31:
55:
964:
1445:
Organic compounds such as octane, which has 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, cannot conduct electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since carbon has the property of tetracovalency and forms covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, since it does not lose or gain electrons, thus does not
1235:
is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine, phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions
1230:
specific to the material. Such an expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10. An increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the
1493:
it can carry, is related to its electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry a larger value of current. The resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a larger
1225:
Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the
1433:
than the brass materials used for connectors causes connections to loosen. Aluminum can also "creep", slowly deforming under load, which also loosens connections. These effects can be mitigated with suitably designed connectors and extra care in installation, but they have made
1426:. Although only 61% of the conductivity of copper by cross-sectional area, its lower density makes it twice as conductive by mass. As aluminum is roughly one-third the cost of copper by weight, the economic advantages are considerable when large conductors are required.
986:
has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance
1081:
1142:) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (Ω·m). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are
1446:
form ions. Covalent bonds are simply the sharing of electrons. Hence, there is no separation of ions when electricity is passed through it. Liquids made of compounds with only covalent bonds cannot conduct electricity. Certain organic
981:
of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, a thick copper
1010:
1206:
cross-section in which current actually flows, so the resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors are near each other carrying AC current, their resistances increase due to the
1505:
insulation that is only rated to operate to about 60 °C, therefore, the current in such wires must be limited so that it never heats the copper conductor above 60 °C, causing a risk of
1187:
is totally uniform in the conductor, which is not always true in practical situation. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.
1893:
1005:
932:
of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor; metals, characteristically, possess a delocalized
1872:
1178:
1104:
1429:
The disadvantages of aluminum wiring lie in its mechanical and chemical properties. It readily forms an insulating oxide, making connections heat up. Its larger
1469:
Wires are measured by their cross sectional area. In many countries, the size is expressed in square millimetres. In North
America, conductors are measured by
612:
585:
597:
1806:
1358:, although ultra-pure copper can slightly exceed 101% IACS. The main grade of copper used for electrical applications, such as building wire,
1396:
is 6% more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as
920:
neighbor, and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering it. Essentially what is occurring is a long chain of
1501:, most conductors in the real world are operated far below this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually insulated with
1888:
848:
617:
1869:
627:
1695:
1245:
1537:. If the resulting electric current is in a different direction from the applied electric field, the material is said to be an
1497:
For bare conductors, the ultimate limit is the point at which power lost to resistance causes the conductor to melt. Aside from
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1076:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R&=\rho {\frac {\ell }{A}},\\G&=\sigma {\frac {A}{\ell }}.\end{aligned}}}
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As discussed above, electrons are the primary mover in metals; however, other devices such as the cationic
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are non-conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric currents.
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17:
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252:
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187:
1404:
losses at high frequencies. Famously, 14,700 short tons (13,300 t) of silver on loan from the
916:). Instead, the charged particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount, who will nudge
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copper is the international standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared; the
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cross-sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area.
1405:
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1143:
1135:
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908:, one charged particle does not need to travel from the component producing the current (the
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which gives the electrons enough mobility to collide and thus affect a momentum transfer.
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8:
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1615:
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1214:, these effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as
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152:
1386:(CW008A or ASTM designation C10100) may be used. Because of its ease of connection by
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1716:
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Object or material which allows the flow of electric charge with little energy loss
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is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of ionic impurities, such as
1876:
1184:
1180:. Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.
925:
913:
878:
745:
670:
665:
532:
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132:
1390:
or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.
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112:
105:
34:
Overhead conductors carry electric power from generating stations to customers.
30:
1902:
1785:
1705:
1474:
1321:
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357:
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242:
147:
1447:
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1700:
1401:
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402:
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The discovery of conductors and insulators by Gray, Dufay and
Franklin.
1721:
1514:
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of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as
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1397:
1387:
1236:
and therefore will decrease the total amount of current transferred.
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1486:
1415:
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1329:
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A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends
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512:
507:
127:
1222:, or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.
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inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. Then, the
1379:
1375:
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are common electrical conductors. The flow of negatively charged
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482:
1412:
magnets during World War II due to wartime shortages of copper.
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designation C100140). If high conductivity copper must be
1371:
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898:
1862:
American
Society for Testing and Materials. (every year)
1713:, first to identify electrical conductors and insulators
1533:
is in the same direction, the material is said to be an
1190:
Another situation this formula is not exact for is with
1784:. Copper Development Association (U.K.). Archived from
1769:
Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition
1114:
is the cross-section area of the conductor measured in
1860:
Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Electrical
Conductors.
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1008:
1529:
is applied to a material, and the resulting induced
1832:
1172:
1098:
1075:
1551:Classification of materials based on permittivity
1517:may allow operation at much higher temperatures.
951:of a fuel cell rely on positive charge carriers.
1900:
1889:BBC: Key Stage 2 Bitesize: Electrical Conductors
1450:, by contrast, can conduct an electric current.
893:generates electric current, positively charged
885:) in one or more directions. Materials made of
1807:"From Treasury Vault to the Manhattan Project"
1461:, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.
958:
904:In order for current to flow within a closed
842:
1868:Institution for Engineering and Technology.
1106:is the length of the conductor, measured in
1509:. Other, more expensive insulation such as
1183:This formula is not exact: It assumes the
849:
835:
53:
1782:"High conductivity coppers (electrical)"
1328:and some nonmetallic conductors such as
962:
29:
1696:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
1489:of a conductor, that is, the amount of
1382:or used in a reducing atmosphere, then
1246:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
598:Electromagnetism and special relativity
14:
1901:
1352:International Annealed Copper Standard
1239:
1480:
1368:electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper
973:Electrical resistance and conductance
618:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
1740:
1738:
1400:, and as a thin plating to mitigate
1384:oxygen-free high conductivity copper
1202:cross-section is different from the
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25:
1925:
1882:
1735:
1418:wire is the most common metal in
1539:anisotropic electrical conductor
1431:coefficient of thermal expansion
1833:Pioneering and historical books
1408:were used in the making of the
1173:{\displaystyle \rho =1/\sigma }
947:, or the mobile protons of the
1799:
1774:
1761:
1535:isotropic electrical conductor
1140:specific electrical resistance
13:
1:
1728:
1308:Conduction materials include
1228:thermal expansion coefficient
912:) to those consuming it (the
623:Relativistic electromagnetism
1464:
7:
1746:"Wire Sizes and Resistance"
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1520:
1420:electric power transmission
897:, and positive or negative
10:
1930:
1653:high-conductivity material
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1212:commercial power frequency
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959:Resistance and conductance
348:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
1645:lossy propagation medium
1642:lossy conducting material
1627:low-conductivity material
613:Mathematical descriptions
323:Electromagnetic radiation
313:Electromagnetic induction
253:Magnetic vector potential
248:Magnetic scalar potential
1840:On Electrical Conductors
1436:aluminum building wiring
1256:Aluminum building wiring
1130:per meter (S·m), and Ï (
924:transfer between mobile
877:that allows the flow of
873:is an object or type of
1866:IET Wiring Regulations.
1686:Charge transfer complex
1124:electrical conductivity
163:Electrostatic induction
158:Electrostatic discharge
1838:William Henry Preece.
1473:for smaller ones, and
1406:United States Treasury
1174:
1136:electrical resistivity
1100:
1077:
968:
867:electrical engineering
593:Electromagnetic tensor
35:
1914:Electrical conductors
1870:wiringregulations.net
1362:windings, cables and
1250:Further information:
1220:electrical substation
1175:
1101:
1099:{\displaystyle \ell }
1078:
966:
586:Covariant formulation
378:Synchrotron radiation
318:Electromagnetic pulse
308:Electromagnetic field
33:
1812:. American Scientist
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1006:
628:Stressâenergy tensor
553:Reluctance (complex)
298:Displacement current
1553:
1471:American wire gauge
1438:unpopular past the
1334:conductive polymers
1240:Conductor materials
1192:alternating current
543:Magnetomotive force
428:Electromotive force
398:Alternating current
333:Jefimenko equations
293:Cyclotron radiation
1875:2021-04-02 at the
1849:. Macmillan, 1894.
1845:Oliver Heaviside.
1616:perfect dielectric
1549:
1481:Conductor ampacity
1194:(AC), because the
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1071:
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906:electrical circuit
391:Electrical network
228:Gauss magnetic law
193:Static electricity
153:Electric potential
36:
1847:Electrical Papers
1717:Superconductivity
1676:
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1669:perfect conductor
1477:for larger ones.
1306:
1305:
1269:Ï at 20 °C
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528:Gyratorâcapacitor
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363:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
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501:Magnetic circuit
463:Parallel circuit
453:Network analysis
418:Electric current
353:London equations
198:Triboelectricity
188:Potential energy
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47:Electromagnetism
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1138:(also called
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358:Lorentz force
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258:Magnetization
256:
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249:
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243:Magnetic flux
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148:Electric flux
146:
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107:
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85:Computational
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1865:
1859:
1846:
1839:
1814:. Retrieved
1801:
1790:. Retrieved
1786:the original
1776:
1768:
1763:
1752:. Retrieved
1711:Stephen Gray
1577:
1563:
1538:
1534:
1524:
1496:
1484:
1468:
1452:
1444:
1440:service drop
1428:
1424:distribution
1414:
1392:
1356:58 MS/m
1344:conductivity
1338:
1314:electrolytes
1307:
1296:Aluminum, Al
1231:material. A
1224:
1203:
1199:
1189:
1182:
1139:
1126:measured in
1111:
1085:
995:
989:
976:
938:
917:
903:
870:
860:
603:Four-current
538:Linear motor
423:Electrolysis
303:Eddy current
263:Permeability
183:Polarization
178:Permittivity
117:
1909:Electricity
1701:Fourth rail
1604:propagation
1453:While pure
1402:skin effect
1370:(CW004A or
1342:has a high
1200:geometrical
1196:skin effect
1144:reciprocals
941:electrolyte
930:Drude model
573:Transformer
403:Capacitance
328:Faraday law
123:Coulomb law
65:Electricity
1903:Categories
1816:2022-10-27
1792:2013-06-01
1754:2018-01-14
1729:References
1722:Third rail
1596:conduction
1515:fiberglass
1398:satellites
1302:3.50 Ă 10
1291:5.96 Ă 10
1285:Copper, Cu
1280:6.30 Ă 10
1274:Silver, Ag
979:resistance
953:Insulators
640:Scientists
488:Waveguides
468:Resistance
438:Inductance
218:AmpĂšre law
18:Conductive
1465:Wire size
1388:soldering
1299:2.82 Ă 10
1288:1.68 Ă 10
1277:1.59 Ă 10
1204:effective
1168:σ
1154:ρ
1134:) is the
1122:) is the
1094:ℓ
1062:ℓ
1054:σ
1029:ℓ
1024:ρ
943:(s) of a
891:electrons
871:conductor
796:Steinmetz
726:Kirchhoff
711:Jefimenko
706:Hopkinson
691:Helmholtz
686:Heaviside
548:Permeance
433:Impedance
173:Insulator
168:Gauss law
118:Conductor
95:Phenomena
90:Textbooks
70:Magnetism
1873:Archived
1842:. 1883.
1545:See also
1521:Isotropy
1487:ampacity
1416:Aluminum
1410:calutron
1348:Annealed
1330:graphite
1263:Material
922:momentum
875:material
821:Wiechert
776:Poynting
666:Einstein
513:DC motor
508:AC motor
343:Lenz law
128:Electret
1593:Current
1587:
1559:
1491:current
1364:busbars
1326:plasmas
1216:busbars
1128:siemens
945:battery
863:physics
806:Thomson
781:Ritchie
771:Poisson
756:Neumann
751:Maxwell
746:Lorentz
741:Liénard
671:Faraday
656:Coulomb
483:Voltage
458:Ohm law
80:History
1525:If an
1511:Teflon
1394:Silver
1380:brazed
1376:welded
1340:Copper
1310:metals
1233:phonon
1218:in an
1108:metres
1086:where
928:; the
879:charge
791:Singer
786:Savart
766:Ărsted
731:Larmor
721:Kelvin
676:Fizeau
646:AmpĂšre
568:Stator
75:Optics
1810:(PDF)
1749:(PDF)
1601:Field
1499:fuses
1455:water
1366:, is
1360:motor
1210:. At
1120:sigma
1118:, Ï (
914:loads
895:holes
887:metal
816:Weber
811:Volta
801:Tesla
716:Joule
701:Hertz
696:Henry
681:Gauss
563:Rotor
1507:fire
1485:The
1459:salt
1422:and
1372:ASTM
1332:and
1254:and
984:wire
977:The
899:ions
869:, a
865:and
736:Lenz
661:Davy
651:Biot
1650:â« 1
1639:â 1
1624:âȘ 1
1513:or
1503:PVC
1378:or
1132:rho
918:its
861:In
761:Ohm
1905::
1737:^
1541:.
1442:.
1346:.
1336:.
1324:,
1320:,
1316:,
1312:,
1146::
1110:,
1819:.
1795:.
1757:.
1665:â
1610:0
1583:âČ
1581:r
1578:Δ
1573:/
1569:âł
1567:r
1564:Δ
1164:/
1160:1
1157:=
1112:A
1067:.
1059:A
1051:=
1044:G
1037:,
1032:A
1021:=
1014:R
996:G
990:R
881:(
850:e
843:t
836:v
20:)
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