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found that the median water consumption during operations of concentrating solar power plants with wet cooling was 3.1 cubic metres per megawatt-hour (810 US gal/MWh) for power tower plants and 3.4 m/MWh (890 US gal/MWh) for trough plants. This was higher than the operational water consumption (with cooling towers) for nuclear at 2.7 m/MWh (720 US gal/MWh), coal at 2.0 m/MWh (530 US gal/MWh), or natural gas at 0.79 m/MWh (210 US gal/MWh). A 2011 study by the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory came to similar conclusions: for power plants with cooling towers, water consumption during operations was 3.27 m/MWh (865 US gal/MWh) for CSP trough, 2.98 m/MWh (786 US gal/MWh) for CSP tower, 2.60 m/MWh (687 US gal/MWh) for coal, 2.54 m/MWh (672 US gal/MWh) for nuclear, and 0.75 m/MWh (198 US gal/MWh) for natural gas. The Solar Energy Industries Association noted that the Nevada Solar One trough CSP plant consumes 3.2 m/MWh (850 US gal/MWh). The issue of water consumption is heightened because CSP plants are often located in arid environments where water is scarce.
425:
1380:
542:. Optically a solar power tower is the same as a circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500–1000 °C (773–1,273 K or 932–1,832 °F) and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted instead of the whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced than trough systems, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability. Beam down tower application is also feasible with heliostats to heat the working fluid. CSP with dual towers are also used to enhance the conversion efficiency by nearly 24%.
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29:
417:
3548:
3664:
49:
3150:
7494:
504:
372:. Parabolic trough and concentrating linear Fresnel reflectors are classified as linear focus collector types, while dish and solar tower are point focus types. Linear focus collectors achieve medium concentration factors (50 suns and over), and point focus collectors achieve high concentration factors (over 500 suns). Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about
515:
7500:
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3924:
75:
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7506:
3938:
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213:
60:
228:. In 1973 a Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, curious about whether Archimedes could really have destroyed the Roman fleet in 212 BC, lined up nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding an oblong mirror tipped to catch the sun's rays and direct them at a tar-covered plywood silhouette 49 m (160 ft) away. The ship caught fire after a few minutes; however, historians continue to doubt the Archimedes story.
637:
3650:
certificates can then be sold and transferred to liable entities (usually electricity retailers) to meet their obligations under this tradeable certificates scheme. However, as this legislation is technology neutral in its operation, it tends to favour more established RE technologies with a lower levelised cost of generation, such as large-scale onshore wind, rather than solar thermal and CSP. At state level,
8323:
3568:
1372:, with a projected minimum price of 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for the most advanced CSP stations against record lows of 1.32 cents per kWh for utility-scale PV. This five-fold price difference has been maintained since 2018. Some PV-CSP plants in China have sought to operate profitably on the regional coal tariff of 5 US cents per kWh in 2021.
6426:
1409:
efficiency of about 30%. Due to variation in sun incidence during the day, the average conversion efficiency achieved is not equal to these maximum efficiencies, and the net annual solar-to- electricity efficiencies are 7-20% for pilot power tower systems, and 12-25% for demonstration-scale
Stirling dish systems.
1060:(GW) to more than 3.4 GW. The record for capacity installed was reached in 2014, corresponding to 925 MW, however, was followed by a decline caused by policy changes, the global financial crisis, and the rapid decrease in price of the photovoltaic cells. Nevertheless, total capacity reached 6800 MW in 2021.
3591:
In this context, the
Spanish Government enacted the Royal Decree-Law 9/2013 in 2013, aimed at the adoption of urgent measures to guarantee the economic and financial stability of the electric system, laying the foundations of the new Law 24/2013 of the Spanish electricity sector. This new retroactive
3587:
The capacity limits for the different system types were re-defined during the review of the application conditions every quarter (art. 5 RD 1578/2008, Annex III RD 1578/2008). Prior to the end of an application period, the market caps specified for each system type are published on the website of the
1066:
accounted for almost one third of the world's capacity, at 2,300 MW, despite no new capacity entering commercial operation in the country since 2013. The United States follows with 1,740 MW. Interest is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East, as well as China and India. There is a
621:
Fresnel reflectors are sometimes regarded as a technology with a worse output than other methods. The cost efficiency of this model is what causes some to use this instead of others with higher output ratings. Some new models of
Fresnel reflectors with Ray Tracing capabilities have begun to be tested
187:
solar (PV) since they both use solar energy. While solar PV experienced huge growth during the 2010s, due to falling prices, solar CSP growth has been slow due to technical difficulties and high prices. In 2017, CSP represented less than 2% of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants.
713:
In a CSP plant that includes storage, the solar energy is first used to heat the molten salt or synthetic oil which is stored providing thermal/heat energy at high temperature in insulated tanks. Later the hot molten salt (or oil) is used in a steam generator to produce steam to generate electricity
478:
positions the mirrors to retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate the sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to generate steam when intense
3847:
Concentrating solar power plants with wet-cooling systems have the highest water-consumption intensities of any conventional type of electric power plant; only fossil-fuel plants with carbon-capture and storage may have higher water intensities. A 2013 study comparing various sources of electricity
3838:
CSP has a number of environmental effects, particularly on water use, land use and the use of hazardous materials. Water is generally used for cooling and to clean mirrors. Some projects are looking into various approaches to reduce the water and cleaning agents used, including the use of barriers,
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1.5 per kWh. At the end of 2020, China operated a total of 545 MW in 12 CSP plants, seven plants (320 MW) are molten-salt towers; another two plants (150 MW) use the proven
Eurotrough 150 parabolic trough design, three plants (75 MW) use linear Fresnel collectors. Plans to build a second batch
1404:
The efficiency of a concentrating solar power system will depend on the technology used to convert the solar power to electrical energy, the operating temperature of the receiver and the heat rejection, thermal losses in the system, and the presence or absence of other system losses; in addition to
473:
The design encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended
255:
Professor
Giovanni Francia (1911–1980) designed and built the first concentrated-solar plant, which entered into operation in Sant'Ilario, near Genoa, Italy in 1968. This plant had the architecture of today's power tower plants with a solar receiver in the center of a field of solar collectors. The
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proposal and
Project Helios in Greece (10 GW), both now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh each year from very large-scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide was 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003).
3757:
Carbon neutral synthetic fuel production using concentrated solar thermal energy at nearly 1500 °C temperature is technically feasible and will be commercially viable in the future if the costs of CSP plants decline. Also carbon neutral hydrogen can be produced with solar thermal energy (CSP)
3595:
After a lost decade for CSP in Europe, Spain announced in its
National Energy and Climate Plan with the intention of adding 5GW of CSP capacity between 2021 and 2030. Towards this end bi-annual auctions of 200 MW of CSP capacity starting in October 2022 are expected, but details are not yet known.
617:
Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes through which working fluid is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more reflective surface in the same amount of space than a parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available sunlight, and they are much
3754:. Solar power tower and parabolic troughs can be used to provide the steam which is used directly so no generators are required and no electricity is produced. Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil which would not otherwise be economical to pump.
3649:
At the federal level, under the Large-scale
Renewable Energy Target (LRET), in operation under the Renewable Energy Electricity Act 2000, large-scale solar thermal electricity generation from accredited RET power stations may be entitled to create large-scale generation certificates (LGCs). These
3641:
in South
Australia at a record low rate of just AUD$ 0.08/kWh or close to USD$ 0.06/kWh. Unfortunately the company failed to secure financing and the project got cancelled. Another promising application for CSP in Australia are mines that need 24/7 electricity but often have no grid connection.
268:
in 1995, implementing a new design with a molten salt mixture (60% sodium nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate) as the receiver working fluid and as a storage medium. The molten salt approach proved effective, and Solar Two operated successfully until it was decommissioned in 1999. The parabolic-trough
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less water by evaporation. For instance, the median coal power plant in the US with once-through cooling uses 138 m/MWh (36,350 US gal/MWh), but only 0.95 m/MWh (250 US gal/MWh) (less than one percent) is lost through evaporation. Since the 1970s, the majority of US
3654:
feed-in laws typically are capped by maximum generation capacity in kWp, and are open only to micro or medium scale generation and in a number of instances are only open to solar photovoltaic (PV) generation. This means that larger scale CSP projects would not be eligible for payment for feed-in
3155:
The graph shows that the overall efficiency does not increase steadily with the receiver's temperature. Although the heat engine's efficiency (Carnot) increases with higher temperature, the receiver's efficiency does not. On the contrary, the receiver's efficiency is decreasing, as the amount of
1408:
Real-world systems claim a maximum conversion efficiency of 23-35% for "power tower" type systems, operating at temperatures from 250 to 565 °C, with the higher efficiency number assuming a combined cycle turbine. Dish Stirling systems, operating at temperatures of 550-750 °C, claim an
1375:
Even though overall deployment of CSP remains limited in the early 2020s, the levelized cost of power from commercial scale plants has decreased significantly since the 2010s. With a learning rate estimated at around 20% cost reduction of every doubling in capacity the cost were approaching the
742:
plants to supply both electricity and process steam round the clock. As of December 2018, CSP with thermal energy storage plants generation cost have ranged between 5 c € / kWh and 7 c € / kWh depending on good to medium solar radiation received at a location. Unlike solar PV
432:
A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned at the longitudinal focal line of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector follows the sun
195:
The DEWA project in Dubai, under construction in 2019, held the world record for lowest CSP price in 2017 at US$ 73 per MWh for its 700 MW combined trough and tower project: 600 MW of trough, 100 MW of tower with 15 hours of thermal energy storage daily. Base-load CSP tariff in the extremely dry
135:
As of 2021, global installed capacity of concentrated solar power stood at 6.8 GW. As of 2023, the total was 8.1 GW, with the inclusion of three new CSP projects in construction in China and in Dubai in the UAE. The U.S.-based National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which maintains a global
3851:
In 2007, the US Congress directed the Department of Energy to report on ways to reduce water consumption by CSP. The subsequent report noted that dry cooling technology was available that, although more expensive to build and operate, could reduce water consumption by CSP by 91 to 95 percent. A
3575:
In 2008, Spain launched the first commercial scale CSP market in Europe. Until 2012, solar-thermal electricity generation was initially eligible for feed-in tariff payments (art. 2 RD 661/2007) – leading to the creation of the largest CSP fleet in the world which at 2.3 GW of installed capacity
3588:
Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade (art. 5 RD 1578/2008). Because of cost concerns Spain has halted acceptance of new projects for the feed-in-tariff on 27 January 2012 Already accepted projects were affected by a 6% "solar-tax" on feed-in-tariffs, effectively reducing the feed-in-tariff.
1055:
plants. The last SEGS plant was completed in 1990. From 1991 to 2005, no CSP plants were built anywhere in the world. Global installed CSP-capacity increased nearly tenfold between 2004 and 2013 and grew at an average of 50 percent per year during the last five of those years, as the number of
1738:
393:
Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly varying thermodynamic efficiencies, due to differences in the way that they track the sun and focus light. New innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more cost-effective.
320:
of contemporary CSP contracts. However, increasingly, CSP was being bid with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage, making CSP a dispatchable form of solar energy. As such, it is increasingly seen as competing with natural gas and PV with batteries for flexible, dispatchable power.
2148:
309:
CSP was originally treated as a competitor to photovoltaics, and Ivanpah was built without energy storage, although Solar Two had included several hours of thermal storage. By 2015, prices for photovoltaic plants had fallen and PV commercial power was selling for
3592:
legal-economic framework applied to all the renewable energy systems was developed in 2014 by the RD 413/2014, which abolished the former regulatory frameworks set by the RD 661/2007 and the RD 1578/2008 and defined a new remuneration scheme for these assets.
401:
tested a CSP arrangement in which tiny ceramic particles fall through the beam of concentrated solar energy, the ceramic particles capable of storing a greater amount of heat than molten salt, while not requiring a container that would diminish heat transfer.
3852:
hybrid wet/dry cooling system could reduce water consumption by 32 to 58 percent. A 2015 report by NREL noted that of the 24 operating CSP power plants in the US, 4 used dry cooling systems. The four dry-cooled systems were the three power plants at the
3143:
1387:
CSP deployment has slowed down considerably as most of the above-mentioned markets have cancelled their support, as the technology turned out to be more expensive on a per kWH basis than solar PV and wind power. CSP in combination with
1334:
Since about 2010, central power tower CSP has been favored in new plants due to its higher temperature operation – up to 565 °C (1,049 °F) vs. trough's maximum of 400 °C (752 °F) – which promises greater efficiency.
2836:
3677:
In 2024, China is offering second generation CSP technology to compete with other on-demand electricity generation methods based on renewable or non-renewable fossil fuels without any direct or indirect subsidies. In the current 14th
3445:
3689:, with the intention of building up an internationally competitive CSP industry. Since the first plants were completed in 2018, the generated electricity from the plants with thermal storage is supported with an administratively set
235:
used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine. The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by the Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in 1886. Over the following years, invеntors such as
1367:
lead to projections that CSP will no longer be economically viable. As of 2020, the least expensive utility-scale concentrated solar power stations in the United States and worldwide are five times more expensive than utility-scale
3896:
Insects can be attracted to the bright light caused by concentrated solar technology, and as a result birds that hunt them can be killed by being burned if they fly near the point where light is being focused. This can also affect
650:
that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250–700 °C (482–1,292 °F) and then used by a
6726:
3904:
Some media sources have reported that concentrated solar power plants have injured or killed large numbers of birds due to intense heat from the concentrated sunrays. Some of the claims may have been overstated or exaggerated.
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3230:
1576:
3553:
Theoretical efficiencies aside, real-world experience of CSP reveals a 25%–60% shortfall in projected production, a good part of which is due to the practical Carnot cycle losses not included in the above analysis.
1362:
Bulk power from CSP today is much more expensive than solar PV or Wind power, however developers are hoping that energy storage CSP can be a cheaper alternative. As early as 2011, the rapid decline of the price of
7287:
573:, was the largest CSP facility in the world, and uses three power towers. Ivanpah generated only 0.652 TWh (63%) of its energy from solar means, and the other 0.388 TWh (37%) was generated by burning
2488:
4104:
Law, Edward W.; Prasad, Abhnil A.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 October 2014). "Direct normal irradiance forecasting and its application to concentrated solar thermal output forecasting – A review".
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for the production of solar fuels, making solar a fully transportable form of energy in the future. These researchers use the solar heat of CSP as a catalyst for thermochemistry to break apart molecules of
287:
In 2007, 75 MW Nevada Solar One was built, a trough design and the first large plant since SEGS. Between 2010 and 2013, Spain built over 40 parabolic trough systems, standardized in 50 MW blocks.
3317:
2939:
441:) is heated to 150–350 °C (302–662 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The
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758:
to generate electricity. These are also small in capacity (<0.4 MW) with flexibility to install in few acres area. Waste heat from the power plant can also be used for process steam generation and
4979:
Chandra, Yogender Pal (17 April 2017). "Numerical optimization and convective thermal loss analysis of improved solar parabolic trough collector receiver system with one sided thermal insulation".
6013:
2004:
4140:
Law, Edward W.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 February 2016). "Calculating the financial value of a concentrated solar thermal plant operated using direct normal irradiance forecasts".
3830:, moderate hill slopes and crater depressions may be advantageous in the case of power tower CSP as the power tower can be located on the ground integral with the molten salt storage tank.
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3790:
Around the turn of the millennium up to about 2010, there have been several proposals for gigawatt size, very-large-scale solar power plants using CSP. They include the Euro-Mediterranean
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1891:
1944:
1996:
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upper end of the fossil fuel cost range at the beginning of the 2020s driven by support schemes in several countries, including Spain, the US, Morocco, South Africa, China, and the UAE:
302:
Most concentrated solar power plants use the parabolic trough design, instead of the power tower or Fresnel systems. There have also been variations of parabolic trough systems like the
8628:
6955:
Nathan Bracken and others, Concentrating Solar Power and Water Issues in the U.S. Southwest, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A50-61376, March 2015, p.10.
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1785:
2727:
2250:
2200:
3034:
3160:) grows by the fourth power as a function of temperature. Hence, there is a maximum reachable temperature. When the receiver efficiency is null (blue curve on the figure below), T
2288:
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3908:
According to rigorous reporting, in over six months, 133 songbirds were counted at Ivanpah. By focusing no more than four mirrors on any one place in the air during standby, at
1560:
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1506:
687:(NSTTF) in New Mexico on 31 January 2008, a cold, bright day. According to its developer, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish firm, in 2015 its Dish Sterling system being tested in the
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Vast Solar a startup company aiming to commercialize a novel modular third generation CSP design is looking to start construction of a 50 MW combines CSP and PV facility in
2628:
252:, who was already well known for his research on liquid-fueled rockets and wrote an article in 1929 in which he asserted that all the previous obstacles had been addressed.
5016:"Aussie scientists hit milestone in concentrated solar power They heated ceramic particles to a blistering 1450 F by dropping them through a beam of concentrated sunlight"
2988:= 1) and without considering the ultimate conversion step into electricity by a generator, collecting and reradiating areas equal and maximum absorptivity and emissivity (
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6339:
3026:
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6529:
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3006:
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3747:, other much-used hydrocarbons – for example, the jet fuel used to fly commercial airplanes – could also be created with solar energy rather than from fossil fuels.
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The real-world efficiencies of typical engines achieve 50% to at most 70% of the Carnot efficiency due to losses such as heat loss and windage in the moving parts.
2408:
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1446:
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in South Africa showed 34% efficiency. The SES installation in Maricopa, Phoenix was the largest Stirling Dish power installation in the world until it was sold to
479:
solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors.
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8637:
4804:
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more water than CSP, meaning that more water passes through their systems, most of the cooling water returns to the water body available for other uses, and they
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489:(EOR) for about $ 5 per 290 kWh (1,000,000 BTU) in sunny regions, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies.
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2519:
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Boerema, Nicholas; Morrison, Graham; Taylor, Robert; Rosengarten, Gary (1 November 2013). "High temperature solar thermal central-receiver billboard design".
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to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-to-electric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability. The
386:, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on
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4413:
3629:
So far no commercial scale CSP project has been commissioned in Australia, but several projects were suggested. In 2017, now bankrupt American CSP developer
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244:
developed concentrating solar-powered dеvices for irrigation, refrigеration, and locomоtion. In 1913 Shuman finished a 55 horsepower (41 kW) parabolic
4175:
349:(solar thermoelectricity). The solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or cooling, such as in
6021:
5023:
4687:
3968:
6558:
4348:
3868:. Of 15 CSP projects under construction or development in the US as of March 2015, 6 were wet systems, 7 were dry systems, 1 hybrid, and 1 unspecified.
743:
plants, CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used economically round the clock to produce only process steam replacing pollution emitting
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7149:
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4826:
4435:
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4238:
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For simplicity's sake, one can assume that the losses are only radiative ones (a fair assumption for high temperatures), thus for a reradiating area
1733:{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }}
6317:
5476:
5404:
5166:
4962:
3167:
8361:
6580:
5940:
5896:
5701:
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538:) that concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower; the receiver contains a heat-transfer fluid, which can consist of water-steam or
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6189:
Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2017). "Empirically observed learning rates for concentrating solar power and their responses to regime change".
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345:
systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for a conventional
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In 2016, China announced its intention to build a batch of 20 technologically diverse CSP demonstration projects in the context of the 13th
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3779:
295:, was built in Spain in 2011, later renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Gemasolar's results paved the way for further plants of its type.
683:, Australia are representative of this technology. A world record for solar to electric efficiency was set at 31.25% by SES dishes at the
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7037:
6569:
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718:
as per requirement. Thus solar energy which is available in daylight only is used to generate electricity round the clock on demand as a
2416:
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who hunt the birds. Federal wildlife officials were quoted by opponents as calling the Ivanpah power towers "mega traps" for wildlife.
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notable trend towards developing countries and regions with high solar radiation with several large plants under construction in 2017.
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A Study of Very Large Solar Desert Systems with the Requirements and Benefits to those Nations Having High Solar Irradiation Potential
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1566:. The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator. For a solar receiver with a mechanical converter (
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expects that by 2030 PV with 10-hour storage lithium batteries will cost the same as PV with 4-hour storage used to cost in 2020.
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3450:
Solving this equation numerically allows us to obtain the optimum process temperature according to the solar concentration ratio
6557:
Kraemer, S. (2019). Sodium-based Vast Solar Combines the Best of Trough & Tower CSP to Win our Innovation Award, Solarpaces
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Heat from the sun can be used to provide steam used to make heavy oil less viscous and easier to pump. This process is called
1392:(TES) is expected by some to become cheaper than PV with lithium batteries for storage durations above 4 hours per day, while
9009:
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281:
6267:"Making the sun shine at night: comparing the cost of dispatchable concentrating solar power and photovoltaics with storage"
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system at Liddell Power Station in Australia was built. Few other plants were built with this design although the 5 MW
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http://helioscsp.com/china-mulls-withdrawal-of-subsidies-for-concentrated-solar-power-csp-and-offshore-wind-energy-in-2021/
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for solar projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 GW. The largest single plant in operation is the 510 MW
1563:
1339:
782:
684:
273:(SEGS), begun in 1984, was more workable. The 354 MW SEGS was the largest solar power plant in the world, until 2014.
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5366:
Abbas, R.; Muñoz-Antón, J.; Valdés, M.; Martínez-Val, J.M. (August 2013). "High concentration linear Fresnel reflectors".
5180:"Three solar modules of world's first commercial beam-down tower Concentrated Solar Power project to be connected to grid"
4268:
2143:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }={\frac {Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }-Q_{\mathrm {lost} }}{Q_{\mathrm {incident} }}}}
1331:
The global market was initially dominated by parabolic-trough plants, which accounted for 90% of CSP plants at one point.
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HeliosCSP (2020) China mulls withdrawal of subsidies for concentrated solar power (CSP) and offshore wind energy in 2021
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Johan Lilliestam, Richard Thonig, Alina Gilmanova, & Chuncheng Zang. (2020). CSP.guru (Version 2020-07-01) . Zenodo.
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37:
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needs. In case land availability is not a limitation, any number of these modules can be installed up to 1000 MW with
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with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round the clock. These CSP plants are equipped with
303:
164:), which enables these plants to continue supplying electricity whenever it is needed, day or night. This makes CSP a
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Utility-Scale Solar Power: Responsible Water Resource Management, Solar Energy Industries Association, 18 March 2010.
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contributes about 5TWh of power to the Spanish grid every year. The initial requirements for plants in the FiT were:
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in Morocco, which combines trough and tower technologies for a total of 510 MW with several hours of energy storage.
68:
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510:, Israel, on its completion the tallest solar tower in the world. It concentrates light from over 50,000 heliostats.
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of demonstration projects were never enacted and further technology specific support for CSP in the upcoming 14th
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176:, because demand for electric power peaks near sunset just as PV capacity ramps down (a phenomenon referred to as
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1052:
668:
592:
442:
270:
4182:
2524:
1056:
countries with installed CSP were growing In 2013, worldwide installed capacity increased by 36% or nearly 0.9
424:
8994:
8866:
8741:
8711:
8683:
8501:
8347:
7846:
7452:
6602:
4766:
4673:
3978:
3804:
3580:
Systems registered in the register of systems prior to 29 September 2008: 50 MW for solar-thermal systems.
2947:
1746:
1405:
the conversion efficiency, the optical system which concentrates the sunlight will also add additional losses.
1351:
672:
299:
was constructed at the same time but without thermal storage, using natural gas to preheat water each morning.
5295:"Land-Use competitiveness of photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technologies near the Tropic of Cancer"
5015:
4695:
3138:{\displaystyle \eta =\left(1-{\frac {\sigma T_{H}^{4}}{IC}}\right)\cdot \left(1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}\right)}
2679:
458:
9140:
9125:
9061:
9025:
8861:
8761:
8736:
8594:
8481:
8327:
8120:
7994:
7531:
5037:
Vignarooban, K.; Xinhai, Xu (2015). "Heat transfer fluids for concentrating solar power systems – A review".
4320:
2205:
2155:
766:
and cost advantage since the per MW cost of these units are cheaper than bigger size solar thermal stations.
695:. Subsequently, larger parts of the installation have been moved to China as part of the huge energy demand.
7157:
172:
is particularly valuable in places where there is already a high penetration of photovoltaics (PV), such as
9076:
8999:
8967:
8886:
8776:
8756:
8746:
8663:
6663:. Solarpaces 2020: 26th International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems.
6659:
Thonig, Richard; Gilmanova, Alina; Zhan, Jing; Lilliestam, Johan (May 2022). "Chinese CSP for the World?".
5828:"Concentrated Solar Power increasing cumulative global capacity more than 11% to just under 5.5 GW in 2018"
4586:
3865:
3861:
3853:
1343:
676:
580:
566:
296:
53:
4827:"eSolar Sierra SunTower: a History of Concentrating Solar Power Underperformance | Gunther Portfolio"
4539:
9130:
8957:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8846:
8836:
8826:
8821:
8806:
8781:
8678:
8673:
7881:
7871:
6830:
2255:
554:
292:
7055:
A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies
7007:
A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies
1511:
1421:, which represents a theoretical limit to the efficiency that can be achieved by any system, set by the
640:
631:
329:
CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through
9145:
9066:
9045:
9004:
8989:
8952:
8942:
8937:
8932:
8896:
8881:
8841:
8831:
8771:
8721:
8716:
8645:
8141:
7851:
7636:
7613:
7576:
7425:
6469:
5677:"247Solar and Masen Ink Agreement for First Operational Next Generation Concentrated Solar Power Plant"
5480:
4959:
4414:"As Concentrated Solar Power bids fall to record lows, prices seen diverging between different regions"
3963:
3957:
3800:
1369:
719:
276:
No commercial concentrated solar was constructed from 1990 when SEGS was completed until 2006 when the
20:
5809:
3888:
3880:
power plants have used recirculating systems such as cooling towers rather than once-through systems.
1463:
256:
plant was able to produce 1 MW with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500 °C. The 10 MW
248:
station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation. The first solar-power system using a mirror dish was built by
9071:
8891:
8871:
8856:
8751:
8731:
8726:
8668:
8658:
8403:
7678:
6967:"Life cycle water use for electricity generation: A review and harmonization of literature estimates"
6919:
6749:
4215:
3796:
3775:
3771:
3682:
CSP projects are developed in several provinces alongside large GW sized solar PV and wind projects.
1508:
and subsequently the heat is converted into mechanical energy by the heat engine with the efficiency
173:
136:
database of CSP plants, counts 6.6 GW of operational capacity and another 1.5 GW under construction.
8816:
2591:
8698:
8552:
8547:
8224:
7826:
7746:
7693:
4730:
3699:
3686:
3679:
3634:
3605:
2870:
591:
areas where solar power is usually located, it is impossible to cool down carbon dioxide below its
7113:
6775:
5744:
5450:
5438:
34% of the sun's energy hitting the mirrors is converted directly to grid-available electric power
4475:
3667:
The China Energy Engineering Corporation 50 MW Hami power tower has 8 hours of molten-salt storage
485:, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can produce heat for
9104:
8567:
8557:
8521:
8496:
8486:
8458:
7932:
7891:
7861:
7856:
7716:
7462:
7457:
7284:"California's new solar power plant is actually a death ray that's incinerating birds mid-flight"
6591:
A Dangerous Obsession with Least Cost? Climate Change, Renewable Energy Law and Emissions Trading
6335:
International Renewable Energy Agency, "Table 2.1: Comparison of different CSP Technologies", in
5698:"247 solar modular & scalable concentrated solar power tech to be marketed to mining by Rost"
5545:
3998:
3929:
3759:
722:
or solar peaker plant. The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at
656:
342:
189:
184:
165:
5502:
3795:
The gigawatt size projects would have been arrays of standard-sized single plants. In 2012, the
416:
225:
8526:
8291:
7971:
7901:
7876:
7866:
7841:
7836:
7791:
7781:
7756:
7751:
7741:
7736:
7728:
7586:
7536:
6346:, Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series, June 2012, p. 10. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
5400:
4008:
3988:
3727:
3011:
2852:
1422:
1389:
786:
704:
584:
565:, Spain, is the first commercial utility-scale solar power tower in the world. The 377 MW
558:
519:
350:
265:
261:
224:
used a "burning glass" to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from
149:
7034:
5341:
3702:
is unknown. Federal support projects from the demonstration batch ran out at the end of 2021.
8453:
8398:
8370:
8315:
8177:
8146:
7966:
7896:
7831:
7821:
7806:
7796:
7766:
7761:
7418:
4742:
3983:
3715:
2991:
2656:
1417:
The maximum conversion efficiency of any thermal to electrical energy system is given by the
735:
507:
486:
445:(SEGS) plants in California, the world's first commercial parabolic trough plants, Acciona's
188:
However, CSP can more easily store energy during the night, making it more competitive with
145:
8606:
7114:"Solar thermal plants have a PR problem, and that PR problem is dead birds catching on fire"
5401:
Sandia, Stirling Energy Systems set new world record for solar-to-grid conversion efficiency
5275:
5257:
5239:
2831:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }=\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\alpha Q_{\mathrm {solar} }}
9135:
7916:
7886:
7816:
7811:
7801:
7771:
7711:
7523:
6978:
6668:
6319:
US National Renewable Energy Lab forecasts rapid cost reduction for battery storage to 2030
6278:
6234:"The near- to mid-term outlook for concentrating solar power: mostly cloudy, chance of sun"
6198:
5375:
5306:
5046:
4988:
4149:
4114:
4078:
4013:
3993:
3871:
Although many older thermoelectric power plants with once-through cooling or cooling ponds
3819:
The locations with highest direct irradiance are dry, at high altitude, and located in the
3440:{\displaystyle T_{opt}^{5}-(0.75T^{0})T_{\mathrm {opt} }^{4}-{\frac {T^{0}IC}{4\sigma }}=0}
2386:
2359:
1431:
1063:
956:
770:
708:
462:
450:
245:
113:
6546:
Kraemer, S. (2017). SolarReserve Breaks CSP Price Record with 6 Cent Contract, Solarpaces
6518:
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/ec_courtesy_translation_es_necp.pdf
5221:
5108:
3547:
8:
8506:
8491:
8443:
8413:
8271:
8045:
7961:
7688:
7602:
7596:
7551:
5958:
4003:
3857:
3763:
2356:
is at most the Carnot efficiency, which is determined by the temperature of the receiver
1364:
647:
550:
7073:
6982:
6672:
6282:
6202:
6144:
5379:
5310:
5050:
4992:
4779:
4153:
4118:
4082:
3663:
738:, but without the pollution. CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used as
618:
cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various size CSPs.
8099:
7683:
7591:
6991:
6966:
6684:
6214:
6115:
5934:
5890:
5324:
4647:
3611:
3453:
2633:
2571:
2504:
723:
6169:"Three Gorges Seeks EPC Bids for 200 MW of Concentrated Solar Power Under 5 cents/kWh"
9100:
8261:
8219:
8125:
8025:
7651:
7245:
6800:
6688:
6598:
6218:
6045:
5920:
5861:
5328:
5084:
4940:
4918:
4891:
4762:
4669:
4018:
1457:
1449:
1418:
1347:
562:
498:
387:
369:
257:
249:
33:
28:
5611:"Controllable solar power – competitively priced for the first time in North Africa"
108:
by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver.
8511:
8448:
8438:
8433:
8266:
7646:
7483:
6986:
6703:
https://www.solarpaces.org/eurotrough-cut-ramp-up-in-china-100-mw-urat-csp%E2%80%A8
6676:
6626:
6579:
PV magazine (2020). Vast Solar eyes $ 600 million solar hybrid plant for Mount Isa
6365:
6296:
6286:
6245:
6206:
5387:
5383:
5314:
5058:
5054:
4996:
4639:
4157:
4122:
4086:
3767:
3651:
1837:
the fraction of light incident on the receiver that is converted into heat energy,
482:
446:
411:
357:
232:
169:
48:
16:
Use of mirror or lens assemblies to heat a working fluid for electricity generation
6291:
6266:
6250:
6233:
5319:
5294:
5201:"World's First Dual-Tower Concentrated Solar Power Plant Boosts Efficiency by 24%"
5200:
5000:
4161:
4126:
4090:
730:
or CSP without storage, the power generation from solar thermal storage plants is
457:, Europe's first commercial parabolic trough plant are representative, along with
428:
Diagram of linear parabolic reflector concentrating sun rays to heat working fluid
7080:
7061:
7041:
7013:
6701:
Solarpaces (2021), EuroTrough Helped Cut Ramp-Up Time of China's 100 MW Urat CSP
6568:
New Energy Update (2019). CSP mini tower developer predicts costs below $ 50/MWh
6445:
6343:
6068:
6061:
5408:
5140:
5078:
4966:
4881:
3952:
3149:
715:
688:
652:
125:
7493:
6494:
5133:
8531:
8473:
8428:
7999:
7674:
7581:
7054:
6417:
Generation from Spain's Existing 2.3 GW of CSP Showing Steady Annual Increases.
5724:"Capex of modular Concentrated Solar Power plants could halve if 1 GW deployed"
4717:
3690:
3242:. when the efficiency derivative relative to the receiver temperature is null:
197:
129:
7006:
6801:"A solar tower fuel plant for the thermochemical production of kerosene from H
6506:
6301:
5986:. International Renewable Energy Agency. June 2012. p. 11. Archived from
5354:
Ausra's Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) and Lower Temperature Approach
9119:
8463:
8182:
8040:
8035:
8030:
7701:
7656:
7566:
7541:
7370:
6482:
3943:
3827:
891:
751:
727:
570:
503:
475:
434:
361:
338:
237:
153:
121:
79:
7016:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900.
6460:. Instituteforenergyresearch.org (9 April 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
6210:
3823:. These locations have a higher potential for CSP than areas with less sun.
3610:
Several CSP dishes have been set up in remote Aboriginal settlements in the
3225:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {max} }=\left({\frac {IC}{\sigma }}\right)^{0.25}}
622:
and have initially proved to yield higher output than the standard version.
8423:
8240:
8203:
8079:
8071:
8009:
7556:
7441:
6920:"Environmental Impacts of Solar Power | Union of Concerned Scientists"
3898:
3630:
1570:, a turbine), the overall conversion efficiency can be defined as follows:
969:
904:
744:
739:
534:
A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors (
241:
83:
6727:"SECI to issue tender for 500-MW concentrated solar-thermal power project"
6613:
The dragon awakens: Will China save or conquer concentrating solar power?
6595:
Climate Change Law: Comparative, Contractual and Regulatory Considerations
1946:
the efficiency of converting the mechanical energy into electrical power.
1787:
represents the fraction of incident light concentrated onto the receiver,
144:
As a thermal energy generating power station, CSP has more in common with
8245:
8066:
7607:
7514:
7499:
6965:
Meldrum, J.; Nettles-Anderson, S.; Heath, G.; MacKnick, J. (March 2013).
6863:
6647:
6627:"2018 Review: China concentrated solar power pilot projects' development"
6035:
755:
574:
539:
514:
438:
346:
161:
157:
117:
109:
105:
8339:
5590:"2018, the year in which the Concentrated Solar Power returned to shine"
5105:"Linear-focusing Concentrator Facilities: DCS, DISS, EUROTROUGH and LS3"
1893:
the efficiency of conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy, and
8562:
8187:
8161:
8156:
8151:
8089:
8084:
7706:
7618:
7546:
5653:"Morocco Pioneers PV with Thermal Storage at 800 MW Midelt CSP Project"
4651:
2847:
2651:
2291:
1460:
is first converted into heat by the solar receiver with the efficiency
596:
221:
177:
139:
6680:
6369:
4561:"ACWA Power scales up tower-trough design to set record-low CSP price"
4519:"UAE's push on concentrated solar power should open eyes across world"
636:
557:
Almeria, Spain, are the most representative demonstration plants. The
74:
8094:
7641:
5568:"Aurora: What you should know about Port Augusta's solar power-tower"
5525:"Concentrating Solar Power Isn't Viable Without Storage, Say Experts"
4969:. Popularmechanics.com (1 November 2008). Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
4887:
3799:
made available 97,921,069 acres (39,627,251 hectares) of land in the
1008:
747:. CSP plant can also be integrated with solar PV for better synergy.
546:
535:
527:
523:
41:
7505:
6964:
6614:
6590:
5423:"Could this be the world's most efficient solar electricity system?"
5076:
4643:
4454:"After the Desertec hype: is concentrating solar power still alive?"
3923:
2383:
and the temperature of the heat rejection ("heat sink temperature")
1448:
of the incident solar radiation into mechanical work depends on the
7095:"Burned birds become new environmental victims of the energy quest"
6530:"El Miteco aprueba la orden para iniciar el calendario de subastas"
4805:"Ivanpah Solar Project Faces Risk of Default on PG&E Contracts"
4373:"New Chance for US CSP? California Outlaws Gas-Fired Peaker Plants"
3791:
3726:
CSP has other uses than electricity. Researchers are investigating
3694:
3623:
3619:
1057:
1021:
769:
Centralized district heating round the clock is also feasible with
680:
212:
5632:"Morocco Breaks New Record with 800 MW Midelt 1 CSP-PV at 7 Cents"
5365:
3839:
non-stick coatings on mirrors, water misting systems, and others.
2483:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Carnot} }=1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}}
583:
can be used instead of steam as heat-transfer fluid for increased
306:
which combines troughs and conventional fossil fuel heat systems.
291:
Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called
8408:
6877:"Solar heads for the hills as tower technology turns upside down"
6750:"CSP is the Most Efficient Renewable to Split Water for Hydrogen"
6481:
Royal Decree-Law 9/2013, of 12 July, BOE no. 167, July 13; 2013.
6392:
Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology, R.A. Meyers Ed
5344:. Physics.usyd.edu.au (12 June 2002). Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
4630:
Thomas W. Africa (1975). "Archimedes through the Looking Glass".
3937:
3820:
3739:) from solar energy with no carbon emissions. By splitting both H
3643:
982:
917:
454:
216:
Solar steam engine for water pumping, near Los Angeles circa 1901
59:
7303:"Bird deaths from solar plant exaggerated by some media sources"
6939:"Smart cooling and cleaning for concentrated solar power plants"
6448:. Solarserver.com (30 January 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
4759:
A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology
4666:
A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology
4068:
646:
A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone
7410:
6597:, W. Gumley & T. Daya-Winterbottom (eds.) Lawbook Company,
5167:"Chevron Uses Solar-Thermal Steam to Extract Oil in California"
4269:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry, 2021"
1048:
603:
with higher critical temperature are currently in development.
356:
Concentrating technologies exist in four optical types, namely
334:
112:
is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat (
6505:
Royal Decree 413/2014, of 6 June, BOE no. 140, June 10; 2014.
4349:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry 2023"
4044:"Photovoltaic vs concentrated solar power the key differences"
3811:
in Dubai will become the largest solar complex featuring CSP.
3312:{\displaystyle {\frac {d\eta }{dT_{H}}}(T_{\mathrm {opt} })=0}
2934:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }=A\epsilon \sigma T_{H}^{4}}
2294:
and the fluxes absorbed and lost by the system solar receiver.
148:
such as coal, gas, or geothermal. A CSP plant can incorporate
8636:
7074:
Many newer power plants have cooling systems that Reuse Water
6899:"Beam-Down Demos First Direct Solar Storage at 1/2 MWh Scale"
6658:
6493:
Law 24/2013, of 26 December, BOE no. 310, December 27; 2013.
6356:
E. A. Fletcher (2001). "Solar thermal processing: A review".
3655:
incentives in many of the State and Territory jurisdictions.
1306:
1038:
995:
943:
930:
878:
433:
during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A
398:
330:
201:
6472:. Evwind.es (14 September 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
6382:
6014:"Renewables Bounced Back in 2010, Finds REN21 Global Report"
5222:"Ivanpah - World's Largest Solar Plant in California Desert"
3567:
3892:
Dead warbler burned in mid-air by solar thermal power plant
2944:
Simplifying these equations by considering perfect optics (
1425:. Real-world systems do not achieve the Carnot efficiency.
1393:
1051:. The US deployment of CSP plants started by 1984 with the
763:
759:
588:
64:
7375:
6037:
Energy Transition in Metropolises, Rural Areas and Deserts
6012:
Sawin, Janet L. & Martinot, Eric (29 September 2011).
750:
CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using
260:
power tower was developed in Southern California in 1981.
7478:
1452:
properties of the solar receiver and on the heat engine (
587:
efficiency. However, because of the high temperatures in
44:
spanning thirteen million sq ft (1.21 km).
7317:"For the birds: How speculation trumped fact at Ivanpah"
7202:
IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News
4913:
Roland Winston, Juan C. Miñano, Pablo G. Benitez (2004)
4845:"Why Concentrating Solar Power Needs Storage to Survive"
4587:"SolarReserve Bids CSP Under 5 Cents in Chilean Auction"
4498:"Concentrated Solar Power Costs Fell 46% From 2010–2018"
420:
Parabolic trough at a plant near Harper Lake, California
7386:
ISFOC (Institute of Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems)
4609:"SolarReserve Bids 24-Hour Solar At 6.3 Cents In Chile"
3322:
Consequently, this leads us to the following equation:
7385:
7342:"One weird trick prevents bird deaths at solar towers"
7035:
Concentrating Solar Power Commercial Application Study
5403:, Sandia, Feb. 12, 2008. Retrieved on 21 October 2021.
4867:. Tomkonrad.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
5451:"How CSP's Thermal Energy Storage Works - SolarPACES"
3583:
Systems registered after 29 September 2008 (PV only).
3456:
3331:
3251:
3170:
3037:
3014:
2994:
2950:
2882:
2855:
2737:
2682:
2659:
2636:
2594:
2574:
2527:
2507:
2419:
2389:
2362:
2306:
2258:
2208:
2158:
2007:
1954:
1899:
1843:
1793:
1749:
1579:
1514:
1466:
1434:
665:
Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)
7380:
4972:
4540:"Concentrated Solar Power Dropped 50% in Six Months"
4476:"CSP Doesn't Compete With PV – it Competes with Gas"
3919:
3785:
3673:
Solar power in China § Concentrated solar power
2630:
on the system solar receiver with a collecting area
140:
Comparison between CSP and other electricity sources
6958:
5546:"How Solar Peaker Plants Could Replace Gas Peakers"
4396:"Concentrated Solar Power Quietly Makes a Comeback"
3969:
List of concentrating solar thermal power companies
3912:, in three months, the death rate dropped to zero.
3807:. In 2022 the 700 MW CSP 4th phase of the 5GW
3028:= 1) then substituting in the first equation gives
1383:
LCOE of Concentrating Solar Power from 2006 to 2019
1350:technology without thermal energy storage, and the
7266:"Solar plant's downside? Birds igniting in midair"
5769:"Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2024, Irena"
5007:
4103:
3462:
3439:
3311:
3224:
3137:
3020:
3000:
2980:
2933:
2861:
2830:
2721:
2665:
2642:
2622:
2580:
2560:
2513:
2482:
2402:
2375:
2348:
2282:
2244:
2194:
2142:
1990:
1938:
1885:
1829:
1779:
1732:
1554:
1500:
1440:
698:
7393:"Innovations on Concentrated Solar Thermal Power"
6337:Concentrating Solar Power, Volume 1: Power Sector
5846:
5844:
5790:
5788:
5036:
4883:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition
4208:"Integrated Solar Thermochemical Reaction System"
4168:
9117:
7381:Plataforma Solar de Almeria, CSP research center
6458:Spain Halts Feed-in-Tariffs for Renewable Energy
6439:Spanish government halts PV, CSP feed-in tariffs
6231:
6188:
5671:
5669:
4629:
4239:"New Solar Process Gets More Out of Natural Gas"
7300:
7180:"How a solar farm set hundreds of birds ablaze"
7132:"Emerging solar plants scorch birds in mid-air"
6866:. Solareis.anl.gov. Retrieved on 22 April 2013.
5077:Christopher L. Martin; D. Yogi Goswami (2005).
1346:(392 MW) in the United States, which uses
474:from the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A
6776:"Desert solar to fuel centuries of air travel"
6355:
6315:
5903:
5841:
5785:
5072:
5070:
5068:
4436:"Are Solar Power Towers Doomed in California?"
4181:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from
776:
526:, Spain concentrates sunlight from a field of
8622:
8355:
7426:
6495:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/l/2013/12/26/24/con
6011:
5666:
5414:
5159:
5107:. Plataforma Solar de Almería. Archived from
4875:
4873:
3718:for 500 MW would be called in the year 2024.
2349:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }}
1886:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }}
397:In 2023, Australia’s national science agency
333:). Concentrated-solar technology systems use
7064:, NREL, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900.
6383:Aldo Steinfeld & Robert Palumbo (2001).
6331:
6329:
6062:Google cans concentrated solar power project
6034:Louis Boisgibault, Fahad Al Kabbani (2020):
5822:
5820:
5818:
5745:"Tibet's first solar district heating plant"
4433:
4139:
1939:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }}
152:, which stores energy either in the form of
6773:
6652:
6507:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2014/06/06/413
6086:"New Record-Low Solar Price Bid — 1.3¢/kWh"
5939:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
5895:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
5128:
5126:
5065:
1991:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }}
1830:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }}
8629:
8615:
8589:
8362:
8348:
7433:
7419:
6483:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rdl/2013/07/12/9
6265:Schöniger, Franziska; et al. (2021).
6163:
6161:
5957:. csp-world.com. June 2012. Archived from
5805:
5803:
5097:
4870:
2561:{\displaystyle I=1000\,\mathrm {W/m^{2}} }
382:of the theoretical maximum for the design
8638:Renewable energy by country and territory
8369:
6990:
6831:"The Sahara: a solar battery for Europe?"
6398:. Academic Press: 237–256. Archived from
6385:"Solar Thermochemical Process Technology"
6326:
6300:
6290:
6264:
6249:
5815:
5318:
5134:"Energy & Resources Predictions 2012"
4858:
4263:
4261:
4259:
3809:Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park
3721:
3557:
2981:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Optics} }}
2537:
1780:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {optics} }}
204:reached below $ 50/MWh in 2017 auctions.
7044:, US Department of Energy, 20 Feb. 2008.
5123:
4343:
4341:
3887:
3833:
3780:cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle
3662:
3566:
2722:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {solar} }=ICA}
635:
632:Solar thermal energy § Dish designs
513:
502:
423:
415:
211:
73:
58:
47:
40:concentrating light via 10,000 mirrored
27:
6936:
6747:
6158:
6055:
6005:
5800:
5292:
4978:
4688:"From Troughs to Triumph: SEGS and Gas"
4601:
4230:
2245:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }}
2195:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {incident} }}
848:Worldwide CSP capacity since 1984 in MW
9118:
8005:Financial incentives for photovoltaics
7376:NREL Concentrating Solar Power Program
7250:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
7111:
6232:Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2020).
6083:
5763:
5761:
5503:"The Latest in Thermal Energy Storage"
5420:
5026:from the original on 15 November 2023.
5013:
4934:
4909:
4907:
4879:
4716:Cutler J. Cleveland (23 August 2008).
4290:
4288:
4256:
4200:
3883:
1071:Worldwide Concentrated Solar Power (MW
366:concentrating linear Fresnel reflector
304:integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC)
8610:
8343:
7414:
7290:from the original on 19 October 2014.
7092:
6648:http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4297966
6074:, 24 Nov 2011. Accessed: 25 Nov 2011.
5913:Renewables 2016: Global Status Report
5909:
5854:Renewables 2014: Global Status Report
5850:
5810:Renewables 2017: Global Status Report
4579:
4393:
4338:
3238:for which the efficiency is maximum,
1047:An early plant operated in Sicily at
606:
324:
282:Kimberlina Solar Thermal Energy Plant
8322:
7272:from the original on 19 August 2014.
5293:Marzouk, Osama A. (September 2022).
5014:Houser, Kristin (12 November 2023).
4743:"A New Invention To Harness The Sun"
4236:
4037:
4035:
3974:List of solar thermal power stations
3571:Andasol Solar Power Station in Spain
1041:Global Status Report, 2017 and 2018
783:List of solar thermal power stations
685:National Solar Thermal Test Facility
492:
7286:. ExtremeTech.com. 20 August 2014.
6748:Kraemer, Susan (21 December 2017).
6358:Journal of Solar Energy Engineering
5758:
4904:
4511:
4285:
3910:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project
3752:solar thermal enhanced oil recovery
2283:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }}
858:National CSP capacities in 2023 (MW
601:supercritical carbon dioxide blends
405:
38:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project
13:
7391:Baldizon, Roberto (5 March 2019).
7301:Jake Richardson (22 August 2014).
7112:Howard, Michael (20 August 2014).
6429:. res-legal.de (12 December 2011).
6084:Shahan, Zachary (30 August 2020).
4434:Chris Clarke (25 September 2015).
4237:Wald, Matthew L. (10 April 2013).
3646:of North-West Queensland in 2021.
3639:Aurora Solar Thermal Power Project
3387:
3384:
3381:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3183:
3180:
3177:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2548:
2539:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1555:{\displaystyle \eta _{mechanical}}
1378:
468:
14:
9157:
8517:Research in lithium-ion batteries
8116:Building-integrated photovoltaics
7371:Concentrating Solar Power Utility
7364:
6615:https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5117648
6427:Feed-in tariff (Régimen Especial)
4865:Types of solar thermal CSP plants
4685:
4032:
3814:
3786:Gigawatt-scale solar power plants
732:dispatchable and self-sustainable
530:onto a central solar power tower.
69:San Bernardino County, California
9099:
9090:
9089:
8654:Democratic Republic of the Congo
8588:
8321:
8310:
8309:
7504:
7498:
7492:
7440:
7334:
7309:
7294:
7276:
7258:
7208:
7190:
7172:
7142:
7124:
7105:
7086:
7067:
7047:
7028:
7019:
6999:
6949:
6930:
6912:
6891:
6869:
6857:
6845:
6823:
6793:
6774:EurekAlert! (15 November 2017).
6767:
6741:
6719:
6707:
6695:
6640:
6619:
6607:
6584:
6573:
6562:
6551:
6540:
6522:
6511:
6499:
6487:
6475:
6463:
5368:Energy Conversion and Management
4960:New innovations in solar thermal
4041:
3936:
3922:
3546:
3470:(red curve on the figure below)
3148:
1501:{\displaystyle \eta _{Receiver}}
625:
613:Compact linear Fresnel reflector
278:Compact linear Fresnel reflector
6937:Bolitho, Andrea (20 May 2019).
6451:
6432:
6420:
6409:
6376:
6349:
6316:Andy Colthorpe (14 July 2021),
6309:
6258:
6225:
6182:
6141:NERL Annual Technology Baseline
6129:
6112:NERL Annual Technology Baseline
6100:
6077:
6028:
5973:
5947:
5795:Renewables Global Status Report
5737:
5716:
5690:
5645:
5624:
5603:
5582:
5560:
5538:
5517:
5495:
5469:
5443:
5421:Barbee, Jeffrey (13 May 2015).
5394:
5359:
5347:
5335:
5286:
5268:
5250:
5232:
5214:
5193:
5172:
5146:
5030:
4953:
4928:
4837:
4819:
4797:
4772:
4751:
4736:
4723:
4710:
4679:
4658:
4623:
4553:
4532:
4490:
4468:
4446:
4427:
4406:
4387:
4365:
4321:"CSP Projects Around the World"
4313:
699:CSP with thermal energy storage
553:, California and the CESA-1 in
461:'s SSPS-DCS test facilities in
443:Solar Energy Generating Systems
271:Solar Energy Generating Systems
8502:Lithium iron phosphate battery
7093:Roach, John (20 August 2014).
6971:Environmental Research Letters
6470:Spain introduces 6% energy tax
5388:10.1016/j.enconman.2013.01.039
5132:Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Ltd,
5059:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.125
4757:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980)
4668:, Cheshire Books, pp. 66–100,
4664:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980)
4611:. CleanTechnica. 13 March 2017
4133:
4097:
4062:
3979:Luminescent solar concentrator
3372:
3356:
3300:
3279:
2623:{\displaystyle \eta _{Optics}}
1352:Ouarzazate Solar Power Station
673:Australian National University
1:
8482:Compressed-air energy storage
8121:Passive solar building design
7532:Passive solar building design
6292:10.1080/15567249.2020.1843565
6251:10.1080/15567249.2020.1773580
5320:10.1016/j.solener.2022.07.051
5169:, "Bloomberg", 3 October 2011
5080:Solar energy pocket reference
5001:10.1016/j.solener.2017.02.051
4565:New Energy Update / CSP Today
4394:Deign, Jason (24 June 2019).
4162:10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.031
4127:10.1016/j.solener.2014.07.008
4091:10.1016/j.solener.2013.09.008
4025:
2496:
1399:
124:) connected to an electrical
7268:. CBS News. 18 August 2014.
6992:10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/015031
6864:Solar Resource Data and Maps
5477:"Molten salt energy storage"
4733:. Cabinet Magazine, Issue 6.
3866:Riverside County, California
3862:Genesis Solar Energy Project
3854:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
3842:
3599:
1344:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
581:Supercritical carbon dioxide
567:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
297:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
168:form of solar. Dispatchable
54:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
7:
6137:"Concentrating Solar Power"
6108:"Concentrating Solar Power"
5981:"Concentrating Solar Power"
5919:. REN21 Secretariat, UNEP.
4729:Paul Collins (Spring 2002)
3915:
1370:photovoltaic power stations
777:Deployment around the world
555:Plataforma Solar de Almeria
476:single-axis tracking system
459:Plataforma Solar de Almería
10:
9162:
7637:Concentrator photovoltaics
7614:Photovoltaic power station
7577:Concentrator photovoltaics
7053:John Macknick and others,
7005:John Macknick and others,
6661:AIP Conference Proceedings
5276:"Electricity Data Browser"
5258:"Electricity Data Browser"
5240:"Electricity Data Browser"
3958:Concentrator photovoltaics
3801:southwestern United States
3670:
3603:
3156:energy it cannot absorb (Q
2300:The conversion efficiency
2290:respectively the incoming
1428:The conversion efficiency
1301:
1020:
1007:
994:
981:
968:
955:
942:
929:
916:
903:
890:
877:
780:
771:concentrated solar thermal
720:load following power plant
702:
629:
610:
496:
409:
207:
102:concentrated solar thermal
67:solar complex in northern
21:concentrator photovoltaics
18:
9085:
9054:
9018:
8982:
8905:
8797:
8790:
8697:
8644:
8584:
8540:
8472:
8404:Artificial photosynthesis
8391:
8384:
8377:
8305:
8284:
8254:
8233:
8212:
8196:
8170:
8134:
8108:
8065:
8058:
8018:
7987:
7954:
7945:
7925:
7727:
7679:artificial photosynthesis
7665:
7627:
7565:
7522:
7513:
7490:
7471:
7448:
5955:"CSP Facts & Figures"
5156:, "Forbes", 25 April 2011
5083:. Earthscan. p. 45.
4761:, Cheshire Books, p. 68,
4731:The Beautiful Possibility
4212:U.S. Department of Energy
3521:
3498:
3475:
3021:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
2862:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
2588:times with an efficiency
1412:
1033:
269:technology of the nearby
183:CSP is often compared to
98:concentrating solar power
8553:Battery electric vehicle
8548:Alternative fuel vehicle
8419:Concentrated solar power
8225:Solar water disinfection
7694:Thermoelectric generator
7321:RenewableEnergyWorld.com
7079:26 December 2017 at the
7040:26 December 2017 at the
5407:19 February 2013 at the
4720:. Encyclopedia of Earth.
3805:Noor Solar Power Station
3735:O, to create hydrogen (H
3705:
3658:
3606:Solar power in Australia
3562:
3234:There is a temperature T
1313: CSP-world.com
90:Concentrated solar power
63:Part of the 354 MW
52:The three towers of the
19:Not to be confused with
8558:Hybrid electric vehicle
8487:Flywheel energy storage
8459:Space-based solar power
7933:Solar Shade Control Act
7717:Space-based solar power
7150:"Associated Press News"
7083:, US EIA, 11 Feb. 2014.
6211:10.1038/nenergy.2017.94
3999:Solar thermal collector
3930:Renewable energy portal
3001:{\displaystyle \alpha }
2666:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1357:
657:Stirling Energy Systems
190:dispatchable generators
8527:Thermal energy storage
8297:Solar power by country
7972:Thermal energy storage
7587:Nanocrystal solar cell
7537:Solar air conditioning
6271:Energy Sources, Part B
6238:Energy Sources, Part B
6143:, 2018, archived from
6114:, 2020, archived from
6018:Renewable Energy World
5226:BrightSourceEnergy.com
5139:6 January 2013 at the
4935:Norton, Brian (2013).
4880:Chaves, Julio (2015).
4009:Thermal energy storage
3989:Solar air conditioning
3893:
3728:solar thermal reactors
3722:Solar thermal reactors
3668:
3637:to realize the 150 MW
3572:
3558:Incentives and markets
3464:
3441:
3313:
3226:
3139:
3022:
3002:
2982:
2935:
2863:
2832:
2723:
2667:
2644:
2624:
2582:
2562:
2515:
2484:
2404:
2377:
2350:
2284:
2246:
2196:
2144:
1992:
1940:
1887:
1831:
1781:
1734:
1556:
1502:
1442:
1423:laws of thermodynamics
1390:Thermal Energy Storage
1384:
787:Solar power by country
736:gas-fired power plants
705:Thermal energy storage
643:
585:electricity production
531:
520:PS10 solar power plant
511:
429:
421:
351:solar air conditioning
293:Solar Tres Power Tower
217:
150:thermal energy storage
146:thermal power stations
86:
71:
56:
45:
8454:Photovoltaic pavement
8399:Airborne wind turbine
8371:Emerging technologies
8178:Salt evaporation pond
8147:Hybrid solar lighting
7967:Phase-change material
7060:9 August 2017 at the
6593:Prest, J. (2009). in
6444:5 August 2012 at the
6322:, Solar Media Limited
4965:21 April 2009 at the
4937:Harnessing Solar Heat
4780:"Molten Salt Storage"
3984:Salt evaporation pond
3891:
3834:Environmental effects
3776:zinc–zinc oxide cycle
3772:copper–chlorine cycle
3666:
3570:
3465:
3442:
3314:
3227:
3140:
3023:
3003:
2983:
2936:
2864:
2833:
2724:
2668:
2645:
2625:
2583:
2563:
2516:
2485:
2405:
2403:{\displaystyle T^{0}}
2378:
2376:{\displaystyle T_{H}}
2351:
2285:
2247:
2197:
2145:
1993:
1941:
1888:
1832:
1782:
1735:
1557:
1503:
1443:
1441:{\displaystyle \eta }
1382:
639:
517:
508:Ashalim Power Station
506:
487:Enhanced Oil Recovery
427:
419:
220:A legend has it that
215:
192:and baseload plants.
77:
62:
51:
31:
9141:Solar power stations
9126:Solar thermal energy
7712:Solar thermal rocket
7305:. Cleantechnica.com.
7012:6 April 2015 at the
5877:on 15 September 2014
5111:on 28 September 2007
4831:guntherportfolio.com
4176:"Sunshine to Petrol"
4014:Thermochemical cycle
3994:Solar thermal energy
3454:
3329:
3249:
3168:
3035:
3012:
2992:
2948:
2880:
2871:Stefan–Boltzmann law
2853:
2735:
2680:
2657:
2634:
2592:
2572:
2525:
2505:
2417:
2387:
2360:
2304:
2256:
2206:
2156:
2005:
1952:
1897:
1841:
1791:
1747:
1577:
1512:
1464:
1432:
1365:photovoltaic systems
957:United Arab Emirates
709:Solar thermal energy
593:critical temperature
451:Boulder City, Nevada
246:solar thermal energy
160:(for example, using
114:solar thermal energy
8522:Silicon–air battery
8507:Molten-salt battery
8497:Lithium–air battery
8492:Grid energy storage
8444:Molten salt reactor
8414:Carbon-neutral fuel
8272:Solar water heating
8046:Solar water heating
7962:Grid energy storage
7689:Solar updraft tower
7608:Photovoltaic module
7603:Photovoltaic effect
7552:Solar water heating
7160:on 8 September 2014
6983:2013ERL.....8a5031M
6673:2022AIPC.2445e0007T
6342:23 May 2019 at the
6283:2021EneSB..16...55S
6203:2017NatEn...217094L
6024:on 2 November 2011.
5993:on 22 November 2012
5457:. 10 September 2017
5380:2013ECM....72...60A
5311:2022SoEn..243..103M
5051:2015ApEn..146..383V
4993:2017SoEn..148...36C
4632:The Classical World
4567:. 20 September 2017
4456:. 24 September 2017
4188:on 19 February 2013
4154:2016SoEn..125..267L
4119:2014SoEn..108..287L
4083:2013SoEn...97..356B
4004:Solar water heating
3884:Effects on wildlife
3858:Barstow, California
3764:hybrid sulfur cycle
3760:sulfur–iodine cycle
3397:
3352:
3075:
2930:
1340:larger CSP projects
1076:
863:
648:parabolic reflector
264:was converted into
104:) systems generate
78:Bird's eye view of
9131:Solar architecture
8100:Solar-powered pump
7684:Solar-pumped laser
7597:Photovoltaic array
7592:Organic solar cell
7570:and related topics
7198:"Full Page Reload"
6833:. 20 December 2017
6302:20.500.12708/18282
6067:2012-06-15 at the
6044:. (Energy series)
5704:on 28 October 2019
5154:"Oil from the sun"
4917:, Academic Press,
4784:large.stanford.edu
4692:EEPublishers.co.za
4400:GreenTechMedia.com
4243:The New York Times
3894:
3669:
3612:Northern Territory
3573:
3460:
3437:
3375:
3332:
3309:
3222:
3135:
3061:
3018:
2998:
2978:
2931:
2916:
2859:
2828:
2719:
2663:
2640:
2620:
2578:
2558:
2511:
2480:
2400:
2373:
2346:
2280:
2242:
2192:
2140:
1988:
1936:
1883:
1827:
1777:
1730:
1564:Carnot's principle
1552:
1498:
1438:
1385:
1070:
857:
724:nameplate capacity
693:United Sun Systems
661:United Sun Systems
644:
607:Fresnel reflectors
599:inlet. Therefore,
532:
512:
430:
422:
325:Current technology
218:
116:), which drives a
87:
72:
57:
46:
9146:French inventions
9113:
9112:
8978:
8977:
8604:
8603:
8580:
8579:
8576:
8575:
8337:
8336:
8280:
8279:
8262:Solar combisystem
8220:Soil solarization
8126:Urban heat island
8054:
8053:
8026:Electric aircraft
7941:
7940:
7652:Solar power tower
7346:CleanTechnica.com
7204:. 20 August 2014.
7184:Nature World News
6879:. 30 January 2012
6681:10.1063/5.0085752
6370:10.1115/1.1349552
5926:978-3-9818107-0-7
5867:978-3-9815934-2-6
5548:. 19 October 2017
5483:on 29 August 2017
5165:Goossens, Ehren,
5143:, 2 November 2011
5090:978-1-84407-306-1
4946:978-94-007-7275-5
4915:Nonimaging Optics
4815:on 25 March 2016.
4589:. 29 October 2017
4478:. 11 October 2017
4375:. 13 October 2017
4019:Particle receiver
3714:announced that a
3544:
3543:
3494:
3463:{\displaystyle C}
3429:
3277:
3210:
3128:
3085:
2643:{\displaystyle A}
2581:{\displaystyle C}
2514:{\displaystyle I}
2501:For a solar flux
2478:
2138:
1458:Solar irradiation
1456:steam turbine).
1450:thermal radiation
1419:Carnot efficiency
1348:solar power tower
1329:
1328:
1045:
1044:
569:, located in the
563:Sanlucar la Mayor
499:Solar power tower
493:Solar power tower
388:nonimaging optics
370:solar power tower
34:solar power tower
9153:
9103:
9093:
9092:
9036:French Polynesia
8795:
8794:
8631:
8624:
8617:
8608:
8607:
8592:
8591:
8512:Nanowire battery
8439:Methanol economy
8434:Hydrogen economy
8389:
8388:
8382:
8381:
8364:
8357:
8350:
8341:
8340:
8325:
8324:
8313:
8312:
8267:Solar controller
8063:
8062:
7952:
7951:
7647:Parabolic trough
7520:
7519:
7508:
7502:
7496:
7484:Solar irradiance
7435:
7428:
7421:
7412:
7411:
7407:
7405:
7403:
7358:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7338:
7332:
7331:
7329:
7327:
7313:
7307:
7306:
7298:
7292:
7291:
7280:
7274:
7273:
7262:
7256:
7255:
7249:
7241:
7239:
7237:
7231:
7225:. Archived from
7220:
7212:
7206:
7205:
7194:
7188:
7187:
7176:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7156:. Archived from
7146:
7140:
7139:
7138:. 24 March 2015.
7128:
7122:
7121:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7090:
7084:
7071:
7065:
7051:
7045:
7032:
7026:
7023:
7017:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6962:
6956:
6953:
6947:
6946:
6934:
6928:
6927:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6895:
6889:
6888:
6886:
6884:
6873:
6867:
6861:
6855:
6849:
6843:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6827:
6821:
6820:
6818:
6816:
6797:
6791:
6790:
6788:
6786:
6771:
6765:
6764:
6762:
6760:
6745:
6739:
6738:
6736:
6734:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6705:
6699:
6693:
6692:
6656:
6650:
6644:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6633:
6623:
6617:
6611:
6605:
6588:
6582:
6577:
6571:
6566:
6560:
6555:
6549:
6544:
6538:
6537:
6526:
6520:
6515:
6509:
6503:
6497:
6491:
6485:
6479:
6473:
6467:
6461:
6455:
6449:
6436:
6430:
6424:
6418:
6413:
6407:
6406:
6405:on 19 July 2014.
6404:
6389:
6380:
6374:
6373:
6353:
6347:
6333:
6324:
6323:
6313:
6307:
6306:
6304:
6294:
6262:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6197:(17094): 17094.
6186:
6180:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6165:
6156:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6147:on 23 April 2021
6133:
6127:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6118:on 21 April 2021
6104:
6098:
6097:
6095:
6093:
6081:
6075:
6059:
6053:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6020:. Archived from
6009:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5992:
5985:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5961:on 29 April 2013
5951:
5945:
5944:
5938:
5930:
5918:
5907:
5901:
5900:
5894:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5876:
5870:. Archived from
5859:
5848:
5839:
5838:
5836:
5834:
5824:
5813:
5807:
5798:
5792:
5783:
5782:
5780:
5778:
5773:
5765:
5756:
5755:
5753:
5751:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5730:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5709:
5700:. Archived from
5694:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5673:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5659:
5649:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5638:
5628:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5617:
5607:
5601:
5600:
5598:
5596:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5575:
5570:. 21 August 2017
5564:
5558:
5557:
5555:
5553:
5542:
5536:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5521:
5515:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5488:
5479:. Archived from
5473:
5467:
5466:
5464:
5462:
5447:
5441:
5440:
5435:
5433:
5418:
5412:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5363:
5357:
5356:. ese.iitb.ac.in
5351:
5345:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5322:
5290:
5284:
5283:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5236:
5230:
5229:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5209:
5207:
5197:
5191:
5190:
5188:
5186:
5176:
5170:
5163:
5157:
5150:
5144:
5130:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5074:
5063:
5062:
5034:
5028:
5027:
5011:
5005:
5004:
4976:
4970:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4932:
4926:
4911:
4902:
4901:
4877:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4811:. Archived from
4801:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4790:
4776:
4770:
4755:
4749:
4740:
4734:
4727:
4721:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4698:on 7 August 2011
4694:. Archived from
4683:
4677:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4605:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4594:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4557:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4506:
4504:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4420:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4369:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4353:
4345:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4292:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4273:
4265:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4249:
4234:
4228:
4227:
4225:
4223:
4218:on 15 April 2013
4214:. Archived from
4204:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4193:
4187:
4180:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4039:
3946:
3941:
3940:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3768:iron oxide cycle
3652:renewable energy
3550:
3493:(max. for Earth)
3492:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3461:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3430:
3428:
3420:
3413:
3412:
3402:
3396:
3391:
3390:
3371:
3370:
3351:
3346:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3261:
3253:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3198:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3152:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3117:
3116:
3107:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3076:
3074:
3069:
3056:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2860:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2546:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2467:
2466:
2457:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2251:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2038:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1824:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1325: HeliosCSP
1077:
1069:
864:
856:
773:storage plants.
734:similar to coal/
483:GlassPoint Solar
447:Nevada Solar One
412:Parabolic trough
406:Parabolic trough
384:acceptance angle
381:
380:
376:
358:parabolic trough
319:
318:
314:
284:opened in 2009.
250:Dr. R.H. Goddard
233:Auguste Mouchout
170:renewable energy
96:, also known as
9161:
9160:
9156:
9155:
9154:
9152:
9151:
9150:
9116:
9115:
9114:
9109:
9081:
9050:
9014:
8974:
8901:
8786:
8693:
8640:
8635:
8605:
8600:
8572:
8536:
8468:
8373:
8368:
8338:
8333:
8301:
8276:
8250:
8229:
8208:
8192:
8166:
8130:
8104:
8069:
8050:
8014:
7983:
7947:
7937:
7921:
7723:
7667:
7661:
7623:
7569:
7561:
7509:
7503:
7497:
7488:
7467:
7444:
7439:
7401:
7399:
7390:
7367:
7362:
7361:
7351:
7349:
7348:. 16 April 2015
7340:
7339:
7335:
7325:
7323:
7315:
7314:
7310:
7299:
7295:
7282:
7281:
7277:
7264:
7263:
7259:
7243:
7242:
7235:
7233:
7232:on 3 March 2015
7229:
7218:
7216:"Archived copy"
7214:
7213:
7209:
7196:
7195:
7191:
7178:
7177:
7173:
7163:
7161:
7154:bigstory.ap.org
7148:
7147:
7143:
7130:
7129:
7125:
7110:
7106:
7091:
7087:
7081:Wayback Machine
7072:
7068:
7062:Wayback Machine
7052:
7048:
7042:Wayback Machine
7033:
7029:
7024:
7020:
7014:Wayback Machine
7004:
7000:
6963:
6959:
6954:
6950:
6935:
6931:
6918:
6917:
6913:
6903:
6901:
6897:
6896:
6892:
6882:
6880:
6875:
6874:
6870:
6862:
6858:
6850:
6846:
6836:
6834:
6829:
6828:
6824:
6814:
6812:
6808:
6804:
6799:
6798:
6794:
6784:
6782:
6772:
6768:
6758:
6756:
6746:
6742:
6732:
6730:
6725:
6724:
6720:
6712:
6708:
6700:
6696:
6657:
6653:
6645:
6641:
6631:
6629:
6625:
6624:
6620:
6612:
6608:
6589:
6585:
6578:
6574:
6567:
6563:
6556:
6552:
6545:
6541:
6528:
6527:
6523:
6516:
6512:
6504:
6500:
6492:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6468:
6464:
6456:
6452:
6446:Wayback Machine
6437:
6433:
6425:
6421:
6414:
6410:
6402:
6387:
6381:
6377:
6354:
6350:
6344:Wayback Machine
6334:
6327:
6314:
6310:
6263:
6259:
6230:
6226:
6187:
6183:
6173:
6171:
6167:
6166:
6159:
6150:
6148:
6135:
6134:
6130:
6121:
6119:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6091:
6089:
6088:. CleanTechnica
6082:
6078:
6069:Wayback Machine
6060:
6056:
6033:
6029:
6010:
6006:
5996:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5979:
5978:
5974:
5964:
5962:
5953:
5952:
5948:
5932:
5931:
5927:
5916:
5908:
5904:
5888:
5887:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5868:
5857:
5849:
5842:
5832:
5830:
5826:
5825:
5816:
5808:
5801:
5793:
5786:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5766:
5759:
5749:
5747:
5743:
5742:
5738:
5728:
5726:
5722:
5721:
5717:
5707:
5705:
5696:
5695:
5691:
5681:
5679:
5675:
5674:
5667:
5657:
5655:
5651:
5650:
5646:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5629:
5625:
5615:
5613:
5609:
5608:
5604:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5573:
5571:
5566:
5565:
5561:
5551:
5549:
5544:
5543:
5539:
5529:
5527:
5523:
5522:
5518:
5508:
5506:
5501:
5500:
5496:
5486:
5484:
5475:
5474:
5470:
5460:
5458:
5449:
5448:
5444:
5431:
5429:
5419:
5415:
5409:Wayback Machine
5399:
5395:
5364:
5360:
5352:
5348:
5340:
5336:
5291:
5287:
5274:
5273:
5269:
5256:
5255:
5251:
5238:
5237:
5233:
5220:
5219:
5215:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5194:
5184:
5182:
5178:
5177:
5173:
5164:
5160:
5151:
5147:
5141:Wayback Machine
5131:
5124:
5114:
5112:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5091:
5075:
5066:
5035:
5031:
5012:
5008:
4977:
4973:
4967:Wayback Machine
4958:
4954:
4947:
4933:
4929:
4912:
4905:
4898:
4878:
4871:
4863:
4859:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4842:
4838:
4833:. 5 April 2013.
4825:
4824:
4820:
4803:
4802:
4798:
4788:
4786:
4778:
4777:
4773:
4756:
4752:
4748:, November 1929
4746:Popular Science
4741:
4737:
4728:
4724:
4715:
4711:
4701:
4699:
4684:
4680:
4663:
4659:
4644:10.2307/4348211
4628:
4624:
4614:
4612:
4607:
4606:
4602:
4592:
4590:
4585:
4584:
4580:
4570:
4568:
4559:
4558:
4554:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4481:
4479:
4474:
4473:
4469:
4459:
4457:
4452:
4451:
4447:
4432:
4428:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4407:
4392:
4388:
4378:
4376:
4371:
4370:
4366:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4347:
4346:
4339:
4329:
4327:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4304:
4302:
4294:
4293:
4286:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4267:
4266:
4257:
4247:
4245:
4235:
4231:
4221:
4219:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4191:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4174:
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4169:
4138:
4134:
4102:
4098:
4067:
4063:
4053:
4051:
4040:
4033:
4028:
4023:
3953:Dover Sun House
3942:
3935:
3928:
3921:
3918:
3886:
3845:
3836:
3817:
3788:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3724:
3710:In March 2024,
3708:
3675:
3661:
3608:
3602:
3565:
3560:
3525:
3502:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3421:
3408:
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3392:
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3347:
3336:
3330:
3327:
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3287:
3286:
3282:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3254:
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3250:
3247:
3246:
3237:
3216:
3199:
3197:
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3192:
3176:
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3171:
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3166:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3108:
3106:
3099:
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3077:
3070:
3065:
3057:
3055:
3048:
3044:
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3013:
3010:
3009:
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2990:
2989:
2956:
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2888:
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2854:
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2809:
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2779:
2778:
2774:
2743:
2742:
2738:
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2732:
2688:
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2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2658:
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2654:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2599:
2595:
2593:
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2589:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2568:) concentrated
2551:
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2523:
2522:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2499:
2472:
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2394:
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2367:
2363:
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2358:
2357:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2305:
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2301:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2013:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1519:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1415:
1402:
1360:
1074:
861:
855:
854:
853:
851:
845:
844:
843:
842:
841:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
818:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
789:
781:Main articles:
779:
716:turbo generator
711:
701:
689:Kalahari Desert
653:Stirling engine
641:A dish Stirling
634:
628:
615:
609:
559:Planta Solar 10
501:
495:
471:
469:Enclosed trough
414:
408:
378:
374:
373:
327:
316:
312:
311:
210:
142:
126:power generator
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9159:
9149:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9133:
9128:
9111:
9110:
9108:
9107:
9097:
9086:
9083:
9082:
9080:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9058:
9056:
9052:
9051:
9049:
9048:
9043:
9038:
9033:
9028:
9022:
9020:
9016:
9015:
9013:
9012:
9007:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8986:
8984:
8980:
8979:
8976:
8975:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8970:
8963:United Kingdom
8960:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8940:
8935:
8930:
8925:
8920:
8915:
8909:
8907:
8903:
8902:
8900:
8899:
8894:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8839:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8819:
8814:
8812:Czech Republic
8809:
8803:
8801:
8799:European Union
8792:
8788:
8787:
8785:
8784:
8779:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8754:
8749:
8744:
8739:
8734:
8729:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8709:
8703:
8701:
8695:
8694:
8692:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8671:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8650:
8648:
8642:
8641:
8634:
8633:
8626:
8619:
8611:
8602:
8601:
8599:
8598:
8585:
8582:
8581:
8578:
8577:
8574:
8573:
8571:
8570:
8568:Wireless power
8565:
8560:
8555:
8550:
8544:
8542:
8538:
8537:
8535:
8534:
8532:Ultracapacitor
8529:
8524:
8519:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8499:
8494:
8489:
8484:
8478:
8476:
8470:
8469:
8467:
8466:
8461:
8456:
8451:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8429:Home fuel cell
8426:
8421:
8416:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8395:
8393:
8386:
8379:
8375:
8374:
8367:
8366:
8359:
8352:
8344:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8331:
8319:
8306:
8303:
8302:
8300:
8299:
8294:
8288:
8286:
8282:
8281:
8278:
8277:
8275:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8258:
8256:
8252:
8251:
8249:
8248:
8243:
8237:
8235:
8231:
8230:
8228:
8227:
8222:
8216:
8214:
8210:
8209:
8207:
8206:
8200:
8198:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8174:
8172:
8168:
8167:
8165:
8164:
8159:
8154:
8149:
8144:
8138:
8136:
8132:
8131:
8129:
8128:
8123:
8118:
8112:
8110:
8106:
8105:
8103:
8102:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8076:
8074:
8060:
8056:
8055:
8052:
8051:
8049:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8033:
8028:
8022:
8020:
8016:
8015:
8013:
8012:
8007:
8002:
8000:Feed-in tariff
7997:
7995:Cost by source
7991:
7989:
7985:
7984:
7982:
7981:
7980:
7979:
7969:
7964:
7958:
7956:
7949:
7943:
7942:
7939:
7938:
7936:
7935:
7929:
7927:
7923:
7922:
7920:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7907:United Kingdom
7904:
7899:
7894:
7889:
7884:
7879:
7874:
7869:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7844:
7839:
7834:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7814:
7809:
7804:
7799:
7794:
7789:
7784:
7779:
7777:Czech Republic
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7733:
7731:
7725:
7724:
7722:
7721:
7720:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7698:Space-related
7696:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7675:Solar chemical
7671:
7669:
7663:
7662:
7660:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7644:
7639:
7633:
7631:
7625:
7624:
7622:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7605:
7600:
7594:
7589:
7584:
7582:Floating solar
7579:
7573:
7571:
7563:
7562:
7560:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7528:
7526:
7517:
7511:
7510:
7491:
7489:
7487:
7486:
7481:
7475:
7473:
7469:
7468:
7466:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7449:
7446:
7445:
7438:
7437:
7430:
7423:
7415:
7409:
7408:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7373:
7366:
7365:External links
7363:
7360:
7359:
7333:
7308:
7293:
7275:
7257:
7207:
7189:
7171:
7141:
7123:
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6998:
6957:
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6856:
6844:
6822:
6806:
6802:
6792:
6766:
6754:SolarPACES.org
6740:
6729:. 4 March 2024
6718:
6706:
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6099:
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6054:
6027:
6004:
5972:
5946:
5925:
5910:REN21 (2016).
5902:
5866:
5851:REN21 (2014).
5840:
5814:
5799:
5784:
5757:
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5715:
5689:
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5064:
5039:Applied Energy
5029:
5006:
4971:
4952:
4945:
4927:
4923:978-0127597515
4903:
4897:978-1482206739
4896:
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4857:
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4638:(5): 305–308.
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3917:
3914:
3885:
3882:
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3841:
3835:
3832:
3828:opencast mines
3816:
3815:Suitable sites
3813:
3787:
3784:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3723:
3720:
3707:
3704:
3700:five-year plan
3687:five-year plan
3680:five-year plan
3671:Main article:
3660:
3657:
3633:got awarded a
3604:Main article:
3601:
3598:
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2016:
2011:
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410:Main article:
407:
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198:Atacama region
141:
138:
130:thermochemical
15:
9:
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4:
3:
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9065:
9063:
9060:
9059:
9057:
9055:South America
9053:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9023:
9021:
9017:
9011:
9010:United States
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
8998:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8987:
8985:
8983:North America
8981:
8969:
8966:
8965:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8910:
8908:
8904:
8898:
8895:
8893:
8890:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8878:
8875:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8804:
8802:
8800:
8796:
8793:
8789:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8775:
8773:
8770:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8758:
8755:
8753:
8750:
8748:
8745:
8743:
8740:
8738:
8735:
8733:
8730:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8704:
8702:
8700:
8696:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8670:
8667:
8665:
8662:
8660:
8657:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8647:
8643:
8639:
8632:
8627:
8625:
8620:
8618:
8613:
8612:
8609:
8597:
8596:
8587:
8586:
8583:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8545:
8543:
8539:
8533:
8530:
8528:
8525:
8523:
8520:
8518:
8515:
8513:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8477:
8475:
8471:
8465:
8464:Vortex engine
8462:
8460:
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8396:
8394:
8390:
8387:
8383:
8380:
8376:
8372:
8365:
8360:
8358:
8353:
8351:
8346:
8345:
8342:
8330:
8329:
8320:
8318:
8317:
8308:
8307:
8304:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8292:Photovoltaics
8290:
8289:
8287:
8283:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8259:
8257:
8255:Water heating
8253:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8239:
8238:
8236:
8232:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8217:
8215:
8211:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8183:Solar furnace
8181:
8179:
8176:
8175:
8173:
8169:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8143:
8140:
8139:
8137:
8133:
8127:
8124:
8122:
8119:
8117:
8114:
8113:
8111:
8107:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8077:
8075:
8073:
8068:
8064:
8061:
8057:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8041:Solar vehicle
8039:
8037:
8036:Solar balloon
8034:
8032:
8031:Electric boat
8029:
8027:
8024:
8023:
8021:
8017:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7990:
7986:
7978:
7975:
7974:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7959:
7957:
7953:
7950:
7944:
7934:
7931:
7930:
7928:
7924:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7912:United States
7910:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7900:
7898:
7895:
7893:
7890:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7878:
7875:
7873:
7870:
7868:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7845:
7843:
7840:
7838:
7835:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7734:
7732:
7730:
7726:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7702:Magnetic sail
7700:
7699:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7676:
7673:
7672:
7670:
7664:
7658:
7657:Solar tracker
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7626:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7612:
7610:(solar panel)
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7599:(and systems)
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7574:
7572:
7568:
7567:Photovoltaics
7564:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7542:Solar chimney
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7529:
7527:
7525:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7512:
7507:
7501:
7495:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7476:
7474:
7470:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7450:
7447:
7443:
7436:
7431:
7429:
7424:
7422:
7417:
7416:
7413:
7398:
7394:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7368:
7347:
7343:
7337:
7322:
7318:
7312:
7304:
7297:
7289:
7285:
7279:
7271:
7267:
7261:
7253:
7247:
7228:
7224:
7217:
7211:
7203:
7199:
7193:
7185:
7181:
7175:
7159:
7155:
7151:
7145:
7137:
7133:
7127:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7089:
7082:
7078:
7075:
7070:
7063:
7059:
7056:
7050:
7043:
7039:
7036:
7031:
7022:
7015:
7011:
7008:
7002:
6993:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6977:(1): 015031.
6976:
6972:
6968:
6961:
6952:
6944:
6940:
6933:
6925:
6921:
6915:
6900:
6894:
6878:
6872:
6865:
6860:
6853:
6848:
6832:
6826:
6810:
6796:
6781:
6777:
6770:
6755:
6751:
6744:
6728:
6722:
6716:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6667:(1): 050007.
6666:
6662:
6655:
6649:
6643:
6628:
6622:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6587:
6581:
6576:
6570:
6565:
6559:
6554:
6548:
6543:
6535:
6534:Miteco.gob.es
6531:
6525:
6519:
6514:
6508:
6502:
6496:
6490:
6484:
6478:
6471:
6466:
6459:
6454:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6435:
6428:
6423:
6416:
6412:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6386:
6379:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6352:
6345:
6341:
6338:
6332:
6330:
6321:
6320:
6312:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6261:
6252:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6228:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6191:Nature Energy
6185:
6170:
6164:
6162:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6132:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6103:
6087:
6080:
6073:
6070:
6066:
6063:
6058:
6051:
6050:9781786304995
6047:
6043:
6039:
6038:
6031:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6008:
5989:
5982:
5976:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5942:
5936:
5928:
5922:
5915:
5914:
5906:
5898:
5892:
5873:
5869:
5863:
5856:
5855:
5847:
5845:
5829:
5823:
5821:
5819:
5812:, REN21, 2018
5811:
5806:
5804:
5797:, REN21, 2017
5796:
5791:
5789:
5770:
5764:
5762:
5746:
5740:
5725:
5719:
5703:
5699:
5693:
5678:
5672:
5670:
5654:
5648:
5633:
5627:
5612:
5606:
5591:
5585:
5569:
5563:
5547:
5541:
5526:
5520:
5504:
5498:
5482:
5478:
5472:
5456:
5452:
5446:
5439:
5428:
5424:
5417:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5397:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5362:
5355:
5350:
5343:
5338:
5330:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5289:
5281:
5277:
5271:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5245:
5241:
5235:
5227:
5223:
5217:
5202:
5196:
5181:
5175:
5168:
5162:
5155:
5149:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5129:
5127:
5110:
5106:
5100:
5092:
5086:
5082:
5081:
5073:
5071:
5069:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5033:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5010:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4975:
4968:
4964:
4961:
4956:
4948:
4942:
4938:
4931:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4910:
4908:
4899:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4884:
4876:
4874:
4866:
4861:
4846:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4822:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4800:
4785:
4781:
4775:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4754:
4747:
4744:
4739:
4732:
4726:
4719:
4718:Shuman, Frank
4713:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4682:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4661:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4626:
4610:
4604:
4588:
4582:
4566:
4562:
4556:
4541:
4535:
4520:
4514:
4499:
4493:
4477:
4471:
4455:
4449:
4441:
4437:
4430:
4415:
4409:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4374:
4368:
4350:
4344:
4342:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4301:
4297:
4291:
4289:
4270:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4244:
4240:
4233:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4203:
4184:
4177:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4065:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4036:
4031:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3944:Energy portal
3939:
3934:
3931:
3925:
3920:
3913:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3900:
3890:
3881:
3878:
3874:
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3859:
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3822:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3748:
3729:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3703:
3701:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3683:
3681:
3674:
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3653:
3647:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3569:
3555:
3551:
3549:
3539:
3536:
3533:
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3527:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3474:
3471:
3457:
3434:
3431:
3425:
3422:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3398:
3393:
3376:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3306:
3303:
3283:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3258:
3255:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3232:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3194:
3189:
3172:
3153:
3151:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3078:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3015:
2995:
2952:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2884:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2869:applying the
2856:
2849:
2845:
2805:
2801:
2775:
2771:
2739:
2731:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2684:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2660:
2653:
2637:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2575:
2552:
2543:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2508:
2494:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2421:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2395:
2391:
2368:
2364:
2308:
2293:
2260:
2210:
2160:
2151:
2150:
2106:
2084:
2080:
2048:
2041:
2009:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1956:
1947:
1901:
1845:
1795:
1751:
1695:
1691:
1653:
1649:
1617:
1613:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1435:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
997:
993:
989:
986:
984:
980:
976:
973:
971:
967:
963:
960:
958:
954:
950:
947:
945:
941:
937:
934:
932:
928:
924:
921:
919:
915:
911:
908:
906:
902:
898:
895:
893:
892:United States
889:
885:
882:
880:
876:
872:
869:
866:
865:
852:
788:
784:
774:
772:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
752:Brayton cycle
748:
746:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
710:
706:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
642:
638:
633:
626:Dish Stirling
623:
619:
614:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
576:
572:
571:Mojave Desert
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
529:
525:
521:
516:
509:
505:
500:
490:
488:
484:
480:
477:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
435:working fluid
426:
418:
413:
403:
400:
395:
391:
389:
385:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
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344:
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307:
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289:
285:
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279:
274:
272:
267:
263:
259:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:John Ericsson
234:
229:
227:
223:
214:
205:
203:
199:
193:
191:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:sensible heat
151:
147:
137:
133:
131:
127:
123:
122:steam turbine
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
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91:
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81:
80:Khi Solar One
76:
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66:
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35:
30:
26:
22:
9031:Cook Islands
8689:South Africa
8593:
8424:Fusion power
8418:
8326:
8314:
8241:Desalination
8234:Desalination
8213:Disinfection
8204:Solar cooker
8171:Process heat
8072:horticulture
8059:Applications
8019:Applications
8010:Net metering
7946:Distribution
7882:South Africa
7872:Saudi Arabia
7668:and proposed
7666:Experimental
7629:Concentrated
7628:
7557:Thermal mass
7442:Solar energy
7400:. Retrieved
7396:
7350:. Retrieved
7345:
7336:
7324:. Retrieved
7320:
7311:
7296:
7278:
7260:
7234:. Retrieved
7227:the original
7223:www.kcet.org
7222:
7210:
7201:
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7158:the original
7153:
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6893:
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6871:
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6825:
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6795:
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6779:
6769:
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6731:. Retrieved
6721:
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6621:
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6411:
6400:the original
6395:
6391:
6378:
6361:
6357:
6351:
6318:
6311:
6277:(1): 55–74.
6274:
6270:
6260:
6241:
6237:
6227:
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6190:
6184:
6172:. Retrieved
6149:, retrieved
6145:the original
6140:
6131:
6120:, retrieved
6116:the original
6111:
6102:
6090:. Retrieved
6079:
6071:
6057:
6042:Wiley - ISTE
6036:
6030:
6022:the original
6017:
6007:
5995:. Retrieved
5988:the original
5975:
5963:. Retrieved
5959:the original
5949:
5912:
5905:
5881:14 September
5879:. Retrieved
5872:the original
5853:
5831:. Retrieved
5775:. Retrieved
5748:. Retrieved
5739:
5727:. Retrieved
5718:
5706:. Retrieved
5702:the original
5692:
5680:. Retrieved
5656:. Retrieved
5647:
5635:. Retrieved
5626:
5614:. Retrieved
5605:
5593:. Retrieved
5584:
5572:. Retrieved
5562:
5550:. Retrieved
5540:
5528:. Retrieved
5519:
5507:. Retrieved
5497:
5485:. Retrieved
5481:the original
5471:
5459:. Retrieved
5454:
5445:
5437:
5430:. Retrieved
5427:The Guardian
5426:
5416:
5396:
5371:
5367:
5361:
5349:
5342:Compact CLFR
5337:
5302:
5299:Solar Energy
5298:
5288:
5279:
5270:
5261:
5252:
5243:
5234:
5225:
5216:
5204:. Retrieved
5195:
5183:. Retrieved
5174:
5161:
5148:
5115:29 September
5113:. Retrieved
5109:the original
5099:
5079:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5019:
5009:
4984:
4981:Solar Energy
4980:
4974:
4955:
4939:. Springer.
4936:
4930:
4914:
4882:
4860:
4848:. Retrieved
4839:
4830:
4821:
4813:the original
4808:
4799:
4787:. Retrieved
4783:
4774:
4758:
4753:
4745:
4738:
4725:
4712:
4700:. Retrieved
4696:the original
4691:
4681:
4665:
4660:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4613:. Retrieved
4603:
4591:. Retrieved
4581:
4569:. Retrieved
4564:
4555:
4543:. Retrieved
4534:
4522:. Retrieved
4513:
4501:. Retrieved
4492:
4480:. Retrieved
4470:
4460:24 September
4458:. Retrieved
4448:
4439:
4429:
4417:. Retrieved
4408:
4399:
4389:
4377:. Retrieved
4367:
4355:. Retrieved
4328:. Retrieved
4324:
4315:
4303:. Retrieved
4299:
4275:. Retrieved
4246:. Retrieved
4242:
4232:
4220:. Retrieved
4216:the original
4211:
4202:
4190:. Retrieved
4183:the original
4170:
4145:
4142:Solar Energy
4141:
4135:
4110:
4107:Solar Energy
4106:
4099:
4074:
4071:Solar Energy
4070:
4064:
4052:. Retrieved
4047:
4042:Kimi, Imad.
3907:
3903:
3895:
3876:
3872:
3870:
3850:
3846:
3837:
3825:
3818:
3789:
3756:
3749:
3725:
3709:
3684:
3676:
3648:
3631:SolarReserve
3628:
3616:Hermannsburg
3609:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3574:
3552:
3545:
3449:
3321:
3239:
3233:
3154:
3147:
2943:
2843:
2841:
2652:absorptivity
2500:
2492:
2299:
1948:
1742:
1567:
1453:
1427:
1416:
1407:
1403:
1386:
1374:
1361:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1062:
1046:
1034:
970:Saudi Arabia
905:South Africa
847:
768:
749:
745:fossil fuels
740:cogeneration
712:
645:
620:
616:
579:
544:
533:
481:
472:
431:
396:
392:
355:
328:
308:
301:
290:
286:
275:
254:
242:Frank Shuman
230:
219:
194:
185:photovoltaic
182:
166:dispatchable
143:
134:
128:or powers a
101:
97:
93:
89:
88:
84:South Africa
25:
9136:Solar power
9041:New Zealand
8948:Switzerland
8877:Netherlands
8767:Philippines
8707:Afghanistan
8246:Solar still
8142:Daylighting
8080:Agrivoltaic
8067:Agriculture
7852:New Zealand
7847:Netherlands
7515:Solar power
7164:8 September
6854:. geni.org.
6811:. July 2022
6780:EurekAlert!
5997:9 September
5750:20 December
5595:18 December
5505:. July 2017
5461:21 November
5305:: 103–119.
5045:: 383–396.
4850:21 November
4686:Meyer, CM.
4571:29 November
4419:23 February
4379:23 February
4148:: 267–281.
4113:: 287–307.
4077:: 356–368.
4054:29 December
3964:Daylighting
756:gas turbine
575:natural gas
540:molten salt
439:molten salt
347:power plant
162:molten salt
158:latent heat
120:(usually a
118:heat engine
110:Electricity
106:solar power
9120:Categories
8995:Costa Rica
8867:Luxembourg
8742:Kazakhstan
8712:Bangladesh
8684:Seychelles
8563:Smart grid
8392:Production
8188:Solar pond
8162:Solar Tuki
8157:Solar lamp
8152:Light tube
8090:Polytunnel
8085:Greenhouse
7729:By country
7707:Solar sail
7619:Solar cell
7547:Solar pond
7402:18 January
7236:17 January
6924:UCSUSA.org
6632:15 January
6603:0455226342
5729:31 October
5708:31 October
5455:SolarPACES
4767:0442240058
4674:0442240058
4593:29 October
4545:31 October
4524:29 October
4325:SolarPACES
4300:SolarPACES
4050:. Dr. imad
4026:References
3860:, and the
3826:Abandoned
2848:emissivity
2497:Ideal case
2292:solar flux
1400:Efficiency
1338:Among the
1228:Cumulative
703:See also:
667:dishes at
663:(USS) and
630:See also:
597:compressor
561:(PS10) in
536:heliostats
528:heliostats
222:Archimedes
178:duck curve
174:California
132:reaction.
42:heliostats
9062:Argentina
9026:Australia
8862:Lithuania
8762:Palestine
8737:Indonesia
8095:Row cover
7827:Lithuania
7747:Australia
7642:Heliostat
6883:21 August
6689:248768163
6364:(2): 63.
6244:: 23–41.
6219:256727261
6092:8 January
5935:cite book
5891:cite book
5682:31 August
5574:22 August
5530:29 August
5509:22 August
5487:22 August
5374:: 60–68.
5329:251357374
5185:18 August
5020:Freethink
4987:: 36–48.
4888:CRC Press
4809:KQED News
4305:12 August
3843:Water use
3600:Australia
3426:σ
3399:−
3354:−
3259:η
3208:σ
3104:−
3093:⋅
3059:σ
3053:−
3039:η
3016:ϵ
2996:α
2953:η
2914:σ
2911:ϵ
2857:ϵ
2802:α
2776:η
2661:α
2597:η
2454:−
2422:η
2309:η
2081:−
2010:η
1957:η
1902:η
1846:η
1796:η
1752:η
1696:η
1692:⋅
1654:η
1650:⋅
1618:η
1614:⋅
1588:η
1581:η
1517:η
1469:η
1436:η
1154:Installed
1095:1991-2005
1009:Australia
726:. Unlike
714:by steam
547:Solar Two
524:Andalusia
266:Solar Two
262:Solar One
258:Solar One
231:In 1866,
9095:Category
9077:Colombia
9000:Honduras
8968:Scotland
8887:Portugal
8777:Thailand
8757:Pakistan
8747:Malaysia
8664:Ethiopia
8449:Nantenna
8409:Biofuels
8316:Category
8285:See also
8135:Lighting
8109:Building
7988:Adoption
7977:seasonal
7948:and uses
7892:Thailand
7862:Portugal
7857:Pakistan
7472:Concepts
7463:Timeline
7288:Archived
7270:Archived
7246:cite web
7136:Fox News
7099:NBC News
7077:Archived
7058:Archived
7038:Archived
7010:Archived
6943:euronews
6837:21 April
6805:O and CO
6785:3 August
6759:3 August
6442:Archived
6340:Archived
6151:23 April
6122:23 April
6065:Archived
5965:22 April
5777:30 March
5658:25 April
5432:21 April
5405:Archived
5152:Helman,
5137:Archived
5024:Archived
4963:Archived
4789:31 March
4702:22 April
4615:14 March
4248:11 April
4222:11 April
4192:11 April
4048:Voltagea
3916:See also
3792:Desertec
3743:O and CO
3624:Lajamanu
3620:Yuendumu
2873:yields:
1562:, using
1342:are the
1058:gigawatt
1022:Thailand
728:solar PV
681:Canberra
677:Big Dish
343:tracking
226:Syracuse
9019:Oceania
8958:Ukraine
8928:Iceland
8923:Belarus
8918:Armenia
8913:Albania
8852:Ireland
8847:Hungary
8837:Germany
8827:Finland
8822:Denmark
8807:Austria
8782:Vietnam
8679:Nigeria
8674:Morocco
8474:Storage
8328:Commons
8197:Cooking
7955:Storage
7902:Ukraine
7877:Somalia
7867:Romania
7842:Myanmar
7837:Morocco
7792:Germany
7787:Georgia
7782:Denmark
7757:Belgium
7752:Austria
7742:Armenia
7737:Albania
7524:Thermal
7479:The Sun
7458:Outline
7118:Esquire
6979:Bibcode
6904:10 July
6815:7 March
6733:7 March
6669:Bibcode
6279:Bibcode
6199:Bibcode
6174:15 June
5833:18 June
5552:2 April
5376:Bibcode
5307:Bibcode
5280:EIA.gov
5262:EIA.gov
5244:EIA.gov
5206:22 July
5047:Bibcode
4989:Bibcode
4652:4348211
4482:4 March
4357:6 March
4296:"China"
4277:16 June
4150:Bibcode
4115:Bibcode
4079:Bibcode
3899:raptors
3877:consume
3821:tropics
3782:, etc.
3644:Mt. Isa
2846:and an
2650:and an
1303:Sources
983:Algeria
918:Morocco
867:Country
659:(SES),
595:in the
551:Daggett
455:Andasol
377:⁄
335:mirrors
315:⁄
208:History
9105:Portal
9067:Brazil
9046:Tuvalu
9005:Mexico
8990:Canada
8953:Turkey
8943:Russia
8938:Norway
8933:Kosovo
8897:Sweden
8882:Poland
8842:Greece
8832:France
8817:Cyprus
8791:Europe
8772:Taiwan
8722:Brunei
8717:Bhutan
8646:Africa
8385:Energy
8378:Fields
7897:Turkey
7832:Mexico
7822:Kosovo
7807:Israel
7797:Greece
7767:Canada
7762:Brazil
7397:Medium
6687:
6601:
6217:
6048:
5923:
5864:
5637:7 June
5616:7 June
5327:
5087:
4943:
4921:
4894:
4765:
4672:
4650:
4503:3 June
4330:15 May
3758:using
3491:45000
2521:(e.g.
1743:where
1413:Theory
1323:·
1321:
1315:·
1311:·
1309:
1297:6,876
1049:Adrano
1035:Source
873:Added
671:, and
453:, and
437:(e.g.
368:, and
339:lenses
156:or as
9072:Chile
8906:Other
8892:Spain
8872:Malta
8857:Italy
8752:Nepal
8732:India
8727:China
8669:Kenya
8659:Egypt
8541:Other
7926:Legal
7917:Yemen
7887:Spain
7817:Japan
7812:Italy
7802:India
7772:China
7453:Index
7352:4 May
7326:4 May
7230:(PDF)
7219:(PDF)
6685:S2CID
6403:(PDF)
6388:(PDF)
6215:S2CID
5991:(PDF)
5984:(PDF)
5917:(PDF)
5875:(PDF)
5858:(PDF)
5772:(PDF)
5325:S2CID
4648:JSTOR
4352:(PDF)
4272:(PDF)
4186:(PDF)
4179:(PDF)
3960:(CPV)
3856:near
3706:India
3659:China
3563:Spain
3540:2310
3517:5300
3488:10000
3008:= 1,
2152:with
1319:IRENA
1317:
1307:REN21
1294:6,576
1291:6,377
1288:6,416
1285:6,378
1282:5,812
1279:5,072
1276:4,971
1273:4,705
1270:4,335
1267:3,425
1264:2,553
1261:1,598
1149:2023
1064:Spain
1039:REN21
996:Egypt
944:China
931:India
896:1,480
883:2,304
879:Spain
870:Total
816:7,000
813:6,000
810:5,000
807:4,000
804:3,000
801:2,000
798:1,000
463:Spain
449:near
399:CSIRO
341:with
331:steam
202:Chile
8699:Asia
8595:List
8070:and
7677:and
7404:2020
7354:2015
7328:2015
7252:link
7238:2022
7166:2014
6906:2021
6885:2017
6839:2018
6817:2024
6787:2018
6761:2018
6735:2024
6665:2445
6634:2019
6599:ISBN
6176:2022
6153:2021
6124:2021
6094:2021
6072:Reve
6046:ISBN
5999:2012
5967:2013
5941:link
5921:ISBN
5897:link
5883:2014
5862:ISBN
5835:2019
5779:2024
5752:2019
5731:2019
5710:2019
5684:2019
5660:2020
5639:2019
5618:2019
5597:2018
5576:2017
5554:2018
5532:2017
5511:2017
5489:2017
5463:2017
5434:2017
5208:2022
5187:2019
5117:2007
5085:ISBN
4941:ISBN
4919:ISBN
4892:ISBN
4852:2017
4791:2019
4763:ISBN
4704:2013
4670:ISBN
4617:2017
4595:2017
4573:2019
4547:2017
4526:2017
4505:2019
4484:2018
4462:2017
4440:KCET
4421:2018
4381:2018
4359:2024
4332:2023
4307:2023
4279:2022
4250:2013
4224:2013
4194:2013
4056:2022
3712:SECI
3622:and
3537:1720
3534:1500
3531:1100
3514:3640
3511:3060
3508:2050
3505:1720
3485:5000
3482:1000
3360:0.75
3240:i.e.
3218:0.25
3164:is:
3158:lost
2535:1000
1998:is:
1568:e.g.
1454:e.g.
1394:NREL
1358:Cost
1223:300
1146:2022
1143:2021
1140:2020
1137:2019
1134:2018
1131:2017
1128:2016
1125:2015
1122:2014
1119:2013
1116:2012
1113:2011
1110:2010
1107:2009
1104:2008
1101:2007
1098:2006
1092:1990
1089:1989
1086:1985
1083:1984
1080:Year
1053:SEGS
964:300
839:2015
836:2010
833:2005
830:2000
827:1995
824:1990
821:1984
785:and
764:RAMS
760:HVAC
707:and
669:UNLV
589:arid
545:The
518:The
362:dish
240:and
65:SEGS
6987:doi
6677:doi
6366:doi
6362:123
6297:hdl
6287:doi
6246:doi
6207:doi
5384:doi
5315:doi
5303:243
5055:doi
5043:146
4997:doi
4985:148
4640:doi
4158:doi
4146:125
4123:doi
4111:108
4087:doi
3873:use
3864:in
3797:BLM
3716:RfQ
3695:RMB
3693:of
3691:FiT
3635:PPA
3528:970
3524:opt
3501:max
3479:500
3236:opt
3162:max
1258:969
1255:663
1252:484
1249:429
1246:355
1243:354
1240:354
1237:274
1220:199
1217:-39
1211:566
1208:740
1205:101
1202:266
1199:420
1196:925
1193:872
1190:803
1187:629
1184:307
1181:179
1163:200
961:600
948:570
935:343
922:540
909:500
679:in
675:'s
549:in
522:in
337:or
200:of
180:).
94:CSP
36:at
9122::
7395:.
7344:.
7319:.
7248:}}
7244:{{
7221:.
7200:.
7182:.
7152:.
7134:.
7116:.
7097:.
6985:.
6973:.
6969:.
6941:.
6922:.
6778:.
6752:.
6683:.
6675:.
6532:.
6396:15
6394:.
6390:.
6360:.
6328:^
6295:.
6285:.
6275:16
6273:.
6269:.
6242:16
6240:.
6236:.
6213:.
6205:.
6193:.
6160:^
6139:,
6110:,
6040:.
6016:.
5937:}}
5933:{{
5893:}}
5889:{{
5860:.
5843:^
5817:^
5802:^
5787:^
5760:^
5668:^
5453:.
5436:.
5425:.
5382:.
5372:72
5370:.
5323:.
5313:.
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