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idea of a climax community—of the form of vegetation best adapted to some idealized set of environmental conditions—as a conceptual starting point for describing the vegetation in a given area. There are good reasons to believe that the species best adapted to some conditions might appear there when those conditions occur. But much of
Clements' work was devoted to characterizing what happens when those ideal conditions do not occur. In those circumstances, vegetation other than the ideal climax will often occur instead. But those different kinds of vegetation can still be described as deviations from the climax ideal. Therefore, Clements developed a very large vocabulary of theoretical terms describing the various possible causes of vegetation, and various non-climax states vegetation adopts as a consequence. His method of dealing with ecological complexity was to define an ideal form of vegetation—the climax community—and describe other forms of vegetation as deviations from that ideal.
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Though the views are sometimes attributed to him, Clements never argued that climax communities must always occur, or that the different species in an ecological community are tightly integrated physiologically, or that plant communities have sharp boundaries in time or space. Rather, he employed the
121:'s early challenges to Clements' organism simile, and other strategies of his for describing vegetation were largely disregarded for several decades until substantially vindicated by research in the 1950s and 1960s (below). Meanwhile, climax theory was deeply incorporated in both
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that competitively prevent the re-introduction of once native species. This concept borrows from
Clements' earliest interpretation of climax as referring to an ecosystem that is resistant to
70:. This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in
74:
development. Nevertheless, it has been found that a "steady state" is more apparent than real, particularly across long timescales. Notwithstanding, it remains a useful concept.
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factors, in a given climatic zone. Clements had called these end-points other terms, not climaxes, and had thought they were not stable because by definition, climax
105:" and even sometimes claimed that communities could be homologous to complex organisms and sought to define a single climax-type for each area. The English botanist
314:
See, for example, Roughgarden, Jonathan, Robert M. May and Simon A. Levin, editors. 1989. Perspectives in
Ecological Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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phenomenon which prevents the facilitation and succession to a true climax community, it is one of the only examples of climax that can be observed in nature.
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forest. The primary disturbances are floods, landslides, and salt spray, all of which occur only in small areas, allowing for a relatively stable equilibrium.
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and disclimax continued to be used to describe the many communities which persist in states that diverge from the climax ideal for a particular area.
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Clements, Frederic E. 1916. Plant
Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
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169:. Many authors and nature-enthusiasts continue to use the term "climax" in a diluted form to refer to what might otherwise be called mature or
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communities. The term "climax" has also been adopted as a description for a late successional stage for marine macroinvertebrate communities.
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101:. Clements suggested only comparisons to very simple organisms. Later ecologists developed this idea that the ecological community is a "
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Johnson, K. 1984. Prairie and plains disclimax and disappearing butterflies, in the central United States. Atala. Vol. 10-12, pp. 20-30
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Despite the overall abandonment of climax theory, during the 1990s use of climax concepts again became more popular among some
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Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
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30:. Beech (center) and sugar maple (bottom left) dominate the forest due to their towering height and tolerance of shade.
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Hagen, Joel B. 1992. An
Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
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Cowles, Henry
Chandler (1899). "The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation on the Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan".
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Eliot, Christopher (March 2007). "Method and metaphysics in
Clements's and Gleason's ecological explanations".
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in 1899, but it was
Clements who used the term "climax" to describe the idealized endpoint of succession.
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in the early 1900s. The first analysis of succession as leading to something like a climax was written by
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by outside species. The term disclimax was used in-context by
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The idea of a single climax, which is defined in relation to regional climate, originated with
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Clements described the successional development of an ecological community comparable to the
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developed this idea with the "polyclimax"—multiple steady-state end-points, determined by
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Additionally, some contemporary ecologists still use the term "disclimax" to describe an
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and in vegetation management. Clements' terms such as pre-climax, post-climax,
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Clements, Frederic E. (February 1936). "Nature and Structure of the Climax".
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Rosenberg, R; Agrenius, S; Hellman, B; Nilsson, Hc; Norling, K (2002).
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in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a
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Mature ecological community of organisms best adapted to an area
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257:"Alaskan Pacific maritime ecosystems"
26:in Michigan, USA, is an example of a
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1835:Liebig's law of the minimum
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921:Trophic level
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878:Phage ecology
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868:Microbial mat
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823:Bacteriophage
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790:Decomposition
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737:Mesopredators
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516:Biotic stress
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288:(1): 85–109.
287:
283:
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261:www.fs.fed.us
258:
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191:
190:anthropogenic
187:
183:
180:dominated by
179:
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147:
143:
139:
134:
130:
128:
124:
120:
119:Henry Gleason
116:
112:
108:
104:
103:superorganism
100:
96:
86:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
29:
25:
21:
1956:Regime shift
1941:Macroecology
1662:
1658:
1598:Edge effects
1568:Biogeography
1513:Commensalism
1361:Biodiversity
1238:Allee effect
1024:
977:kelp forests
930:Example webs
795:Detritivores
634:Organotrophs
614:Kinetotrophs
566:Productivity
403:
370:
366:
360:
333:
329:
319:
310:
285:
281:
275:
264:. Retrieved
260:
251:
242:
233:
225:
220:
186:colonization
175:
164:
155:
146:Sitka spruce
127:plagioclimax
92:
83:Henry Cowles
76:
68:steady state
43:
39:
33:
24:Warren Woods
1593:Disturbance
1496:interaction
1318:Recruitment
1248:Depensation
1040:Copiotrophs
911:Energy flow
833:Lithotrophy
777:Decomposers
757:Planktivore
732:Insectivore
722:Heterotroph
687:Bacterivore
654:Phototrophs
604:Chemotrophs
576:Restoration
526:Competition
95:ontogenetic
2000:Categories
1961:Sexecology
1538:Parasitism
1503:Antibiosis
1338:Resistance
1333:Resilience
1223:Population
1143:Camouflage
1095:Oligotroph
1010:Ascendency
972:intertidal
962:cold seeps
916:Food chain
717:Herbivores
692:Carnivores
619:Mixotrophs
594:Autotrophs
473:components
266:2021-05-08
213:References
171:old-growth
115:vegetation
1866:Allometry
1820:Emergence
1548:Symbiosis
1533:Mutualism
1328:Stability
1233:Abundance
1045:Dominance
1003:Processes
992:tide pool
888:Food webs
762:Predation
747:Omnivores
674:Consumers
629:Mycotroph
586:Producers
531:Ecosystem
496:Behaviour
336:: 43–53.
178:ecosystem
99:organisms
48:community
1921:Endolith
1850:Xerosere
1762:networks
1578:Ecocline
1124:Defense,
800:Detritus
702:Foraging
571:Resource
302:17324810
196:See also
2011:Habitat
1911:Ecopath
1718:Habitat
1588:Ecotype
1583:Ecotone
1560:ecology
1558:Spatial
1494:Species
1354:Species
1225:ecology
1210:Ecology
1158:Mimicry
1126:counter
1070:f-ratio
818:Archaea
506:Biomass
479:General
471:Trophic
463:Ecology
395:2256278
375:Bibcode
338:Bibcode
111:edaphic
56:animals
942:Rivers
838:Marine
393:
300:
142:Alaska
58:, and
52:plants
1859:Other
1760:Other
1713:Guild
1685:Niche
937:Lakes
391:JSTOR
60:fungi
947:Soil
298:PMID
144:, a
72:soil
383:doi
346:doi
334:234
290:doi
50:of
42:or
34:In
2002::
1408:/
1212::
469::
465::
389:.
381:.
371:24
369:.
344:.
332:.
328:.
296:.
286:38
284:.
259:.
140:,
54:,
38:,
1663:K
1661:/
1659:r
1202:e
1195:t
1188:v
455:e
448:t
441:v
397:.
385::
377::
354:.
348::
340::
304:.
292::
269:.
148:-
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