397:
567:
3924:, p.215: " the model for computer languages differs from that for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names—or registers—which can assume only finitely many values—or states—and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. This may sound like a truism but its implications are far-reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."
2931:—enabling more concise programs—additionally help the programmer write code. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer, but over time support for abstraction has increased, allowing programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. Most programming languages come with a
3199:
to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using
8351:
65:
8113:
7590:
2255:
3531:
798:
8283:
7600:
2374:
783:
8085:
8334:
8317:
8368:
7610:
8300:
3113:, which translates each line of software into machine code just before it executes. Although it can make debugging easier, the downside of interpretation is that it runs 10 to 100 times slower than a compiled executable. Hybrid interpretation methods provide some of the benefits of compilation and some of the benefits of interpretation via partial compilation. One form this takes is
227:
expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming. One way of classifying computer languages is by the computations they are capable of expressing, as described by the
2498:) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research goes into
5928:
number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. Conclusions: Multi-language programming seems to be common in open-source projects and is a factor that must be dealt with in tooling and when assessing the development and maintenance of such software systems.
3125:
Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is
5927:
Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and
3956:
Programs and languages can be defined as purely formal mathematical objects. However, more people are interested in programs than in other mathematical objects such as groups, precisely because it is possible to use the program—the sequence of symbols—to control the execution of a computer. While we
3198:
Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent
2843:
There is a tradeoff between increased ability to handle exceptions and reduced performance. For example, even though array index errors are common C does not check them for performance reasons. Although programmers can write code to catch user-defined exceptions, this can clutter a program. Standard
957:
Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some
767:
Every programming language includes fundamental elements for describing data and the operations or transformations applied to them, such as adding two numbers or selecting an item from a collection. These elements are governed by syntactic and semantic rules that define their structure and meaning,
2313:
Static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms. For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every
226:
is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language. However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages. Similarly, languages used in computing that have a different goal than
2893:
Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. The birth of programming languages in the 1950s was stimulated by the desire to make a universal programming language suitable for all
2902:
Desirable qualities of programming languages include readability, writability, and reliability. These features can reduce the cost of training programmers in a language, the amount of time needed to write and maintain programs in the language, the cost of compiling the code, and increase runtime
2743:, all expressions have their types determined before a program executes, typically at compile-time. Most widely used, statically typed programming languages require the types of variables to be specified explicitly. In some languages, types are implicit; one form of this is when the compiler can
3267:
Determining which is the most widely used programming language is difficult since the definition of usage varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one has more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very
2762:
With dynamic typing, the type is not attached to the variable but only the value encoded in it. A single variable can be reused for a value of a different type. Although this provides more flexibility to the programmer, it is at the cost of lower reliability and less ability for the programming
2781:
In computing, multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously. Many programming languages support instruction-level and subprogram-level concurrency. By the twenty-first century, additional processing power on computers was increasingly coming from the use of additional processors, which
540:), also descends from ALGOL and achieved commercial success. C, another ALGOL descendant, has sustained popularity into the twenty-first century. C allows access to lower-level machine operations more than other contemporary languages. Its power and efficiency, generated in part with flexible
259:
languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that
2663:
are a data type whose elements, in many languages, must consist of a single type of fixed length. Other languages define arrays as references to data stored elsewhere and support elements of varying types. Depending on the programming language, sequences of multiple characters, called
379:
away the details of the hardware, instead being designed to express algorithms that could be understood more easily by humans. For example, arithmetic expressions could now be written in symbolic notation and later translated into machine code that the hardware could execute. In 1957,
2954:
Programming language design often involves tradeoffs. For example, features to improve reliability typically come at the cost of performance. Increased expressivity due to a large number of operators makes writing code easier but comes at the cost of readability.
4753:
Fayed, M.S., Al-Qurishi, M., Alamri, A. and Al-Daraiseh, A.A., 2017, March. PWCT: visual language for IoT and cloud computing applications and systems. In
Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Internet of things, Data and Cloud Computing (pp.
4781:
Baluprithviraj, K.N., Bharathi, K.R., Chendhuran, S. and
Lokeshwaran, P., 2021, March. Artificial intelligence based smart door with face mask detection. In 2021 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Smart Systems (ICAIS) (pp. 543-548).
3492:
Functional programming languages work by successively applying functions to the given parameters. Although appreciated by many researchers for their simplicity and elegance, problems with efficiency have prevented them from being widely
4743:
Sáez-López, J.M., Román-González, M. and Vázquez-Cano, E., 2016. Visual programming languages integrated across the curriculum in elementary school: A two year case study using “Scratch” in five schools. Computers & Education, 97,
2894:
machines and uses, avoiding the need to write code for different computers. By the early 1960s, the idea of a universal language was rejected due to the differing requirements of the variety of purposes for which code was written.
2907:
Although early programming languages often prioritized efficiency over readability, the latter has grown in importance since the 1970s. Having multiple operations to achieve the same result can be detrimental to readability, as is
1094:. Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an
2844:
libraries in some languages, such as C, use their return values to indicate an exception. Some languages and their compilers have the option of turning on and off error handling capability, either temporarily or permanently.
2794:
do not support the concurrent use of multiple processors. Other programming languages do support managing data shared between different threads by controlling the order of execution of key instructions via the use of
625:, based on C++ and designed for increased portability across systems and security, enjoyed large-scale success because these features are essential for many Internet applications. Another development was that of
2836:
Resumption: resuming the program near where the exception occurred. This can trigger a repeat of the exception, unless the exception handler is able to modify values to prevent the exception from reoccurring.
816:. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, some programming languages are
2502:, which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.
243:
and
Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet are often called programming languages. However, some authors restrict the term "programming language" to Turing complete languages.
2590:
occurs when languages allow implicit casting—for example, to enable operations between variables of different types without the programmer making an explicit type conversion. The more cases in which this
6067:
2275:
3519:
are not programming languages, some have extensions that support limited programming. Additionally, there are special-purpose languages that are not easily compared to other programming languages.
3006:
An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in
823:
The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either
2672:. Strings may be of fixed or variable length, which enables greater flexibility at the cost of increased storage space and more complexity. Other data types that may be supported include
6106:
Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International
Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001
268:
In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way. Programming languages differ from
2555:, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths. In practice, while few languages are fully typed, most offer a degree of typing.
1618:
427:, meaning that no input could be added while the program was running. The languages developed at this time therefore are designed for minimal interaction. After the invention of the
2045:
1560:
1473:
2322:
are distinct. Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that
1685:
1346:
3916:
R. Narasimhan, Programming
Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189—247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994,
2004:
1644:
1320:
3206:
A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A
1746:
3308:
Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages (in descending order by overall popularity):
2551:, a language is fully typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable. In contrast, an untyped language, such as most
1827:
3195:
Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field. Individual software projects commonly use five programming languages or more.
1592:
1432:
1380:
1260:
2157:
2105:
1711:
1962:
1499:
2131:
1406:
2840:
Some programming languages support dedicating a block of code to run regardless of whether an exception occurs before the code is reached; this is called finalization.
2071:
1294:
295:, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined.
3214:
present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called
1231:
1182:
1156:
367:
were cheaper. Therefore, cumbersome languages that were time-consuming to use, but were closer to the hardware for higher efficiency were favored. The introduction of
1936:
1884:
1525:
2961:
has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate.
1850:
1777:
512:—are directly or indirectly descended from ALGOL 60. Among its innovations adopted by later programming languages included greater portability and the first use of
7646:
6542:
3545:
423:—general purpose computers—were developed, although they could only be operated by professionals and the cost was extreme. The data and instructions were input by
1910:
340:
The first programmable computers were invented at the end of the 1940s, and with them, the first programming languages. The earliest computers were programmed in
6277:
1800:
1205:
5990:
3423:. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The
3301:
estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language – which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches
3247:. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a
272:
in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.
6059:
5905:. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering – EASE '15. New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 4:1–4:10.
5669:
6329:
2282:
431:, computers in the 1970s became dramatically cheaper. New computers also allowed more user interaction, which was supported by newer programming languages.
6366:
6293:
3957:
highly recommend the study of the theory of programming, this text will generally limit itself to the study of programs as they are executed on a computer.
2541:
6089:
6455:
3619:
2878:
that performs instructions on data is separate, and data must be piped back and forth to the CPU. The central elements in these languages are variables,
3041:
specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or formal language.
360:—2GLs) were invented, diverging from the machine language to make programs easier to understand for humans, although they did not increase portability.
5775:
2629:) and integers depending on the size and precision required by the programmer. Storing an integer in a type that is too small to represent it leads to
4725:
Bezanson, J., Karpinski, S., Shah, V.B. and
Edelman, A., 2012. Julia: A fast dynamic language for technical computing. arXiv preprint arXiv:1209.5145.
3758:
554:
language, communicating with a computer using formal logic notation. With logic programming, the programmer specifies a desired result and allows the
3815:
602:
that added support for concurrency to logic programming constructs, but these languages were outperformed by other concurrency-supporting languages.
3716:
3399:, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate, or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new
3224:
is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.
5967:
5610:
5584:
3594:
7817:
6533:
6036:
6560:
2853:
668:
During the 2000s, there was a slowdown in the development of new programming languages that achieved widespread popularity. One innovation was
5901:
Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (2015). "An empirical analysis of the utilization of multiple programming languages in open source projects".
5805:
6537:
17:
6005:
3102:. Once the program is compiled, it will run more quickly than with other implementation methods. Some compilers are able to provide further
676:
whose components are connected by a network. Services are similar to objects in object-oriented programming, but run on a separate process.
8393:
7639:
4800:
Bertolini, L., 2018. Hands-On Game
Development without Coding: Create 2D and 3D games with Visual Scripting in Unity. Packt Publishing Ltd.
6244:
5941:
4077:
3117:, in which the software is compiled ahead of time into an intermediate language, and then into machine code immediately before execution.
2751:
is the potential for errors to go undetected. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as
2478:
Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the
8149:
3846:
3496:
Logic languages are designed so that the software, rather than the programmer, decides what order in which the instructions are executed.
3134:
for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.
1083:
during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.
8101:
6626:
6337:
4844:
3769:
6120:
2923:
Writability is the ease of use for writing code to solve the desired problem. Along with the same features essential for readability,
962:. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.
6262:
4814:
3504:
3440:
3015:
2499:
824:
587:
6228:
3614:
2446:
704:—competed for the performance-critical software for which C had historically been used. Most of the new programming languages uses
3288:
in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.
8249:
8106:
7632:
4876:
3391:
is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as
2418:
3873:
7739:
7729:
7343:
7315:
4890:
4059:
2626:
2622:
357:
3971:
3291:
Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:
2782:
requires programmers to design software that makes use of multiple processors simultaneously to achieve improved performance.
8254:
8096:
7787:
7744:
7734:
7724:
7368:
6517:
6357:
5920:
5682:
5644:
5196:
4824:
4242:
4185:
4120:
4036:
4000:
3901:
2395:
974:
599:
458:
372:
341:
4401:
2425:
969:
as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:
192:—have been developed for a wide variety of uses. Many aspects of programming language design involve tradeoffs—for example,
42:
8244:
7701:
7219:
5755:
2707:
whose values can be mapped onto the set of positive integers. Since the mid-1980s, most programming languages also support
2268:
1106:
blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.
828:
348:(simple instructions that could be directly executed by the processor). This code was very difficult to debug and was not
8306:
8271:
7837:
7810:
7373:
6645:
6282:
3690:
3644:
3550:
3077:
2988:
2928:
2575:
324:
132:
2965:
took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs.
327:. This principle is sometimes formulated as a recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.
6878:
5632:
4734:
Ayouni, M. and Ayouni, M., 2020. Data Types in Ring. Beginning Ring
Programming: From Novice to Professional, pp.51-98.
4151:
2978:
2363:
578:
transformed the roles for which programming languages were used. New languages introduced in the 1980s included C++, a
2432:
8188:
8173:
7842:
7525:
7353:
6883:
6594:
5982:
4914:
4212:
3921:
3794:
2916:, limiting the number of constructs that a programmer has to learn. A syntax structure that is easily understood and
2465:
5505:
2403:
484:(ALGOrithmic Language) was released in 1958 and 1960, it became the standard in computing literature for describing
251:
and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.
7847:
7716:
7613:
6707:
5661:
3579:
740:
474:
128:
4963:
3375:. TIOBE provide a list of top 100 programming languages according to popularity and update this list every month.
204:
that studies the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages.
8142:
7696:
7001:
6448:
5181:. ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN symposium on Principles of programming languages. Austin, Texas: ACM Press. pp. 88–98.
3676:
2414:
368:
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is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a
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8116:
8048:
7921:
7803:
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7691:
7292:
7254:
6911:
6619:
6093:
4772:
Fernando, A. and
Warusawithana, L., 2020. Beginning Ballerina Programming: From Novice to Professional. Apress.
3609:
3372:
3325:
3211:
3150:
2924:
2689:
2528:
is a set of allowable values and operations that can be performed on these values. Each programming language's
2399:
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813:
777:
728:
681:
677:
595:
555:
541:
537:
509:
312:
174:
108:
89:
77:
6397:"When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960"
3807:
212:
There are a variety of criteria that may be considered when defining what constitutes a programming language.
8183:
8091:
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8023:
7996:
7971:
7931:
7706:
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7411:
7141:
7131:
3624:
3584:
3416:
3392:
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3321:
3173:
3023:
2879:
2787:
1597:
805:
790:
701:
633:
493:
5767:
2566:) represent values differently, unexpected results will occur if one type is used when another is expected.
2017:
1530:
1445:
992:
fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation
8063:
7966:
7936:
7515:
7103:
7011:
6916:
6692:
6677:
3754:
3466:
3396:
2958:
2887:
2487:
2351:
2258:
1657:
1325:
724:
717:
693:
669:
583:
396:
112:
3743:
Robert A. Edmunds, The
Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91
8038:
8033:
7976:
7956:
7603:
7338:
6836:
5868:
3722:
3656:
3599:
3564:
3536:
3408:
3368:
3309:
3091:
3067:). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.
2791:
2343:
1975:
1623:
851:
817:
713:
685:
645:
622:
525:
505:
434:
323:. The practical necessity that a programming language supports adequate abstractions is expressed by the
197:
189:
124:
5602:
5581:
4127:
XSLT, though highly specialized to the transformation of XML, is a Turing-complete programming language.
2326:
calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a
1299:
684:
cross-pollinated ideas between imperative and functional programming. After 2010, several new languages—
8135:
7981:
7877:
7860:
7765:
7575:
7224:
6501:
6388:
3281:
3240:
1716:
697:
591:
497:
2950:(multiple variable names accessing the same region of memory) all can improve a program's reliability.
8178:
7991:
7946:
7593:
7520:
7495:
7358:
7006:
6612:
6032:
5903:
Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering
3142:
3098:, which translates the source code via an intermediate-level language into machine code, known as an
2800:
2756:
2681:
1805:
689:
466:
450:
408:
38:
8357:
8289:
2912:, so that the same operator can have multiple meanings. Another feature important to readability is
1571:
1411:
1359:
1236:
8028:
7911:
7444:
7277:
6863:
6732:
5797:
4234:
4177:
4112:
3574:
3569:
3474:
3415:
syntax and Lisp-like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly as do, say,
3404:
3364:
3337:
3313:
3285:
3160:
Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include
3127:
3114:
3045:
3011:
2867:
2533:
2384:
2136:
2084:
1690:
1090:. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are
989:
920:
is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;
489:
166:
73:
8340:
8323:
3304:
counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.
2621:
that are not integers). Most programming languages support multiple sizes of floats (often called
2439:
1941:
8228:
7505:
7439:
7330:
7146:
6806:
6459:
6374:
6009:
3482:
3244:
3154:
3110:
3106:
to reduce memory or computation usage when the executable runs, but increasing compilation time.
3086:
that can be executed by the hardware. The machine code then can be executed with the help of the
3056:
2796:
2388:
2205:
1478:
462:
454:
376:
349:
140:
2767:
to which any type of value can be assigned, in an exception to their usual static typing rules.
2110:
1385:
8218:
7897:
7570:
7401:
7282:
7049:
7039:
7034:
5945:
4073:
3671:
3604:
3589:
3489:, are sometimes considered a separate category but meet the definition of imperative languages.
3465:
Imperative languages are designed to implement an algorithm in a specified order; they include
3450:
3446:
3428:
3388:
3252:
2175:
2050:
1273:
804:
is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is
566:
446:
438:
181:
6250:
4763:
Kodosky, J., 2020. LabVIEW. Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages, 4(HOPL), pp.1-54.
4028:
1210:
1161:
1135:
1086:
The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the
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7500:
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2716:
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1915:
1863:
1504:
1266:
1079:
on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on the undefined variable
228:
158:
136:
85:
6334:
5829:"Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial"
4841:
4226:
4169:
4100:
3838:
3766:
1832:
1759:
388:
high-level programming language, Fortran has remained in use into the twenty-first century.
8223:
7684:
7655:
7300:
7272:
7244:
7239:
7068:
7044:
6996:
6979:
6974:
6956:
6946:
6941:
6903:
6848:
6765:
6711:
6116:
3878:, "Charity is a categorical programming language...", "All Charity computations terminate."
3686:
3634:
3555:
3220:
3153:
programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has
2947:
2863:
2783:
2776:
2335:
1352:
1091:
847:
843:
649:
517:
513:
488:. Although its commercial success was limited, most popular imperative languages—including
256:
165:—which implement operations in a specified order) developed to perform well on the popular
162:
3137:
Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example,
303:, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.
260:
ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.
8:
7902:
7565:
7490:
7406:
7391:
7156:
6936:
6893:
6888:
6785:
6775:
6747:
4227:
4170:
4101:
3888:
3478:
3236:
2938:
Reliability means that a program performs as specified in a wide range of circumstances.
2708:
2604:
2479:
2243:
1889:
1856:
1128:
1095:
801:
756:
673:
629:
232:
1782:
1187:
161:
has strongly influenced the design of programming languages, with the most common type (
7530:
7429:
7305:
7262:
7171:
7113:
7098:
7088:
6873:
6672:
6443:
6424:
6269:
6240:
5872:
3681:
3273:
3256:
3215:
3184:
3138:
3131:
2962:
2943:
2816:
2712:
2693:
2677:
2665:
2339:
2238:
1117:
959:
835:
657:
353:
193:
4873:
4791:
Sewell, B., 2015. Blueprints visual scripting for unreal engine. Packt Publishing Ltd.
4021:
3002:
A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:
2821:
Many programming languages include exception handlers, a section of code triggered by
2296:
739:. Also, some of these languages mix between textual and visual programming usage like
247:
Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming
8403:
8198:
8159:
7882:
7679:
7674:
7550:
7480:
7459:
7421:
7229:
7196:
7176:
6868:
6780:
6654:
6590:
6513:
6432:
6416:
6353:
5961:
5916:
5850:
5640:
5192:
4910:
4856:
4820:
4238:
4208:
4192:
TeX is not only an excellent typesetting engine but also a real programming language.
4181:
4116:
4032:
3996:
3933:
John C. Reynolds, "Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages",
3917:
3897:
3869:
3790:
3651:
3629:
3454:
3333:
2909:
2704:
2700:
2660:
2642:
2609:
Early programming languages often supported only built-in, numeric types such as the
2552:
2180:
1087:
743:. Also, this trend lead to developing projects that help in developing new VPLs like
575:
551:
222:
185:
170:
4887:
4055:
3839:"Information Technology – Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075)"
8213:
7383:
7267:
7234:
7029:
6951:
6840:
6826:
6821:
6770:
6757:
6682:
6635:
6493:
6408:
6380:
5906:
5840:
5182:
3968:
3560:
3516:
3508:
3500:
3232:
3169:
3087:
3007:
2996:
2932:
2830:
2720:
2673:
2630:
2537:
2200:
2077:
1098:, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution. In contrast to
1076:
966:
839:
618:
533:
345:
276:
269:
252:
248:
201:
101:
3284:
in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time, and embedded applications; and
3203:, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.
927:
is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and
299:, for example, is a Turing complete language entirely using XML syntax. Moreover,
8193:
7624:
7454:
7348:
7320:
7214:
7166:
7151:
7136:
6991:
6986:
6926:
6816:
6790:
6742:
6687:
6341:
6289:
5827:
Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. (2023).
5588:
4894:
4880:
4860:
4848:
4393:
4108:
3975:
3773:
3762:
3639:
3511:—is supported by most popular imperative languages and some functional languages.
3458:
2871:
2804:
2748:
2638:
2634:
2185:
981:
544:
operations, comes at the cost of making it more difficult to write correct code.
364:
352:
between different computer systems. In order to improve the ease of programming,
292:
116:
4139:
Oetiker, Tobias; Partl, Hubert; Hyna, Irene; Schlegl, Elisabeth (20 June 2016).
3082:
An implementation of a programming language is the conversion of a program into
8208:
7560:
7464:
7363:
7209:
7181:
6487:
6469:
6307:
6257:
6236:
4810:
2744:
2728:
2724:
2669:
2614:
2563:
2319:
2195:
1438:
610:
470:
428:
316:
4683:
2354:, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their respective static semantics.
8387:
8127:
8001:
7449:
6737:
6549:
6420:
6301:
6273:
2983:
The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language
2939:
2917:
2913:
2858:
One of the most important influences on programming language design has been
2822:
2740:
2592:
2567:
2210:
752:
5911:
4140:
3126:
their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly
2633:. The most common way of representing negative numbers with signed types is
831:). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.
8053:
7892:
7669:
7545:
7204:
6436:
6412:
6371:
Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation
5854:
5624:
3412:
3180:
3172:. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example,
3103:
3083:
2583:
2571:
2483:
2010:
1005:
942:
The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar:
320:
5187:
4167:
2870:, the most common computer architecture. In von Neumann architecture, the
2723:
can include increased reliability, reduced complexity, less potential for
834:
The programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of
7535:
7161:
7073:
6060:"SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth"
3352:
3019:
2992:
2966:
2618:
2587:
2548:
2529:
2519:
2515:
2331:
2190:
1650:
709:
705:
626:
424:
120:
69:
7795:
6428:
6396:
64:
7961:
7555:
7485:
7078:
6811:
6667:
6479:
5628:
4959:
4884:
3661:
3329:
3248:
3207:
3200:
3099:
2984:
2764:
2579:
2323:
2315:
2228:
1099:
786:
637:
420:
152:
3666:
977:." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.
8058:
7060:
7021:
6142:
5845:
5828:
3146:
2883:
2525:
2511:
2482:
by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which
1968:
797:
648:—designed to quickly produce small programs that coordinate existing
614:
485:
442:
404:
236:
5388:
5376:
4695:
4647:
4623:
4575:
4551:
4500:
4464:
4345:
4263:
3530:
2373:
2342:
may also be part of static semantics. Programming languages such as
782:
7121:
6604:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4282:
4280:
4278:
3486:
3351:
As of June 2024, the top five programming languages as measured by
3295:
counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language
3165:
3095:
3030:
1752:
820:, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.
613:
in the 1990s, new programming languages were introduced to support
606:
579:
529:
385:
180:
Thousands of programming languages—often classified as imperative,
148:
144:
81:
8374:
5659:
5623:
4168:
Syropoulos, Apostolos; Antonis Tsolomitis; Nick Sofroniou (2003).
3445:
Programming languages are often placed into four main categories:
2763:
language to check for errors. Some languages allow variables of a
235:, and all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of
7951:
7941:
5660:
Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger; Jonathan Rees (February 1998).
3935:
3420:
3400:
3277:
3038:
2752:
2610:
2559:
744:
732:
412:
401:
381:
5340:
4707:
4671:
4611:
4587:
4563:
4539:
4512:
4488:
4428:
4369:
4357:
4316:
4292:
4275:
4251:
3752:
Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst,
2866:, the most commonly used type, were designed to perform well on
8018:
7986:
7870:
3345:
3179:
Open source programming languages are particularly helpful for
3161:
3060:
2692:
store memory addresses, typically referencing locations on the
748:
547:
521:
384:(FORmula TRANslation) was invented. Often considered the first
363:
Initially, hardware resources were scarce and expensive, while
240:
5876:
5504:
Busbee, Kenneth Leroy; Braunschweig, Dave (15 December 2018).
4978:
4863:, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable.
3887:
In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is
3499:
Object-oriented programming—whose characteristic features are
2684:
in which data is mapped to names in an ordered structure, and
2301:
refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (
598:. The Japanese government invested heavily into the so-called
215:
8265:
7926:
7916:
7887:
7865:
3867:
3424:
3360:
3317:
3272:
is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large
3269:
3034:
2711:, in which the representation of the data and operations are
2685:
2654:
2327:
501:
481:
300:
288:
169:. While early programming languages were closely tied to the
6173:
6171:
6117:"Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018"
3298:
the number of books sold that teach or describe the language
3109:
Another implementation method is to run the program with an
2731:
to be changed without the client needing to alter its code.
656:, they have also been used for building web pages hosted on
147:. An interpreter directly executes the source code, while a
8008:
5277:
3470:
3268:
popular for particular kinds of applications. For example,
3064:
2927:—interfaces that enable hiding details from the client—and
2829:
Termination: shutting down and handing over control to the
2650:
736:
653:
296:
284:
5547:
5265:
5217:
5205:
5134:
5110:
5086:
5074:
5062:
5002:
4990:
4452:
8043:
8013:
6207:
6168:
5939:
5736:
5700:
5688:
5564:
5562:
5535:
5472:
5448:
5412:
5306:
5304:
3978:
3836:
3341:
3176:
was originally Ericsson's internal programming language.
2875:
641:
280:
6543:
Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming
5510:
Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach
5436:
4659:
4635:
4529:
4527:
4476:
4416:
4333:
3546:
Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)
3378:
2999:
in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.
2668:, may be supported as arrays of characters or their own
723:
Some of the new programming languages are classified as
275:
The domain of the language is also worth consideration.
6395:
Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014).
6229:
History of programming languages § Further reading
5826:
5424:
5328:
5316:
4138:
2920:
that are immediately obvious also supports readability.
2688:—similar to records but without names for data fields.
2582:
can always be detected unless variables are explicitly
177:
to hide implementation details for greater simplicity.
6195:
6183:
6156:
5869:"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages"
5768:"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org"
5724:
5712:
5559:
5523:
5460:
5364:
5352:
5301:
5289:
5253:
5241:
5229:
5158:
5146:
5122:
5098:
5050:
5038:
5026:
5014:
4932:
4920:
4599:
4043:...it's a markup language, not a programming language.
812:
A programming language's surface form is known as its
231:. The majority of practical programming languages are
196:
simplifies error handling, but at a performance cost.
107:
Programming languages are described in terms of their
6526:
Franklyn Turbak and David Gifford with Mark Sheldon:
6394:
6330:
Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation
5582:
On the foolishness of "natural language programming."
5400:
5394:
5382:
4524:
4440:
4304:
2595:is allowed, the fewer type errors can be detected.
2139:
2113:
2087:
2053:
2020:
1978:
1944:
1918:
1892:
1866:
1835:
1808:
1785:
1762:
1719:
1693:
1660:
1626:
1600:
1574:
1533:
1507:
1481:
1448:
1414:
1388:
1362:
1328:
1302:
1276:
1239:
1213:
1190:
1164:
1138:
996:
has no meaning for a value having a complex type and
4132:
3526:
3403:. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a
934:
is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more
465:
applications. In 1978, another functional language,
59:
Language for communicating instructions to a machine
5942:"Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs"
3620:
Programming languages used in most popular websites
582:of C that can compile C programs but also supports
570:
A small selection of programming language textbooks
375:—3GLs)—revolutionized programming. These languages
7654:
6092:. Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006. Archived from
5503:
4020:
3645:Ruby (programming language) § Metaprogramming
3141:asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the
2151:
2125:
2099:
2065:
2039:
1998:
1956:
1930:
1904:
1878:
1844:
1821:
1794:
1771:
1740:
1705:
1679:
1638:
1612:
1586:
1554:
1519:
1493:
1467:
1426:
1400:
1374:
1340:
1314:
1288:
1254:
1225:
1199:
1176:
1150:
135:of a programming language is required in order to
6347:
6246:Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
5666:Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme
4713:
4701:
4689:
4677:
4653:
4629:
4617:
4593:
4581:
4569:
4557:
4545:
4518:
4506:
4494:
4470:
4434:
4380:
4363:
4351:
4327:
4298:
4286:
4269:
4257:
8385:
6587:Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition
6464:Programming Languages: Design and Implementation
4394:"How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language"
3595:Category:Extensible syntax programming languages
3235:without human interaction, or a user might type
850:structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on
6350:Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms
3868:The Charity Development Group (December 1996).
3755:Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs
2532:defines which data types exist, the type of an
980:"John is a married bachelor." is grammatically
594:and other new languages introduced support for
119:. Languages usually provide features such as a
8157:
6484:Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs
6348:Gabbrielli, Maurizio; Martini, Simone (2023).
6235:
6090:"Counting programming languages by book sales"
6057:
4809:
2854:Programming language design and implementation
8143:
7811:
7640:
6644:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012
6620:
6003:
2874:stores both data and instructions, while the
2574:(runtime type checking is more costly). With
2276:
5966:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4205:The structure of typed programming languages
3981:, 1999, "XML is not a programming language."
3280:in scientific and engineering applications;
3090:. The most common form of interpretation in
2847:
2734:
984:but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.
6554:Programming Language Concepts and Paradigms
4855:. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively
4831:Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.
4141:"The Not So Short Introduction to LATEX 2ε"
4018:
3940:, Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109
3787:Introduction To Computers And C Programming
3710:
3708:
3706:
3262:
2598:
2402:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
216:Computer languages vs programming languages
23:
8150:
8136:
8084:
7818:
7804:
7647:
7633:
6627:
6613:
5980:
5900:
2825:that can deal with them in two main ways:
2641:is also used. Other common types include
2283:
2269:
24:
7825:
6565:Programming Language Syntax and Semantics
6249:(2nd ed.). MIT Press. Archived from
5910:
5844:
5186:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4816:Introduction to the Theory of Computation
3891:
3441:Categorical list of programming languages
3183:applications, enhancing the capacity for
2991:can use to agree upon whether a piece of
2833:. This option is considered the simplest.
2500:formal semantics of programming languages
2466:Learn how and when to remove this message
708:while a few numbers of new languages use
80:that explain the program to humans. When
6528:Design Concepts in Programming Languages
6030:
5685:– Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996
4957:
3993:HTML & XHTML: the complete reference
3843:ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL
3703:
3615:List of programming language researchers
3120:
2799:, controlling access to shared data via
2747:types based on context. The downside of
796:
781:
759:added support for visual scripting too.
565:
395:
63:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
8250:Category:Lists of programming languages
6507:
6213:
6201:
6189:
6177:
6162:
5742:
5730:
5718:
5706:
5694:
5637:The Definition of Standard ML (Revised)
5568:
5553:
5541:
5529:
5478:
5466:
5454:
5442:
5430:
5418:
5406:
5370:
5358:
5346:
5334:
5322:
5310:
5295:
5283:
5271:
5259:
5247:
5235:
5223:
5211:
5176:
5164:
5152:
5140:
5128:
5116:
5104:
5092:
5080:
5068:
5056:
5044:
5032:
5020:
5008:
4996:
4984:
4938:
4926:
4665:
4641:
4605:
4533:
4482:
4458:
4446:
4422:
4339:
4310:
3949:
3057:written in the language being specified
2969:was similarly dismissive of the idea.
1613:{\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B}
574:During the 1980s, the invention of the
461:. For the next decades, Lisp dominated
358:second-generation programming languages
14:
8386:
7344:Knowledge representation and reasoning
6584:
5600:
4944:
4224:
3990:
3896:. Oxford University Press. p. 1.
2040:{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B}
1555:{\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}}
1468:{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B}
882:This grammar specifies the following:
441:language. Unlike Fortran, it supports
373:third-generation programming languages
342:first-generation programming languages
311:Programming languages usually contain
8255:List of programming languages by type
8131:
7799:
7628:
7369:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
6608:
6319:Fundamentals of Programming Languages
5993:from the original on 2 December 2017.
5613:from the original on 17 January 1999.
4098:
3718:Introduction to Programming Languages
3411:world, most languages that use basic
3379:Dialects, flavors and implementations
3255:), without compiling, it is called a
2810:
1680:{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B}
1341:{\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B}
975:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
437:, implemented in 1958, was the first
335:
173:, over time they have developed more
8272:
8245:Category:Lists of computer languages
6688:Energy consumption (Green computing)
6634:
6579:Programming Language Design Concepts
6263:Advanced Programming Language Design
6070:from the original on 26 October 2011
6039:from the original on 19 October 2013
5833:Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety
5756:Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.
4960:"Introduction To Computer Languages"
4909:, Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006,
4080:from the original on 3 February 2011
3714:
2400:adding citations to reliable sources
2367:
2357:
1000:is not defined because the value of
878:'(' expression* ')'
263:
100:is a system of notation for writing
8394:Programming language classification
7374:Distributed artificial intelligence
6646:ACM Computing Classification System
6312:Programming Languages, a Grand Tour
6283:Essentials of Programming Languages
6123:from the original on 30 August 2018
6004:Georgina Swan (21 September 2009).
5395:Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014
5383:Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014
4966:from the original on 15 August 2012
4157:from the original on 14 March 2017.
4019:Dykes, Lucinda; Tittel, Ed (2005).
4007:HTML is not a programming language.
3952:Understanding Programming Languages
3894:Principles of Programming Languages
3818:from the original on 16 August 2022
3691:List of software engineering topics
3551:Comparison of programming languages
3078:Programming language implementation
3029:A description of the behavior of a
2645:—which is either true or false—and
2308:
1999:{\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B}
1639:{\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B}
663:
56:
6879:Integrated development environment
6222:
6119:. stackify.com. 18 December 2017.
5981:Vicki, Brown; Morin, Rich (1999).
4404:from the original on 10 April 2024
3876:from the original on 18 July 2006.
3434:
2979:Programming language specification
2364:Semantics of programming languages
1763:
1315:{\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B}
1246:
1243:
1217:
550:, designed in 1972, was the first
391:
57:
8415:
7354:Automated planning and scheduling
6884:Software configuration management
6510:Concepts of Programming Languages
6474:Handbook of Programming Languages
6385:Concepts in Programming Languages
5672:from the original on 6 July 2006.
5494:, Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93–94
4062:from the original on 11 May 2011.
3881:
3861:
3849:from the original on 21 June 2006
3830:
3800:
3227:Programs for a computer might be
3071:
2570:will flag this error, usually at
2558:Because different types (such as
1741:{\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}}
958:cases, such programs may exhibit
561:
8366:
8349:
8332:
8315:
8298:
8281:
8112:
8111:
8083:
7608:
7598:
7589:
7588:
6135:
6109:
6100:
6082:
6051:
6024:
5997:
5974:
5933:
5894:
5861:
5820:
5808:from the original on 14 May 2018
5790:
5778:from the original on 13 May 2018
5760:
5748:
5676:
5653:
5617:
5594:
5574:
5497:
5484:
4074:"XSLT is a Programming Language"
4056:"What kind of language is XSLT?"
3580:Educational programming language
3529:
2972:
2372:
2254:
2253:
652:. Due to their integration with
524:, the first language to support
369:high-level programming languages
115:(meaning), usually defined by a
7599:
7002:Computational complexity theory
6572:Programming Language Processors
6512:(10 ed.). Addison-Wesley.
6498:Programming Language Pragmatics
6449:Types and Programming Languages
6008:. Computerworld. Archived from
5940:Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman.
5889:This site lists 8512 languages.
5601:Perlis, Alan (September 1982).
5170:
4907:Programming language pragmatics
4899:
4866:
4834:
4803:
4794:
4785:
4775:
4766:
4757:
4747:
4737:
4728:
4719:
4386:
4229:Types and Programming Languages
4218:
4197:
4161:
4103:Programming Language Pragmatics
4092:
4066:
4048:
4027:(4th ed.). Wiley. p.
4012:
3984:
3962:
3943:
3927:
3837:Digital Equipment Corporation.
3789:, New Age International, 2007,
3677:Scientific programming language
3387:of a programming language or a
3157:(CLR) as a closed environment.
2886:, which is more efficient than
1822:{\displaystyle {\overline {A}}}
605:Due to the rapid growth of the
407:—the first hardware to support
306:
7656:Types of programming languages
6786:Network performance evaluation
6466:(4th ed.), Prentice Hall 2000.
5662:"Section 7.2 Formal semantics"
5607:SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9
4172:Digital typography using LaTeX
3910:
3779:
3746:
3737:
3610:Lists of programming languages
2770:
2727:, and allowing the underlying
2678:associative (unordered) arrays
2653:, sufficient to represent all
2505:
2143:
2091:
1697:
1587:{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B}
1485:
1427:{\displaystyle A\rightarrow B}
1418:
1375:{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B}
1366:
1332:
1306:
1255:{\displaystyle A\&\&B}
778:Syntax (programming languages)
415:was designed for this machine.
315:for defining and manipulating
207:
13:
1:
7756:
7157:Multimedia information system
7142:Geographic information system
7132:Enterprise information system
6721:Computer systems organization
6581:. John Wiley & Sons 2004.
4714:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4702:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4692:, pp. 474–475, 477, 542.
4690:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4678:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4654:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4630:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4618:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4594:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4582:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4570:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4558:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4546:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4519:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4507:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4495:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4471:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4435:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4381:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4364:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4352:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4328:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4299:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4287:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4270:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
4258:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023
3697:
3625:Language-oriented programming
3585:Esoteric programming language
2152:{\displaystyle A\leftarrow B}
2100:{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B}
1706:{\displaystyle A\downarrow B}
558:to decide how to achieve it.
18:Computer programming language
7788:Programming paradigms navbox
7516:Computational social science
7104:Theoretical computer science
6917:Software development process
6693:Electronic design automation
6678:Very Large Scale Integration
4859:and direct reduction to the
3892:MacLennan, Bruce J. (1987).
3481:, which are partly or fully
3467:visual programming languages
3033:for the language (e.g., the
2959:Natural-language programming
2897:
2696:where other data is stored.
2352:definite assignment analysis
1957:{\displaystyle A\parallel B}
1814:
1733:
1669:
1547:
1457:
1109:
725:visual programming languages
670:service-oriented programming
7:
7339:Natural language processing
7127:Information storage systems
6508:Sebesta, Robert W. (2012).
6033:"7 Myths of COBOL Debunked"
4176:. Springer-Verlag. p.
3995:. McGraw-Hill. p. 25.
3950:Ben Ari, Mordechai (1996).
3657:Programming language theory
3600:Invariant-based programming
3565:Outline of computer science
3537:Computer programming portal
3522:
2935:of commonly used functions.
2302:
1494:{\displaystyle A\uparrow B}
866:number | symbol number
762:
526:object-oriented programming
198:Programming language theory
88:, it will give the output "
10:
8420:
7255:Human–computer interaction
7225:Intrusion detection system
7137:Social information systems
7122:Database management system
6585:Wilson, Leslie B. (2001).
6502:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
6476:(4 vols.). Macmillan 1998.
6389:Cambridge University Press
6352:(2nd ed.). Springer.
6226:
5490:Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.:
5179:Polymorphic type inference
4058:. IBM.com. 20 April 2005.
3438:
3075:
2976:
2851:
2814:
2774:
2617:(to support operations on
2613:(signed and unsigned) and
2602:
2544:function in the language.
2509:
2361:
2126:{\displaystyle A\subset B}
1401:{\displaystyle A\supset B}
775:
600:fifth-generation languages
330:
72:for a computer program in
8237:
8166:
8079:
7856:
7833:
7715:
7662:
7584:
7521:Computational engineering
7496:Computational mathematics
7473:
7420:
7382:
7329:
7291:
7253:
7195:
7112:
7058:
7020:
6965:
6902:
6835:
6799:
6756:
6720:
6653:
6642:
5603:"Epigrams on Programming"
4225:Pierce, Benjamin (2002).
3475:graphical user interfaces
3407:, often a subset. In the
3143:Java programming language
3128:domain-specific languages
2848:Design and implementation
2735:Static and dynamic typing
2715:, who can only access an
2066:{\displaystyle A\oplus B}
1289:{\displaystyle A\equiv B}
771:
751:. Many game engines like
451:dynamic memory management
449:, and it also introduced
409:floating-point arithmetic
8189:Knowledge representation
8174:Architecture description
7531:Computational healthcare
7526:Differentiable computing
7445:Graphics processing unit
6864:Domain-specific language
6733:Computational complexity
5349:, pp. 631, 635–636.
5177:Leivant, Daniel (1983).
3974:6 September 2009 at the
3575:Domain-specific modeling
3570:Domain-specific language
3405:domain-specific language
3263:Measuring language usage
3115:just-in-time compilation
2868:von Neumann architecture
2599:Commonly supported types
1226:{\displaystyle A\&B}
1177:{\displaystyle A\cdot B}
1151:{\displaystyle A\land B}
1010:
856:
829:reference implementation
167:von Neumann architecture
39:latest accepted revision
7506:Computational chemistry
7440:Photograph manipulation
7331:Artificial intelligence
7147:Decision support system
6460:Marvin Victor Zelkowitz
6375:Oxford University Press
6298:Programming Linguistics
6031:Ed Airey (3 May 2012).
5912:10.1145/2745802.2745805
5587:20 January 2008 at the
4987:, pp. 15, 408–409.
4842:Perl and Undecidability
4099:Scott, Michael (2006).
3991:Powell, Thomas (2003).
3954:. John Wiley and Sons.
3870:"The CHARITY Home Page"
3155:Common Language Runtime
2206:Functional completeness
1931:{\displaystyle A\mid B}
1879:{\displaystyle A\lor B}
1520:{\displaystyle A\mid B}
862:atom | list atom
793:with inset tokenization
463:artificial intelligence
447:conditional expressions
419:Around 1960, the first
7571:Educational technology
7402:Reinforcement learning
7152:Process control system
7050:Computational geometry
7040:Algorithmic efficiency
7035:Analysis of algorithms
6683:Systems on Chip (SoCs)
6413:10.1353/tech.2014.0031
6401:Technology and Culture
6266:, Addison Wesley 1995.
5635:; D. MacQueen (1997).
5492:The Mythical Man-Month
4893:17 August 2000 at the
4847:17 August 2009 at the
4076:. Msdn.microsoft.com.
3715:Aaby, Anthony (2004).
3672:Reflective programming
3605:List of BASIC dialects
3590:Extensible programming
3389:data exchange language
3253:command-line interface
3190:
2486:conditionally execute
2415:"Programming language"
2176:Propositional calculus
2153:
2127:
2101:
2067:
2041:
2000:
1958:
1932:
1906:
1880:
1846:
1845:{\displaystyle \sim A}
1823:
1796:
1773:
1772:{\displaystyle \neg A}
1742:
1707:
1681:
1640:
1614:
1588:
1556:
1521:
1495:
1469:
1428:
1402:
1376:
1342:
1316:
1290:
1256:
1227:
1201:
1178:
1152:
809:
794:
672:, designed to exploit
571:
439:functional programming
416:
93:
8399:Programming languages
7827:Programming languages
7777:Programming languages
7541:Electronic publishing
7511:Computational biology
7501:Computational physics
7397:Unsupervised learning
7311:Distributed computing
7187:Information retrieval
7094:Mathematical analysis
7084:Mathematical software
6967:Theory of computation
6932:Software construction
6922:Requirements analysis
6800:Software organization
6728:Computer architecture
6698:Hardware acceleration
6663:Printed circuit board
6574:. Prentice Hall 1993.
6567:. Prentice Hall 1991.
6556:. Prentice Hall 1990.
6546:, The MIT Press 2004.
6530:, The MIT Press 2009.
6452:, The MIT Press 2002.
6340:30 April 2021 at the
6325:Shriram Krishnamurthi
6286:, The MIT Press 2001.
6278:Christopher T. Haynes
5983:"Scripting Languages"
5188:10.1145/567067.567077
4879:6 August 2013 at the
4874:Lecture Notes: Macros
4233:. MIT Press. p.
3808:"Turing Completeness"
3772:27 April 2010 at the
3667:Rebol § Dialects
3439:Further information:
3121:Proprietary languages
2910:overloading operators
2890:on these machines.
2860:computer architecture
2784:Interpreted languages
2586:to a different type.
2234:Programming languages
2154:
2128:
2102:
2068:
2042:
2001:
1959:
1933:
1907:
1881:
1847:
1824:
1797:
1774:
1743:
1708:
1682:
1641:
1615:
1589:
1557:
1522:
1496:
1470:
1429:
1403:
1377:
1343:
1317:
1291:
1257:
1228:
1202:
1179:
1153:
1092:context-free grammars
800:
785:
569:
399:
325:abstraction principle
229:theory of computation
159:Computer architecture
127:, and mechanisms for
76:. The gray lines are
67:
8268:Programming language
8204:Programming language
8184:Hardware description
7301:Concurrent computing
7273:Ubiquitous computing
7245:Application security
7240:Information security
7069:Discrete mathematics
7045:Randomized algorithm
6997:Computability theory
6975:Model of computation
6947:Software maintenance
6942:Software engineering
6904:Software development
6854:Programming language
6849:Programming paradigm
6766:Network architecture
6058:Nicholas Enticknap.
5580:Dijkstra, Edsger W.
5506:"Standard Libraries"
5286:, pp. 630, 634.
3687:Software engineering
3635:Literate programming
3556:Computer programming
2864:Imperative languages
2777:Concurrent computing
2713:hidden from the user
2396:improve this section
2137:
2111:
2085:
2051:
2018:
1976:
1942:
1916:
1890:
1864:
1833:
1806:
1783:
1760:
1717:
1691:
1658:
1624:
1598:
1572:
1531:
1505:
1479:
1446:
1412:
1386:
1360:
1326:
1300:
1274:
1237:
1211:
1188:
1162:
1136:
400:Two people using an
257:formal specification
163:imperative languages
139:programs, namely an
98:programming language
7576:Document management
7566:Operations research
7491:Enterprise software
7407:Multi-task learning
7392:Supervised learning
7114:Information systems
6937:Software deployment
6894:Software repository
6748:Real-time computing
6241:Sussman, Gerald Jay
5948:on 26 February 2009
5879:on 20 February 2011
5772:ComputerScience.org
5274:, pp. 585–586.
5226:, pp. 284–285.
5214:, pp. 212–213.
5143:, pp. 244–245.
5119:, pp. 289–290.
5095:, pp. 276–277.
5083:, pp. 272–273.
5071:, pp. 281–282.
5011:, pp. 246–247.
4999:, pp. 303–304.
4905:Michael Lee Scott,
4704:, pp. 542–543.
4656:, pp. 538–539.
4632:, pp. 536–537.
4584:, pp. 534–535.
4560:, pp. 532–533.
4509:, pp. 526–527.
4473:, pp. 524–525.
4461:, pp. 701–703.
4354:, pp. 523–524.
4272:, pp. 520–521.
4207:, MIT Press, 1994,
3761:7 July 2015 at the
3479:Scripting languages
3241:interactive session
3132:scripting languages
2709:abstract data types
2680:accessed via keys,
2649:—traditionally one
2605:Primitive data type
2496:execution semantics
2244:Philosophy of logic
1905:{\displaystyle A+B}
1118:Logical connectives
1100:Lisp's macro system
1096:undecidable problem
836:regular expressions
827:or hard-coded in a
802:Syntax highlighting
674:distributed systems
630:scripting languages
319:or controlling the
200:is the subfield of
29:Page version status
7359:Search methodology
7306:Parallel computing
7263:Interaction design
7172:Computing platform
7099:Numerical analysis
7089:Information theory
6874:Software framework
6837:Software notations
6776:Network components
6673:Integrated circuit
6589:. Addison-Wesley.
6559:David A. Watt and
6444:Benjamin C. Pierce
6367:Bruce J. MacLennan
6335:online publication
6294:Suresh Jagannathan
6270:Daniel P. Friedman
6012:on 19 October 2013
5873:Murdoch University
5556:, pp. 18, 23.
4872:Marty Hall, 1995,
4819:. PWS Publishing.
4203:David A. Schmidt,
4150:. pp. 1–157.
3725:on 8 November 2012
3682:Scripting language
3257:scripting language
3187:and code sharing.
3139:Oracle Corporation
2963:Edsger W. Dijkstra
2944:exception handling
2817:Exception handling
2811:Exception handling
2719:. The benefits of
2553:assembly languages
2542:type compatibility
2484:control structures
2340:data flow analysis
2239:Mathematical logic
2149:
2123:
2097:
2063:
2037:
2032:
1996:
1954:
1928:
1902:
1876:
1842:
1819:
1795:{\displaystyle -A}
1792:
1769:
1738:
1703:
1677:
1636:
1610:
1584:
1552:
1517:
1491:
1465:
1424:
1398:
1372:
1338:
1312:
1286:
1252:
1223:
1200:{\displaystyle AB}
1197:
1174:
1148:
960:undefined behavior
810:
795:
572:
459:garbage collection
417:
354:assembly languages
336:Early developments
194:exception handling
94:
35:
8263:
8262:
8160:computer language
8125:
8124:
8107:Non-English-based
7766:Computer language
7753:
7752:
7622:
7621:
7551:Electronic voting
7481:Quantum Computing
7474:Applied computing
7460:Image compression
7230:Hardware security
7220:Security services
7177:Digital marketing
6957:Open-source model
6869:Modeling language
6781:Network scheduler
6519:978-0-13-139531-2
6456:Terrence W. Pratt
6359:978-3-031-34144-1
6216:, pp. 22–23.
6180:, pp. 21–22.
6035:. developer.com.
5922:978-1-4503-3350-4
5745:, pp. 29–30.
5709:, pp. 25–27.
5697:, pp. 23–24.
5646:978-0-262-63181-5
5609:. pp. 7–13.
5544:, pp. 8, 16.
5481:, pp. 14–15.
5457:, pp. 12–13.
5421:, pp. 16–17.
5198:978-0-89791-090-3
4840:Jeffrey Kegler, "
4826:978-0-534-94728-6
4668:, pp. 97–99.
4644:, pp. 91–92.
4485:, pp. 56–57.
4425:, pp. 47–48.
4398:twobithistory.org
4342:, pp. 42–44.
4244:978-0-262-16209-8
4187:978-0-387-95217-8
4122:978-0-12-633951-2
4038:978-0-7645-8845-7
4002:978-0-07-222942-4
3903:978-0-19-511306-8
3652:Modeling language
3630:Logic programming
3010:(e.g., as in the
2946:, and restricted
2807:between threads.
2701:user-defined type
2492:dynamic semantics
2476:
2475:
2468:
2450:
2358:Dynamic semantics
2334:. Other forms of
2293:
2292:
2162:
2161:
2025:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1817:
1736:
1672:
1550:
1460:
1088:Chomsky hierarchy
627:dynamically typed
576:personal computer
552:logic programming
321:flow of execution
270:natural languages
264:Domain and target
249:abstract machines
223:computer language
102:computer programs
47:30 September 2024
26:
16:(Redirected from
8411:
8379:
8371:
8370:
8369:
8362:
8361:from Wikiversity
8354:
8353:
8352:
8345:
8337:
8336:
8335:
8328:
8320:
8319:
8318:
8311:
8303:
8302:
8301:
8294:
8286:
8285:
8284:
8274:
8152:
8145:
8138:
8129:
8128:
8115:
8114:
8087:
8086:
7820:
7813:
7806:
7797:
7796:
7792:
7786:
7781:
7775:
7770:
7764:
7649:
7642:
7635:
7626:
7625:
7612:
7611:
7602:
7601:
7592:
7591:
7412:Cross-validation
7384:Machine learning
7268:Social computing
7235:Network security
7030:Algorithm design
6952:Programming team
6912:Control variable
6889:Software library
6827:Software quality
6822:Operating system
6771:Network protocol
6636:Computer science
6629:
6622:
6615:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6523:
6494:Michael L. Scott
6440:
6381:John C. Mitchell
6363:
6317:Ellis Horowitz:
6314:(3rd ed.), 1987.
6254:
6253:on 9 March 2018.
6217:
6211:
6205:
6199:
6193:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6166:
6160:
6154:
6153:
6151:
6149:
6139:
6133:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6113:
6107:
6104:
6098:
6097:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6055:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6028:
6022:
6021:
6019:
6017:
6006:"COBOL turns 50"
6001:
5995:
5994:
5978:
5972:
5971:
5965:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5944:. Archived from
5937:
5931:
5930:
5914:
5898:
5892:
5891:
5886:
5884:
5875:. Archived from
5865:
5859:
5858:
5848:
5846:10.1002/pds.5728
5824:
5818:
5817:
5815:
5813:
5794:
5788:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5764:
5758:
5752:
5746:
5740:
5734:
5728:
5722:
5716:
5710:
5704:
5698:
5692:
5686:
5680:
5674:
5673:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5598:
5592:
5578:
5572:
5566:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5527:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5501:
5495:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5445:, pp. 9–10.
5440:
5434:
5428:
5422:
5416:
5410:
5404:
5398:
5392:
5386:
5380:
5374:
5368:
5362:
5356:
5350:
5344:
5338:
5332:
5326:
5320:
5314:
5308:
5299:
5293:
5287:
5281:
5275:
5269:
5263:
5257:
5251:
5245:
5239:
5233:
5227:
5221:
5215:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5190:
5174:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5120:
5114:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5078:
5072:
5066:
5060:
5054:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5030:
5024:
5018:
5012:
5006:
5000:
4994:
4988:
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4195:
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4026:
4016:
4010:
4009:
3988:
3982:
3969:XML in 10 points
3966:
3960:
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3947:
3941:
3931:
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3914:
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3804:
3798:
3783:
3777:
3750:
3744:
3741:
3735:
3734:
3732:
3730:
3721:. Archived from
3712:
3561:Computer science
3539:
3534:
3533:
3517:markup languages
3509:dynamic dispatch
3501:data abstraction
3170:Wolfram Language
3088:operating system
3026:specifications).
3016:formal semantics
3008:natural language
2933:standard library
2831:operating system
2721:data abstraction
2631:integer overflow
2538:type equivalence
2471:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2449:
2408:
2376:
2368:
2309:Static semantics
2285:
2278:
2271:
2257:
2256:
2201:Boolean function
2167:Related concepts
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2132:
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2129:
2124:
2106:
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2103:
2098:
2072:
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2005:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1963:
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1466:
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1295:
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1183:
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1175:
1157:
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1149:
1125:
1124:
1114:
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1105:
1082:
1077:type declaration
1071:
1068:
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1062:
1059:
1056:
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1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1003:
999:
995:
967:natural language
953:
949:
945:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
844:Backus–Naur form
664:2000s to present
534:dynamic dispatch
473:and polymorphic
346:machine language
277:Markup languages
255:emphasizes that
253:John C. Reynolds
202:computer science
21:
8419:
8418:
8414:
8413:
8412:
8410:
8409:
8408:
8384:
8383:
8382:
8372:
8367:
8365:
8355:
8350:
8348:
8338:
8333:
8331:
8321:
8316:
8314:
8304:
8299:
8297:
8293:from Wiktionary
8287:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8273:sister projects
8270:at Knowledge's
8264:
8259:
8233:
8162:
8156:
8126:
8121:
8075:
7852:
7829:
7824:
7790:
7784:
7779:
7773:
7768:
7762:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7711:
7702:Very high-level
7658:
7653:
7623:
7618:
7609:
7580:
7561:Word processing
7469:
7455:Virtual reality
7416:
7378:
7349:Computer vision
7325:
7321:Multiprocessing
7287:
7249:
7215:Security hacker
7191:
7167:Digital library
7108:
7059:Mathematics of
7054:
7016:
6992:Automata theory
6987:Formal language
6961:
6927:Software design
6898:
6831:
6817:Virtual machine
6795:
6791:Network service
6752:
6743:Embedded system
6716:
6649:
6638:
6633:
6603:
6597:
6577:David A. Watt.
6570:David A. Watt.
6520:
6360:
6342:Wayback Machine
6290:David Gelernter
6237:Abelson, Harold
6231:
6225:
6223:Further reading
6220:
6212:
6208:
6200:
6196:
6188:
6184:
6176:
6169:
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6147:
6145:
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6126:
6124:
6115:
6114:
6110:
6105:
6101:
6096:on 17 May 2008.
6088:
6087:
6083:
6073:
6071:
6064:Computer Weekly
6056:
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5882:
5880:
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5862:
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5811:
5809:
5804:. 10 May 2011.
5796:
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5693:
5689:
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5599:
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5589:Wayback Machine
5579:
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5489:
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5477:
5473:
5465:
5461:
5453:
5449:
5441:
5437:
5433:, pp. 8–9.
5429:
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4945:
4937:
4933:
4925:
4921:
4904:
4900:
4895:Wayback Machine
4881:Wayback Machine
4871:
4867:
4861:halting problem
4853:The Perl Review
4849:Wayback Machine
4839:
4835:
4827:
4808:
4804:
4799:
4795:
4790:
4786:
4780:
4776:
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4264:
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4166:
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4148:tobi.oetiker.ch
4143:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4109:Morgan Kaufmann
4097:
4093:
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4072:
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4067:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4039:
4023:XML For Dummies
4017:
4013:
4003:
3989:
3985:
3976:Wayback Machine
3967:
3963:
3948:
3944:
3932:
3928:
3915:
3911:
3904:
3889:Turing-complete
3886:
3882:
3866:
3862:
3852:
3850:
3835:
3831:
3821:
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3806:
3805:
3801:
3784:
3780:
3774:Wayback Machine
3763:Wayback Machine
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3728:
3726:
3713:
3704:
3700:
3695:
3640:Metaprogramming
3535:
3528:
3525:
3473:for generating
3459:object oriented
3443:
3437:
3435:Classifications
3381:
3265:
3193:
3123:
3092:production code
3080:
3074:
2981:
2975:
2900:
2856:
2850:
2819:
2813:
2805:message passing
2779:
2773:
2749:implicit typing
2737:
2639:ones complement
2635:twos complement
2607:
2601:
2522:
2510:Main articles:
2508:
2494:(also known as
2472:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2409:
2407:
2393:
2377:
2366:
2360:
2336:static analyses
2311:
2289:
2248:
2215:
2186:Boolean algebra
2181:Predicate logic
2138:
2135:
2134:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2024:
2019:
2016:
2015:
1985:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1865:
1862:
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1809:
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1595:
1573:
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1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1480:
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1476:
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1413:
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1387:
1384:
1383:
1361:
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1357:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1112:
1103:
1080:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1001:
997:
993:
951:
947:
943:
880:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
842:structure) and
780:
774:
765:
666:
564:
394:
392:1960s and 1970s
365:human resources
338:
333:
317:data structures
309:
293:structured data
291:, which define
266:
241:ANSI/ISO SQL-92
233:Turing complete
218:
210:
190:object-oriented
117:formal language
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8417:
8407:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8381:
8380:
8363:
8346:
8344:from Wikibooks
8329:
8327:from Wikiquote
8312:
8295:
8266:
8261:
8260:
8258:
8257:
8252:
8247:
8241:
8239:
8235:
8234:
8232:
8231:
8229:Transformation
8226:
8221:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8196:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8176:
8170:
8168:
8164:
8163:
8155:
8154:
8147:
8140:
8132:
8123:
8122:
8120:
8119:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8094:
8080:
8077:
8076:
8074:
8073:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8036:
8031:
8026:
8021:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8005:
8004:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7969:
7964:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7908:
7907:
7906:
7905:
7900:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7874:
7873:
7863:
7857:
7854:
7853:
7851:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7834:
7831:
7830:
7823:
7822:
7815:
7808:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7782:
7771:
7758:
7755:
7751:
7750:
7748:
7747:
7742:
7737:
7732:
7727:
7721:
7719:
7713:
7712:
7710:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7688:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7666:
7664:
7660:
7659:
7652:
7651:
7644:
7637:
7629:
7620:
7619:
7617:
7616:
7606:
7596:
7585:
7582:
7581:
7579:
7578:
7573:
7568:
7563:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7477:
7475:
7471:
7470:
7468:
7467:
7465:Solid modeling
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7426:
7424:
7418:
7417:
7415:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7388:
7386:
7380:
7379:
7377:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7364:Control method
7361:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7335:
7333:
7327:
7326:
7324:
7323:
7318:
7316:Multithreading
7313:
7308:
7303:
7297:
7295:
7289:
7288:
7286:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7259:
7257:
7251:
7250:
7248:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7227:
7222:
7217:
7212:
7210:Formal methods
7207:
7201:
7199:
7193:
7192:
7190:
7189:
7184:
7182:World Wide Web
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7118:
7116:
7110:
7109:
7107:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7065:
7063:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7026:
7024:
7018:
7017:
7015:
7014:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6984:
6983:
6982:
6971:
6969:
6963:
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6959:
6954:
6949:
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6929:
6924:
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6906:
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6891:
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6866:
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6851:
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6830:
6829:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6803:
6801:
6797:
6796:
6794:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6762:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6724:
6722:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6714:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6659:
6657:
6651:
6650:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6632:
6631:
6624:
6617:
6609:
6602:
6601:
6595:
6582:
6575:
6568:
6557:
6547:
6531:
6524:
6518:
6505:
6491:
6488:Addison-Wesley
6477:
6470:Peter H. Salus
6467:
6453:
6441:
6392:
6378:
6364:
6358:
6345:
6322:
6315:
6308:Ellis Horowitz
6305:
6287:
6267:
6258:Raphael Finkel
6255:
6232:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6218:
6206:
6194:
6182:
6167:
6155:
6134:
6108:
6099:
6081:
6050:
6023:
5996:
5973:
5932:
5921:
5893:
5860:
5819:
5789:
5759:
5747:
5735:
5723:
5711:
5699:
5687:
5675:
5652:
5645:
5616:
5593:
5573:
5558:
5546:
5534:
5522:
5496:
5483:
5471:
5459:
5447:
5435:
5423:
5411:
5399:
5387:
5375:
5363:
5351:
5339:
5337:, p. 632.
5327:
5325:, p. 261.
5315:
5313:, p. 631.
5300:
5298:, p. 635.
5288:
5276:
5264:
5262:, p. 585.
5252:
5250:, p. 579.
5240:
5238:, p. 576.
5228:
5216:
5204:
5197:
5169:
5167:, p. 211.
5157:
5155:, p. 477.
5145:
5133:
5131:, p. 255.
5121:
5109:
5107:, p. 280.
5097:
5085:
5073:
5061:
5059:, p. 254.
5049:
5047:, p. 250.
5037:
5035:, p. 260.
5025:
5023:, p. 249.
5013:
5001:
4989:
4977:
4958:Andrew Cooke.
4943:
4941:, p. 245.
4931:
4929:, p. 244.
4919:
4898:
4865:
4857:Rice's theorem
4833:
4825:
4811:Michael Sipser
4802:
4793:
4784:
4774:
4765:
4756:
4746:
4736:
4727:
4718:
4716:, p. 544.
4706:
4694:
4682:
4680:, p. 542.
4670:
4658:
4646:
4634:
4622:
4620:, p. 536.
4610:
4608:, p. 736.
4598:
4596:, p. 535.
4586:
4574:
4572:, p. 534.
4562:
4550:
4548:, p. 530.
4538:
4523:
4521:, p. 531.
4511:
4499:
4497:, p. 525.
4487:
4475:
4463:
4451:
4439:
4437:, p. 526.
4427:
4415:
4385:
4383:, p. 528.
4368:
4366:, p. 527.
4356:
4344:
4332:
4330:, p. 524.
4315:
4303:
4301:, p. 522.
4291:
4289:, p. 521.
4274:
4262:
4260:, p. 519.
4250:
4243:
4217:
4196:
4186:
4160:
4144:(Version 5.06)
4131:
4121:
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3076:Main article:
3073:
3072:Implementation
3070:
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3053:implementation
3042:
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2977:Main article:
2974:
2971:
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2951:
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2903:performance.
2899:
2896:
2852:Main article:
2849:
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2823:runtime errors
2815:Main article:
2812:
2809:
2803:, or enabling
2772:
2769:
2736:
2733:
2729:data structure
2725:name collision
2670:primitive type
2615:floating point
2600:
2597:
2507:
2504:
2474:
2473:
2380:
2378:
2371:
2362:Main article:
2359:
2356:
2320:case statement
2310:
2307:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2280:
2273:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2196:Truth function
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2036:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1995:
1981:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1859:
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1196:
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1173:
1170:
1167:
1147:
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1141:
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1121:
1120:
1111:
1108:
1011:
988:The following
986:
985:
978:
952:(a b c232 (1))
940:
939:
928:
921:
914:
899:
874:.* list
870:?+ symbol
857:
776:Main article:
773:
770:
768:respectively.
764:
761:
710:dynamic typing
665:
662:
611:World Wide Web
563:
562:1980s to 2000s
560:
471:inferred types
457:and automatic
429:microprocessor
393:
390:
337:
334:
332:
329:
308:
305:
265:
262:
217:
214:
209:
206:
133:implementation
129:error handling
58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8416:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8389:
8378:from Wikidata
8377:
8376:
8364:
8360:
8359:
8347:
8343:
8342:
8330:
8326:
8325:
8313:
8309:
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8279:
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8275:
8269:
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8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8240:
8236:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8219:Specification
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8200:
8197:
8195:
8192:
8190:
8187:
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8179:Data exchange
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8032:
8030:
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8003:
8002:Object Pascal
8000:
7999:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
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7605:
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7489:
7487:
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7482:
7479:
7478:
7476:
7472:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7450:Mixed reality
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7427:
7425:
7423:
7419:
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7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
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7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7294:
7290:
7284:
7283:Accessibility
7281:
7279:
7278:Visualization
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7258:
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7119:
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7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7066:
7064:
7062:
7057:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7019:
7013:
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6985:
6981:
6978:
6977:
6976:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6968:
6964:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6901:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6804:
6802:
6798:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6755:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6738:Dependability
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6725:
6723:
6719:
6713:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6652:
6647:
6641:
6637:
6630:
6625:
6623:
6618:
6616:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6598:
6596:0-201-71012-9
6592:
6588:
6583:
6580:
6576:
6573:
6569:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6555:
6551:
6550:David A. Watt
6548:
6545:
6544:
6539:
6535:
6534:Peter Van Roy
6532:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6515:
6511:
6506:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6492:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6478:
6475:
6471:
6468:
6465:
6461:
6457:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6445:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6379:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6365:
6361:
6355:
6351:
6346:
6343:
6339:
6336:
6332:
6331:
6326:
6323:
6320:
6316:
6313:
6309:
6306:
6303:
6302:The MIT Press
6299:
6295:
6291:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6279:
6275:
6274:Mitchell Wand
6271:
6268:
6265:
6264:
6259:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6247:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6233:
6230:
6215:
6210:
6204:, p. 22.
6203:
6198:
6192:, p. 12.
6191:
6186:
6179:
6174:
6172:
6165:, p. 21.
6164:
6159:
6144:
6143:"TIOBE Index"
6138:
6122:
6118:
6112:
6103:
6095:
6091:
6085:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6054:
6038:
6034:
6027:
6011:
6007:
6000:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5977:
5969:
5963:
5947:
5943:
5936:
5929:
5924:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5890:
5878:
5874:
5871:. Australia:
5870:
5864:
5856:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5823:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5793:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5763:
5757:
5751:
5744:
5739:
5733:, p. 28.
5732:
5727:
5721:, p. 27.
5720:
5715:
5708:
5703:
5696:
5691:
5684:
5679:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5656:
5648:
5642:
5639:. MIT Press.
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5620:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5597:
5590:
5586:
5583:
5577:
5571:, p. 23.
5570:
5565:
5563:
5555:
5550:
5543:
5538:
5532:, p. 15.
5531:
5526:
5511:
5507:
5500:
5493:
5487:
5480:
5475:
5469:, p. 13.
5468:
5463:
5456:
5451:
5444:
5439:
5432:
5427:
5420:
5415:
5408:
5403:
5397:, p. 60.
5396:
5391:
5385:, p. 55.
5384:
5379:
5373:, p. 19.
5372:
5367:
5361:, p. 18.
5360:
5355:
5348:
5343:
5336:
5331:
5324:
5319:
5312:
5307:
5305:
5297:
5292:
5285:
5280:
5273:
5268:
5261:
5256:
5249:
5244:
5237:
5232:
5225:
5220:
5213:
5208:
5200:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5173:
5166:
5161:
5154:
5149:
5142:
5137:
5130:
5125:
5118:
5113:
5106:
5101:
5094:
5089:
5082:
5077:
5070:
5065:
5058:
5053:
5046:
5041:
5034:
5029:
5022:
5017:
5010:
5005:
4998:
4993:
4986:
4981:
4965:
4961:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4940:
4935:
4928:
4923:
4916:
4915:0-12-633951-1
4912:
4908:
4902:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4875:
4869:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4843:
4837:
4828:
4822:
4818:
4817:
4812:
4806:
4797:
4788:
4778:
4769:
4760:
4750:
4740:
4731:
4722:
4715:
4710:
4703:
4698:
4691:
4686:
4679:
4674:
4667:
4662:
4655:
4650:
4643:
4638:
4631:
4626:
4619:
4614:
4607:
4602:
4595:
4590:
4583:
4578:
4571:
4566:
4559:
4554:
4547:
4542:
4536:, p. 79.
4535:
4530:
4528:
4520:
4515:
4508:
4503:
4496:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4472:
4467:
4460:
4455:
4449:, p. 50.
4448:
4443:
4436:
4431:
4424:
4419:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4389:
4382:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4365:
4360:
4353:
4348:
4341:
4336:
4329:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4313:, p. 42.
4312:
4307:
4300:
4295:
4288:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4271:
4266:
4259:
4254:
4246:
4240:
4236:
4231:
4230:
4221:
4214:
4213:0-262-19349-3
4210:
4206:
4200:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4164:
4153:
4149:
4142:
4135:
4128:
4124:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4104:
4095:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4061:
4057:
4051:
4044:
4040:
4034:
4030:
4025:
4024:
4015:
4008:
4004:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3980:
3977:
3973:
3970:
3965:
3958:
3953:
3946:
3939:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3922:0-12-012108-5
3919:
3913:
3905:
3899:
3895:
3890:
3884:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3833:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3796:
3795:81-224-1379-X
3792:
3788:
3785:S.K. Bajpai,
3782:
3776:, pp. 163–170
3775:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3749:
3740:
3724:
3720:
3719:
3711:
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3641:
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3621:
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3616:
3613:
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3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
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3588:
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3583:
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3576:
3573:
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3568:
3566:
3562:
3559:
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3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3532:
3527:
3520:
3518:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3495:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3432:
3430:
3429:many dialects
3427:language has
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3233:batch process
3230:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3202:
3196:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:(e.g., as in
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2980:
2973:Specification
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2940:Type checking
2937:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2918:special words
2915:
2914:orthogonality
2911:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2895:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2855:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2818:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2778:
2768:
2766:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2741:static typing
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2699:The simplest
2697:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2657:characters.
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2596:
2594:
2593:type coercion
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2576:strong typing
2573:
2569:
2568:Type checking
2565:
2561:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2547:According to
2545:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2470:
2467:
2459:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2420:
2417: –
2416:
2412:
2411:Find sources:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2381:This section
2379:
2375:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2286:
2281:
2279:
2274:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2252:
2251:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2229:Digital logic
2227:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2211:Scope (logic)
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2146:
2140:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2094:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2034:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2008:
1993:
1979:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1839:
1836:
1811:
1789:
1786:
1766:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1700:
1694:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1568:
1566:nonequivalent
1565:
1564:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1488:
1482:
1462:
1454:
1449:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1421:
1415:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1369:
1363:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1335:
1329:
1309:
1303:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1249:
1240:
1220:
1214:
1194:
1191:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1078:
1009:
1007:
994:*p >> 4
991:
983:
979:
976:
972:
971:
970:
968:
963:
961:
955:
937:
933:
929:
926:
922:
919:
915:
912:
908:
904:
900:
897:
893:
890:is either an
889:
885:
884:
883:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
832:
830:
826:
821:
819:
815:
807:
803:
799:
792:
788:
784:
779:
769:
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
706:static typing
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
661:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
568:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
478:
476:
472:
469:, introduced
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
430:
426:
422:
414:
410:
406:
403:
398:
389:
387:
383:
378:
374:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
261:
258:
254:
250:
245:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
224:
213:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
91:
90:Hello, world!
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
62:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
8373:
8356:
8339:
8322:
8310:from Commons
8305:
8288:
8267:
8203:
8102:Generational
8092:Alphabetical
8088:
8068:
7893:Visual Basic
7826:
7791:}}
7785:{{
7780:}}
7774:{{
7769:}}
7763:{{
7546:Cyberwarfare
7205:Cryptography
6853:
6586:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6561:Muffy Thomas
6553:
6541:
6527:
6509:
6497:
6483:
6473:
6463:
6447:
6407:(1): 40–75.
6404:
6400:
6384:
6370:
6349:
6328:
6318:
6311:
6297:
6281:
6261:
6251:the original
6245:
6214:Sebesta 2012
6209:
6202:Sebesta 2012
6197:
6190:Sebesta 2012
6185:
6178:Sebesta 2012
6163:Sebesta 2012
6158:
6146:. Retrieved
6137:
6125:. Retrieved
6111:
6102:
6094:the original
6084:
6072:. Retrieved
6063:
6053:
6041:. Retrieved
6026:
6014:. Retrieved
6010:the original
5999:
5986:
5976:
5950:. Retrieved
5946:the original
5935:
5926:
5902:
5896:
5888:
5881:. Retrieved
5877:the original
5863:
5839:(3): e5728.
5836:
5832:
5822:
5810:. Retrieved
5801:
5798:"The basics"
5792:
5780:. Retrieved
5771:
5762:
5750:
5743:Sebesta 2012
5738:
5731:Sebesta 2012
5726:
5719:Sebesta 2012
5714:
5707:Sebesta 2012
5702:
5695:Sebesta 2012
5690:
5678:
5665:
5655:
5636:
5619:
5606:
5596:
5576:
5569:Sebesta 2012
5554:Sebesta 2012
5549:
5542:Sebesta 2012
5537:
5530:Sebesta 2012
5525:
5513:. Retrieved
5509:
5499:
5491:
5486:
5479:Sebesta 2012
5474:
5467:Sebesta 2012
5462:
5455:Sebesta 2012
5450:
5443:Sebesta 2012
5438:
5431:Sebesta 2012
5426:
5419:Sebesta 2012
5414:
5409:, p. 8.
5407:Sebesta 2012
5402:
5390:
5378:
5371:Sebesta 2012
5366:
5359:Sebesta 2012
5354:
5347:Sebesta 2012
5342:
5335:Sebesta 2012
5330:
5323:Sebesta 2012
5318:
5311:Sebesta 2012
5296:Sebesta 2012
5291:
5284:Sebesta 2012
5279:
5272:Sebesta 2012
5267:
5260:Sebesta 2012
5255:
5248:Sebesta 2012
5243:
5236:Sebesta 2012
5231:
5224:Sebesta 2012
5219:
5212:Sebesta 2012
5207:
5178:
5172:
5165:Sebesta 2012
5160:
5153:Sebesta 2012
5148:
5141:Sebesta 2012
5136:
5129:Sebesta 2012
5124:
5117:Sebesta 2012
5112:
5105:Sebesta 2012
5100:
5093:Sebesta 2012
5088:
5081:Sebesta 2012
5076:
5069:Sebesta 2012
5064:
5057:Sebesta 2012
5052:
5045:Sebesta 2012
5040:
5033:Sebesta 2012
5028:
5021:Sebesta 2012
5016:
5009:Sebesta 2012
5004:
4997:Sebesta 2012
4992:
4985:Sebesta 2012
4980:
4968:. Retrieved
4939:Sebesta 2012
4934:
4927:Sebesta 2012
4922:
4906:
4901:
4868:
4852:
4836:
4815:
4805:
4796:
4787:
4777:
4768:
4759:
4749:
4739:
4730:
4721:
4709:
4697:
4685:
4673:
4666:Sebesta 2012
4661:
4649:
4642:Sebesta 2012
4637:
4625:
4613:
4606:Sebesta 2012
4601:
4589:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4541:
4534:Sebesta 2012
4514:
4502:
4490:
4483:Sebesta 2012
4478:
4466:
4459:Sebesta 2012
4454:
4447:Sebesta 2012
4442:
4430:
4423:Sebesta 2012
4418:
4406:. Retrieved
4397:
4388:
4359:
4347:
4340:Sebesta 2012
4335:
4311:Sebesta 2012
4306:
4294:
4265:
4253:
4228:
4220:
4204:
4199:
4191:
4171:
4163:
4147:
4134:
4126:
4102:
4094:
4082:. Retrieved
4068:
4050:
4042:
4022:
4014:
4006:
3992:
3986:
3964:
3955:
3951:
3945:
3934:
3929:
3912:
3893:
3883:
3863:
3851:. Retrieved
3842:
3832:
3820:. Retrieved
3811:
3802:
3786:
3781:
3753:
3748:
3739:
3729:29 September
3727:. Retrieved
3723:the original
3717:
3514:
3485:rather than
3444:
3413:S-expression
3384:
3382:
3350:
3307:
3290:
3266:
3226:
3219:
3212:abstractions
3205:
3197:
3194:
3181:open science
3178:
3159:
3136:
3130:or internal
3124:
3108:
3104:optimization
3084:machine code
3081:
3055:, sometimes
3050:
3046:
3001:
2989:implementors
2982:
2957:
2953:
2929:expressivity
2901:
2892:
2857:
2842:
2839:
2820:
2780:
2761:
2738:
2705:ordinal type
2698:
2659:
2619:real numbers
2608:
2572:compile time
2557:
2546:
2523:
2495:
2491:
2477:
2462:
2453:
2443:
2436:
2429:
2422:
2410:
2394:Please help
2382:
2312:
2297:
2294:
2233:
2220:Applications
1085:
1074:
1006:null pointer
987:
964:
956:
941:
935:
931:
924:
917:
910:
906:
905:is either a
902:
895:
891:
887:
881:
833:
822:
811:
766:
722:
667:
650:applications
604:
573:
546:
514:context-free
479:
433:
418:
362:
339:
313:abstractions
310:
307:Abstractions
274:
267:
246:
221:
219:
211:
179:
157:
151:produces an
106:
97:
95:
61:
46:
37:This is the
31:
8290:Definitions
8097:Categorical
7685:Interpreted
7556:Video games
7536:Digital art
7293:Concurrency
7162:Data mining
7074:Probability
6807:Interpreter
6538:Seif Haridi
6486:, 2nd ed.,
4744:pp.129-141.
3767:ICSOFT 2007
3505:inheritance
3483:interpreted
3353:TIOBE index
3245:interpreter
3221:Programming
3185:replication
3111:interpreter
3020:Standard ML
2995:is a valid
2993:source code
2967:Alan Perlis
2925:abstraction
2771:Concurrency
2637:, although
2588:Weak typing
2580:type errors
2549:type theory
2530:type system
2520:Type safety
2516:Type system
2506:Type system
2332:type system
2191:Truth table
1102:and Perl's
982:well-formed
936:expressions
858:expression
848:grammatical
791:Python code
596:concurrency
588:inheritance
556:interpreter
538:inheritance
528:(including
425:punch cards
208:Definitions
175:abstraction
141:interpreter
121:type system
111:(form) and
70:source code
8388:Categories
8324:Quotations
8224:Stylesheet
7962:JavaScript
7838:Comparison
7717:Generation
7697:High-level
7614:Glossaries
7486:E-commerce
7079:Statistics
7022:Algorithms
6980:Stochastic
6812:Middleware
6668:Peripheral
6480:Ravi Sethi
6227:See also:
6043:19 October
6016:19 October
5625:Milner, R.
5515:27 January
4917:, p. 18–19
4885:PostScript
4111:. p.
4084:3 December
3698:References
3662:Pseudocode
3451:functional
3447:imperative
3330:JavaScript
3274:mainframes
3249:Unix shell
3216:primitives
3208:programmer
3201:pseudocode
3100:executable
3031:translator
3012:C language
2880:assignment
2797:semaphores
2775:See also:
2765:union type
2603:See also:
2536:, and how
2534:expression
2488:statements
2456:April 2024
2426:newspapers
2324:subroutine
2316:identifier
1267:equivalent
990:C language
938:inside it.
888:expression
787:Parse tree
638:JavaScript
619:networking
486:algorithms
475:parameters
421:mainframes
411:—in 1957.
377:abstracted
237:algorithms
182:functional
153:executable
8358:Resources
8341:Textbooks
8158:Types of
8059:Smalltalk
7692:Low-level
7435:Rendering
7430:Animation
7061:computing
7012:Semantics
6703:Processor
6421:0040-165X
6127:29 August
5633:R. Harper
3822:5 October
3515:Although
3251:or other
3210:uses the
3147:Microsoft
3065:ANSI REXX
3047:reference
2898:Tradeoffs
2888:recursion
2884:iteration
2717:interface
2647:character
2526:data type
2512:Data type
2383:does not
2330:called a
2298:semantics
2295:The term
2144:←
2118:⊂
2092:⇐
2058:⊕
2030:_
2027:∨
1949:∥
1923:∣
1871:∨
1837:∼
1815:¯
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1764:¬
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1333:⇋
1307:⇔
1281:≡
1247:&
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1169:⋅
1143:∧
1110:Semantics
818:graphical
741:Ballerina
615:Web pages
520:grammar.
443:recursion
405:mainframe
220:The term
155:program.
125:variables
113:semantics
8404:Notation
8238:See also
8199:Modeling
8117:Category
7883:Assembly
7843:Timeline
7757:See also
7707:Esoteric
7680:Compiled
7675:Assembly
7594:Category
7422:Graphics
7197:Security
6859:Compiler
6758:Networks
6655:Hardware
6437:24988794
6429:24468397
6338:Archived
6243:(1996).
6121:Archived
6068:Archived
6037:Archived
5991:Archived
5962:cite web
5855:37984998
5806:Archived
5776:Archived
5670:Archived
5629:M. Tofte
5611:Archived
5585:Archived
4964:Archived
4891:Archived
4877:Archived
4845:Archived
4813:(1996).
4408:10 April
4402:Archived
4152:Archived
4078:Archived
4060:Archived
3972:Archived
3874:Archived
3847:Archived
3816:Archived
3797:, p. 346
3770:Archived
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3523:See also
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3469:such as
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3166:VBScript
3096:compiler
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2560:integers
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2259:Category
2078:converse
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1579:≢
1052:>>
998:p->im
763:Elements
609:and the
607:Internet
580:superset
530:subtypes
386:compiled
350:portable
344:(1GLs),
171:hardware
149:compiler
145:compiler
82:compiled
78:comments
43:reviewed
8214:Shading
8070:more...
8049:Scratch
7952:Haskell
7942:Fortran
7898:classic
7848:History
7670:Machine
7604:Outline
6321:, 1989.
6310:(ed.):
6148:24 June
6074:14 June
5987:MacTech
5952:3 March
5802:ibm.com
5591:EWD667.
4970:13 July
4888:version
4215:, p. 32
3938:Notices
3936:SIGPLAN
3853:29 June
3421:Clojure
3401:dialect
3385:dialect
3334:VB .NET
3278:Fortran
3059:(e.g.,
3039:Fortran
2997:program
2801:monitor
2753:Haskell
2682:records
2666:strings
2643:Boolean
2611:integer
2440:scholar
2404:removed
2389:sources
1353:implies
1075:If the
1031:complex
1013:complex
1004:is the
840:lexical
745:Blockly
733:LabVIEW
729:Scratch
658:servers
584:classes
542:pointer
413:Fortran
402:IBM 704
382:Fortran
331:History
137:execute
8194:Markup
8089:Lists:
8024:Python
8019:Prolog
7997:Pascal
7987:MATLAB
7972:Kotlin
7932:Erlang
7871:Simula
7740:Fourth
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494:Pascal
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7866:ALGOL
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6490:1996.
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6377:1999.
6304:1990.
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2433:books
2350:have
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2328:logic
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1064:->
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909:or a
894:or a
846:(for
838:(for
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727:like
718:Julia
712:like
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301:LaTeX
289:troff
287:, or
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186:logic
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