis
9799:
9798:
9796:
9792:
9786:
9782:
9778:
9775:
9773:
9769:
9766:
9762:
9758:
9755:
9753:
9750:
9749:
9748:
9745:
9743:
9740:
9736:
9733:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9707:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9695:
9692:
9688:
9683:
9679:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9648:
9645:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9629:
9628:Malabsorption
9626:
9622:
9619:
9618:
9617:
9614:
9610:
9607:
9605:
9602:
9600:
9597:
9596:
9595:
9592:
9591:
9589:
9586:
9582:
9578:
9573:
9569:
9566:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9544:
9541:
9540:
9539:
9536:
9534:
9531:
9529:
9526:
9524:
9521:
9519:
9516:
9514:
9511:
9509:
9506:
9504:
9503:Gastroparesis
9501:
9499:
9496:
9494:
9491:
9487:
9484:
9483:
9482:
9479:
9475:
9472:
9470:
9469:Cushing ulcer
9467:
9466:
9465:
9462:
9458:
9455:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9444:
9443:
9440:
9439:
9437:
9435:
9431:
9425:
9422:
9420:
9417:
9415:
9414:Megaesophagus
9412:
9410:
9407:
9405:
9402:
9399:
9396:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9367:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9349:
9346:
9344:
9341:
9340:
9339:
9336:
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9318:
9317:
9314:
9313:
9311:
9309:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9296:
9292:
9284:
9279:
9277:
9272:
9270:
9265:
9264:
9261:
9248:
9244:
9243:
9239:
9237:
9233:
9232:
9228:
9226:
9222:
9221:
9217:
9216:
9213:
9209:
9202:
9198:
9197:
9193:
9191:
9187:
9186:
9182:
9180:
9176:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9165:
9161:
9157:
9156:
9152:
9148:
9147:
9144:
9139:
9135:
9119:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9102:
9097:
9093:
9089:
9085:
9078:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9029:
9021:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8995:
8991:
8987:
8980:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8945:
8937:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8907:
8903:
8896:
8888:
8884:
8880:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8862:
8858:
8854:
8847:
8839:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8821:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8805:
8798:
8790:
8786:
8781:
8776:
8771:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8754:
8747:
8739:
8735:
8731:
8727:
8723:
8719:
8715:
8708:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8665:
8657:
8653:
8648:
8643:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8627:
8623:
8616:
8608:
8604:
8600:
8596:
8591:
8586:
8582:
8578:
8574:
8567:
8559:
8555:
8551:
8547:
8543:
8539:
8535:
8531:
8524:
8516:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8498:
8494:
8490:
8486:
8482:
8475:
8467:
8463:
8458:
8453:
8449:
8445:
8441:
8437:
8433:
8426:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8392:
8388:
8384:
8377:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8345:
8341:
8333:
8325:
8321:
8317:
8313:
8309:
8305:
8301:
8297:
8290:
8282:
8278:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8251:
8243:
8239:
8235:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8202:
8200:
8191:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8165:
8161:
8157:
8150:
8148:
8139:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8106:
8104:
8095:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8069:
8062:
8054:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8034:
8027:
8020:
8012:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7971:
7969:
7960:
7956:
7951:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7934:
7927:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7883:
7875:
7871:
7867:
7863:
7859:
7855:
7848:
7840:
7836:
7832:
7828:
7824:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7805:
7797:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7779:
7775:
7771:
7764:
7756:
7752:
7747:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7723:
7715:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7682:
7674:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7623:
7615:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7574:
7566:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7525:
7517:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7499:
7495:
7491:
7484:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7464:
7460:
7456:
7449:
7441:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7400:
7392:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7373:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7349:
7341:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7300:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7269:
7261:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7225:
7217:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7179:
7170:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7135:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7104:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7079:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7055:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7020:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6971:
6963:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6947:
6943:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6887:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6852:
6844:
6840:
6836:
6832:
6828:
6824:
6817:
6809:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6776:
6768:
6756:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6733:
6725:
6717:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6676:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6615:
6613:
6604:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6561:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6525:
6523:
6514:
6508:
6500:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6459:
6457:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6425:
6417:
6411:
6403:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6376:
6374:
6372:
6370:
6361:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6320:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6271:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6236:
6228:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6179:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6146:
6138:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6070:
6062:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6031:EXCLI Journal
6028:
6021:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6003:0-7216-7996-X
5999:
5995:
5994:
5986:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5961:0-19-261968-3
5957:
5953:
5952:
5944:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5922:
5918:
5917:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5839:
5832:
5830:
5828:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5809:9781119436829
5805:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5782:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5764:9781119171003
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5731:
5729:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5715:
5706:
5700:
5696:
5689:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5632:
5624:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5581:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5546:
5544:
5542:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5482:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5460:
5456:
5455:
5447:
5445:
5436:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5393:
5391:
5389:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5345:
5338:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5295:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5247:
5243:
5242:
5234:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5191:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5148:
5146:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5102:
5100:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5056:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4956:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4921:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4872:
4864:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4823:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4776:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4678:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4621:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4578:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4527:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4491:
4483:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4364:Life Sciences
4361:
4354:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4295:
4287:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4246:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4170:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4016:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4008:
4006:
4004:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3954:
3952:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3942:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3917:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3874:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3773:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3643:(2): 93–110.
3642:
3638:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3292:
3288:
3287:US Pharmacist
3284:
3277:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3165:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2926:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2897:
2891:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2850:Front Pediatr
2847:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2427:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2227:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2191:Lipoprotein-X
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2075:
2073:
2072:retinoic acid
2071:
2064:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1919:
1917:
1916:Dexamethasone
1913:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1859:phenobarbital
1856:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1833:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1764:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1692:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1669:Kupffer cells
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1494:
1493:17β-estradiol
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1473:Na+/K+-ATPase
1469:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1379:, rifamycin,
1378:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:glibenclamide
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1210:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1106:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:Na+/K+-ATPase
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:transaminases
1043:
1039:
1035:
1032:ethnicity in
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1008:
1006:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
972:
970:
966:
962:
958:
953:
949:
945:
941:
931:
929:
925:
921:
916:
912:
908:
903:
898:
888:
885:
884:
879:
878:
873:
872:
867:
863:
856:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
794:
792:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
764:
758:
756:
752:
747:
742:
740:
736:
732:
727:
725:
721:
720:cholangiogram
717:
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
677:
675:
671:
667:
660:
650:
648:
644:
640:
639:
634:
629:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
593:
591:
587:
583:
581:
578:and elevated
577:
573:
567:
565:
559:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
434:
430:
429:tetracyclines
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
379:
375:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:idiosyncratic
340:
339:acetaminophen
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
283:
280:
277:
273:
269:
267:
263:
260:
257:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
233:
231:
227:
224:
221:
217:
214:
211:
208:
206:
203:
200:
199:
198:
191:
182:
180:
176:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
134:
129:
125:
123:
119:
118:cholecystitis
115:
104:
98:
94:
91:
87:
83:
82:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
59:
56:
54:
50:
46:
45:H&E stain
42:
38:
34:
30:
25:
20:
10491:
10470:
10347:Pancreatitis
10309:
10288:
10259:biliary tree
10132:Nutmeg liver
10109:
10035:Hematochezia
9986:Pruritus ani
9971:Anal abscess
9966:Anal fistula
9962:Anal fissure
9875:Constipation
9829:
9700:Appendicitis
9508:Gastroptosis
9498:Achlorhydria
9337:
9326:Eosinophilic
9240:
9229:
9218:
9194:
9183:
9168:
9149:
9091:
9087:
9077:
9042:
9038:
9028:
8993:
8989:
8979:
8954:
8950:
8944:
8909:
8905:
8895:
8860:
8856:
8846:
8811:
8807:
8797:
8760:
8756:
8746:
8724:(1): 82–89.
8721:
8717:
8707:
8674:
8670:
8664:
8629:
8625:
8615:
8580:
8576:
8566:
8533:
8529:
8523:
8488:
8484:
8474:
8439:
8435:
8425:
8390:
8386:
8376:
8343:
8339:
8332:
8302:(1): 49–55.
8299:
8295:
8289:
8264:
8260:
8250:
8215:
8211:
8163:
8159:
8119:
8115:
8075:
8071:
8061:
8036:
8032:
8019:
7984:
7980:
7940:
7936:
7926:
7893:
7889:
7882:
7857:
7853:
7847:
7814:
7810:
7804:
7777:
7773:
7763:
7736:
7732:
7722:
7695:
7691:
7681:
7636:
7632:
7622:
7587:
7583:
7573:
7538:
7534:
7524:
7497:
7493:
7483:
7458:
7454:
7448:
7416:(2): 76–86.
7413:
7409:
7399:
7362:
7358:
7348:
7313:
7309:
7299:
7282:
7278:
7268:
7235:
7231:
7224:
7187:
7183:
7177:
7169:
7147:(1): 22–29.
7144:
7140:
7134:
7120:(1): 23–27.
7117:
7113:
7103:
7068:
7064:
7054:
7032:(1): 19–24.
7029:
7025:
7019:
6984:
6980:
6970:
6945:
6941:
6935:
6903:(3): 77–80.
6900:
6896:
6886:
6861:
6857:
6851:
6829:(1): 43–51.
6826:
6822:
6816:
6789:
6785:
6775:
6744:. Retrieved
6731:
6724:
6689:
6685:
6675:
6645:(1): 21–42.
6642:
6638:
6574:
6570:
6560:
6538:(1): 63–71.
6535:
6531:
6507:cite journal
6472:
6468:
6438:
6434:
6424:
6383:
6333:
6329:
6319:
6284:
6280:
6270:
6245:
6241:
6235:
6200:
6196:
6186:
6162:(1): 60–73.
6159:
6155:
6145:
6118:
6114:
6104:
6079:
6075:
6069:
6034:
6030:
6020:
5992:
5950:
5943:
5915:
5848:
5844:
5791:
5781:
5746:
5694:
5688:
5648:(1): 19008.
5645:
5641:
5631:
5594:
5590:
5580:
5555:
5551:
5495:
5491:
5481:
5453:
5406:
5402:
5354:
5350:
5337:
5304:
5300:
5240:
5233:
5200:
5196:
5190:
5165:
5161:
5111:
5107:
5065:
5061:
5008:
5004:
4998:
4965:
4961:
4955:
4930:
4926:
4920:
4885:
4881:
4871:
4836:
4832:
4822:
4789:
4785:
4775:
4743:(1): 11–15.
4740:
4736:
4726:
4691:
4687:
4677:
4634:
4630:
4620:
4587:
4583:
4577:
4542:
4538:
4500:
4496:
4490:
4453:
4449:
4367:
4363:
4353:
4308:
4304:
4294:
4259:
4255:
4245:
4204:
4200:
4150:
4146:
4136:
4099:
4095:
4035:
4031:
3967:
3963:
3889:
3885:
3845:
3841:
3831:
3786:
3782:
3772:
3745:
3741:
3731:
3701:(1): 34–48.
3698:
3694:
3640:
3636:
3588:
3584:
3559:, retrieved
3547:
3538:
3528:, retrieved
3516:
3507:
3472:
3468:
3426:. Retrieved
3414:
3369:
3365:
3313:
3309:
3299:
3290:
3286:
3276:
3243:
3239:
3180:
3176:
3128:
3124:
3114:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3042:
3038:
3028:
2991:
2987:
2977:
2951:Humana Press
2946:
2910:
2904:
2890:cite journal
2853:
2849:
2839:
2804:
2800:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2719:
2713:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2559:
2555:
2545:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2492:(4): 65–71.
2489:
2485:
2479:
2442:
2438:
2390:
2386:
2376:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2295:. Retrieved
2283:
2247:. Retrieved
2243:
2169:
2142:
2110:targets the
2097:
2081:
2069:
2065:
2044:
2008:
1976:
1961:
1951:
1939:
1925:
1909:
1893:dyslipidemia
1890:
1886:
1867:
1839:
1806:
1790:duodenoscope
1775:
1763:may remain.
1744:
1725:
1713:
1693:
1677:
1665:phagocytosis
1645:
1625:
1608:
1589:cholestasis
1583:
1570:
1546:
1510:
1464:paracellular
1461:
1443:, bosentan,
1413:
1401:
1369:ketoconazole
1365:
1350:
1346:troglitazone
1338:clotrimazole
1330:ketoconazole
1314:itraconazole
1310:phospholipid
1295:
1285:
1270:troglitazone
1247:
1227:transporters
1220:
1200:
1184:gall bladder
1146:
1132:
1122:, the major
1109:
1103:
1101:
1058:
1020:
978:
937:
900:
881:
875:
870:
858:
795:
788:
759:
743:
728:
713:
709:splenomegaly
705:hepatomegaly
682:
678:
662:
642:
637:
625:
594:
584:
568:
561:
515:
502:azathioprine
487:
471:Trimethoprim
437:
413:sulfonamides
386:
371:
367:psychotropic
335:
310:erythromycin
287:
276:erythromycin
196:
173:
169:pancreatitis
138:
126:
110:
102:
65:
64:
10527:Peritonitis
10289:Cholestasis
10267:Cholangitis
10210:Gallbladder
10098:Fatty liver
10018:Hematemesis
10000:GI bleeding
9806:Necrotizing
9735:Lymphocytic
9730:Collagenous
9725:Microscopic
9662:Steatorrhea
9563:Enteropathy
9409:Inlet patch
9331:Herpetiform
9316:Esophagitis
9247:Cholestasis
9220:MedlinePlus
8780:2437/248251
8267:(66): S89.
7365:: 1583486.
6763:|work=
6441:: 233–240.
6037:: 817–828.
5794:: 269–285.
5749:: 307–337.
5597:(5): 1361.
5409:: 6679322.
4311:: e717431.
3892:(1): 1–21.
3372:: 196–212.
2691:(1): 1–30.
2393:(6): 2114.
2157:antibiotics
2128:ustekinumab
2084:bicarbonate
1995:bezafibrate
1778:bile stones
1756:enterococci
1732:endotoxemia
1728:neutrophils
1699:around the
1684:hepatocytes
1678:Hepatocyte
1649:hepatocytes
1561:hepatocytes
1531:(CT) scan,
1479:. In rats,
1421:perhexiline
1373:propranolol
1357:glutathione
1326:haloperidol
1306:cholesterol
1180:cystic duct
1164:hepatocytes
1044:as well as
992:gallbladder
835:Bicarbonate
799:cholic acid
778:to produce
767:hepatocytes
628:concordance
479:terbinafine
447:penicillins
443:antifungals
439:Antibiotics
433:methimazole
409:penicillins
351:antifungals
347:antibiotics
149:conjunctiva
145:oral mucosa
66:Cholestasis
22:Cholestasis
10574:Hepatology
10563:Categories
10519:Peritoneal
10497:Incisional
10418:Congenital
10362:Hereditary
10339:Pancreatic
10303:Haemobilia
9976:Hemorrhoid
9954:Anal canal
9892:Infectious
9880:Functional
9715:Ulcerative
9599:Duodenitis
9538:Gastrinoma
9242:Patient UK
9196:DiseasesDB
8857:Hepatology
8577:Hepatology
8485:Hepatology
8387:Hepatology
7890:Hepatology
7065:Hepatology
6981:Hepatology
6746:2021-12-02
6203:(1): 1–5.
5473:1121424716
4882:Hepatology
4688:Hepatology
4539:Hepatology
4370:: 120152.
4201:Hepatology
3789:: 610504.
3561:2021-11-16
3530:2021-12-05
3428:2021-11-16
3125:Hepatology
3045:(1): 191.
2445:: 639674.
2387:Hepatology
2297:2021-12-02
2284:StatPearls
2249:2024-08-10
2222:References
2165:vancomycin
2161:probiotics
2031:creatinine
2023:polydipsia
1882:sertraline
1845:such as a
1767:Management
1717:bile salts
1673:canaliculi
1653:microscope
1611:Ultrasound
1597:(ALT) and
1543:Biomarkers
1533:ultrasound
1453:cimetidine
1449:tacrolimus
1445:entacapone
1441:diclofenac
1437:MLC kinase
1417:nefazodone
1381:saquinavir
1377:furosemide
1334:saquinavir
1322:imipramine
1278:bile salts
1262:nefazodone
1258:rifampicin
1196:parenchyma
1172:bile ducts
1069:sinusoidal
1042:bile acids
821:(FXR) and
813:(DCA) and
755:simtuzumab
739:colorectal
735:pancreatic
609:bile salts
599:targeting
506:diclofenac
483:quinolones
467:Macrolides
451:macrolides
318:cimetidine
290:gold salts
238:gallstones
90:malignancy
37:Micrograph
10507:Richter's
10464:Spigelian
10459:Obturator
10449:Umbilical
10282:Ascending
10253:Bile duct
10086:Cirrhosis
10064:Hepatitis
10047:Accessory
9917:Proctitis
9768:Megacolon
9742:Dysentery
9652:Whipple's
9604:Jejunitis
9594:Enteritis
9481:Dyspepsia
9442:Gastritis
9375:Achalasia
9308:Esophagus
9231:eMedicine
8558:208652249
8417:205903643
8324:205105216
8281:0168-8278
8011:205099018
6962:0267-1379
6765:ignored (
6755:cite book
6667:260319594
6410:cite book
5935:525070586
5873:201125529
5851:(1): 58.
5818:213748863
5792:The Liver
5773:237848662
5329:203849209
5260:325000436
5225:208275376
5090:260312828
4669:224782897
4653:1365-2036
4612:260314414
4400:244281060
4384:0024-3205
4327:1687-6121
4237:218600521
4221:0270-9139
3805:798290161
3723:202702083
3665:208869625
3613:174811274
3268:106408884
3183:: 73–80.
2969:885025528
2831:222154067
2108:rituximab
2061:cirrhosis
2015:arthritis
2009:However,
1752:coliforms
1697:cytoplasm
1661:cytoplasm
1621:MRI scans
1521:bile acid
1499:Diagnosis
1425:metformin
1409:tamoxifen
1385:ritonavir
1342:ritonavir
1182:from the
1152:digestion
1143:Mechanism
1026:trimester
996:gallstone
988:cirrhosis
969:bilirubin
965:hemolysis
915:cirrhosis
909:, severe
843:dysbiosis
801:(CA) and
722:. Unlike
389:hepatitis
205:androgens
201:pregnancy
165:xanthomas
143:, in the
86:gallstone
72:from the
53:Specialty
10437:Indirect
10432:Inguinal
10166:Pyogenic
10111:Vascular
9887:Diarrhea
9865:Volvulus
9831:Vascular
9770: /
9759: /
9720:Ischemic
9687:Appendix
9577:Duodenum
9447:Atrophic
9321:Candidal
9118:22419224
9110:23384404
9061:29411404
9020:36556605
9012:29083037
8971:23910013
8951:Cytokine
8936:19458352
8887:39002609
8879:22006563
8789:28529147
8699:25907527
8691:18998069
8656:27428727
8607:20776738
8599:27906472
8550:31813639
8515:29023915
8466:26579439
8409:27997980
8368:36861916
8360:18452482
8316:29016567
8234:21083674
8190:19312830
8182:28052628
8138:25920087
8053:28427765
8003:27532829
7959:16530513
7918:40564903
7910:18752324
7874:28669591
7755:25356160
7673:28604788
7633:PLOS ONE
7614:19995367
7565:32257123
7516:27431691
7440:22741117
7391:28074091
7340:30116760
7291:28731990
7260:39106004
7252:28917018
7216:30147845
7161:24999215
7126:15054522
7095:11216886
7011:43255288
6927:30992794
6878:26838972
6741:31424884
6716:28506365
6659:15085484
6603:11819442
6499:31253204
6360:30992940
6311:54474265
6303:30527132
6287:: 1–50.
6262:11933595
6227:29657604
6178:14971998
6137:21532726
6061:28337112
6012:45544383
5970:23766801
5865:31439850
5680:26740187
5623:32384779
5572:26823041
5532:28575098
5492:PLOS ONE
5435:34195157
5379:35115446
5371:12851823
5321:31589080
5217:31764000
5182:11131439
5128:29480924
5082:20422497
5025:16473074
4990:26657365
4982:10744588
4947:18242499
4904:17187426
4863:16773578
4767:22964411
4759:19949348
4710:10051485
4661:33070363
4604:20422496
4561:20232290
4517:23141890
4482:25071336
4392:34793769
4345:25821461
4286:29435321
4229:32394535
4169:28802875
4128:32550753
4052:29452711
3994:27653566
3916:33264835
3864:28962898
3823:22693524
3764:17609225
3715:31537031
3657:31819247
3605:31169523
3556:31689032
3525:31689039
3499:29404489
3423:31689040
3394:51612789
3386:29990576
3340:27956449
3260:30972450
3199:21874146
3155:21480339
3106:15062196
3071:31744461
3020:30425865
2915:Springer
2882:25003101
2823:33012354
2670:24781043
2629:13254835
2621:29144045
2586:12151655
2537:28145671
2471:33791327
2417:43356558
2409:25345776
2368:16022643
2333:27135725
2292:29489239
2181:Jaundice
2175:See also
2135:option.
2056:pruritus
2027:myalgias
2011:fibrates
2004:pruritus
1991:fibrates
1905:fibrates
1878:naloxone
1874:rifampin
1842:pruritus
1761:fibrosis
1680:necrosis
1657:stippled
1616:CT scans
1527:such as
1302:micelles
1286:in vitro
1274:bosentan
1128:micelles
1061:estrogen
1038:pruritus
961:jaundice
957:Ischemic
950:levels.
911:pruritus
862:jaundice
693:jaundice
689:pruritus
417:rifampin
405:estrogen
378:jaundice
374:pruritus
322:estrogen
302:sulindac
228:biliary
133:jaundice
128:Pruritus
78:duodenum
39:showing
10478:Petit's
10454:Femoral
10357:Chronic
10171:Amoebic
9939:Anismus
9705:Colitis
9632:Coeliac
9609:Ileitis
9581:Jejunum
9434:Stomach
9338:Rupture
9236:ped/383
9190:D002779
9069:3752599
8927:2857316
8838:7836925
8829:2191887
8738:7380227
8647:5218875
8506:5947631
8457:4629217
8242:5243731
8094:9041099
7860:: 1–5.
7839:2391542
7831:1554659
7796:2188871
7746:4211810
7714:3396823
7664:5467861
7641:Bibcode
7605:2875190
7556:7128033
7475:2411158
7431:3363064
7382:5203896
7331:6088461
7207:6107471
7087:4018739
7046:7076191
7003:9657120
6918:6385944
6843:2466188
6808:7386600
6799:1903690
6707:5434713
6594:4688481
6490:6827039
6447:8600686
6351:6448759
6218:5894446
6128:2984286
6096:6077226
6052:5318690
5671:4704022
5650:Bibcode
5614:7290322
5523:5457162
5500:Bibcode
5426:8181114
5136:3501601
4854:1474136
4814:5775213
4806:9207787
4718:5690401
4569:9797502
4473:4110573
4336:4363704
4277:5802676
4119:7284173
4060:3333034
3985:5553912
3907:7820210
3814:3369468
3490:5678916
3331:6329561
3190:3160634
3146:3089004
3062:6862847
3011:6217883
2994:: 1–3.
2873:4066316
2773:7698827
2705:4031142
2577:1742427
2506:1891435
2462:8006388
2104:B cells
2100:T cells
1901:Statins
1701:nucleus
1605:Imaging
1593:(AST),
1397:OATP1B1
1030:Mapuche
697:fatigue
668:(e.g.,
643:E. coli
638:E. coli
613:miR-506
597:T cells
153:fatigue
76:to the
10472:Lumbar
10442:Direct
10425:Hiatus
10405:Hernia
10257:Other
10023:Melena
9909:Rectum
9392:(GERD)
9225:000215
9116:
9108:
9067:
9059:
9018:
9010:
8969:
8934:
8924:
8885:
8877:
8836:
8826:
8787:
8736:
8697:
8689:
8654:
8644:
8605:
8597:
8556:
8548:
8530:Lancet
8513:
8503:
8464:
8454:
8415:
8407:
8366:
8358:
8322:
8314:
8279:
8240:
8232:
8188:
8180:
8136:
8092:
8051:
8009:
8001:
7957:
7916:
7908:
7872:
7837:
7829:
7794:
7753:
7743:
7712:
7671:
7661:
7612:
7602:
7563:
7553:
7514:
7473:
7438:
7428:
7389:
7379:
7338:
7328:
7289:
7258:
7250:
7214:
7204:
7159:
7124:
7093:
7085:
7044:
7009:
7001:
6960:
6925:
6915:
6876:
6841:
6806:
6796:
6739:
6714:
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