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process where the masonry undergoes a prolonged exposure to misting water to remove dirt. Water washing uses a light to medium pressurized stream of water. Some water washing may use the addition of detergents to increase dirt removal. Chemical cleaning is also an option, but may be too harsh depending on the makeup of the masonry. Chemical cleaners are either acidic or alkaline. Laser cleaning is effective, mostly on smaller areas of masonry, but can be costly. Due to the differences in materials and construction techniques, only an experienced architectural conservator should be contacted for conservation or restoration work.
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made through spot treatments or through a complete replacement of the paint. Original paint was made of lead and tended to withstand harsh conditions while still protecting the structure. The required use of
National Historic Preservation approved paints has proved difficult as they do not work well with the lighthouse structure's original materials Most repainting projects will have to begin with removal of the original base coat, followed by a thorough surface cleaning to remove impurities, then ended with a complete repainting of the structure.
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271:, was used. If deterioration of the litharge is found, it is likely that the prisms are not properly secured within the frame structure of the lens. If the litharge is white in color (lead carbonate) the material is mostly non-porous and may not easily be preserved, meaning that full litharge replacement might be necessary. If the litharge present is orange-red in color (lead-oxide), this substance tends to be more porous and may allow for stabilization.
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364:. If there is imminent danger, all visitors then staff will be evacuated before trying to protect the building and artifacts. If there is advanced warning, like a hurricane warning, the windows and other openings will be boarded up to block water. Records, inventory, and artifacts should be moved away from possible water damage locations. Wrap artifacts or displays for further protection against water damage.
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problems with stucco arise from prolonged contact with water or moisture which breaks down the structure of the particles and binder. In addition, the texture of stucco is prone to removal when abraded. As with most preservation, gentle cleaning of the surface can help remove dirt and impurities and inhibit further deterioration.
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water may be used to gently clean the surface. It is also possible to use denatured alcohol mixed with water to clean the glass. The solution will vary from lens to lens as each has a different glass composition. A conservator should be called in if any clouding of the glass is found as this is a sign of glass deterioration.
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of land. Lastly, repairs begin. Repairs include filing insurance claims, removing debris and flood water, and repairing security systems. Collect artifacts to perform a condition report and place the artifacts in a safe location during building repairs. Reduce temperature and humidity to control mold
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of the glass only. If there is any movement of the glass, conservators are normally called before any work is continued. If the glass is stable, the prisms will then be checked for particulate matter. If fine or non-abrasive particles are observed, a soft cotton cloth lightly wetted with distilled
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To prevent incoming moisture, it is ideal to ensure that any possible cracks are made weathertight. It is important to allow maximum ventilation, especially in the summer months, to eliminate interior condensation. This ventilation can be achieved through a mounted passive louver system. A protective
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has been traditionally used as a protective barrier on the exterior of lighthouses. Stucco is made up of fine granular particles mixed together with a binder. The composition of stucco has changed significantly over the years and may require laboratory analysis to determine the makeup. Most of the
28:
alert seagoers of rocky shores nearby and provide landmark navigation. They also act as a physical representation to maritime history and advancement. These historic buildings are prone to deterioration due to their location on rocky outcrops of land near the water, as well as severe weather events,
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Strong winds and waves cause land erosion around lighthouses. Over extended periods of time, the promontories that lighthouses are normally built on can be eroded to the point where the safety of the lighthouse is impacted. In extreme cases, the lighthouse might need to be relocated to a new plot of
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Storms and hurricanes bring heavy rain, strong wind, rising surf, and large waves. These result in broken windows, flooding, structural damage to the buildings, erosion of the surrounding land, and more. Lighthouses are most vulnerable to hurricanes. They have been damaged or swept away by the surf.
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Proper ventilation of the structure. The season and geographical location of the lighthouse will determine what type and how often air exchanges should take place within the lighthouse. Reduce moisture by repairing leaks around windows, doors, and the roof. One ventilation method is taking advantage
141:
Basic preservation of lighthouse masonry usually includes gentle surface cleaning. Appropriate methods for cleaning are determined by the type of masonry that exists on the building. Some cleaning methods include water, chemical, and laser. There are multiple water cleaning methods. Soaking is a
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of Buxton, North
Carolina, originally constructed in 1870, was stabilized, restored, and relocated because erosion of the shoreline and deterioration threatened its stability. After extensive assessments precluded work on site that involved geotechnical investigation, masonry and stone restoration,
173:
Despite its durability, maintenance, repair techniques, and abrasive cleaners can cause damage to the concrete. Environmental factors are the main cause of concrete deterioration, mainly the freeze-thaw cycles that allow moisture to be absorbed into the concrete, causing cracks, erosion, corrosion,
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Some complications from wood deterioration can be solved through tight fitting seals around windows and doors, gutter systems, caulking of seams and joints, and sloping away of decking from the structure. Regular cleaning of the surface may also help reduce accumulated residues on the wood thereby
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Due to the different locations and building materials, lighthouses face different environmental elements and therefore need to plan different disasters. Lighthouses do often have well designed plans specified for the environmental risks in their area. Common risks include land erosion, landslides,
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In the past, a routine polishing of the brass that secures the lenses would take place. Polishing is an abrasive process that encourages loss of original material. In preventive conservation, the task of brass polishing should not take place. The patina that develops over time also helps create a
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was introduced for use in lighthouses around 1823. Generally, keeping the lens historically preserved, rather than restoration to period, will reduce stress on the lens and keep some of the lens's story intact (e.g. chips of the glass that are documented in historical light keeper's notes). It is
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Lighthouse exterior paint was often used in colorful patterns to act as a day marker. Paint was also used to help protect the exterior structure of the lighthouse from wear. Evidence of paint degradation include crazing, cracking, peeling between coats, blistering, and wrinkling. Repair can be
54:
Outbuildings are prone to deterioration because they were often used for storage and were not maintained to the same standards as the lighthouse. Former repairs to buildings may have used inexpensive materials as a temporary fix. These materials often degrade making the building unstable. Any
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When assessing the lantern, the USCG CEU encountered deteriorated lantern glass due to poor ventilation and corrosion of metal surfaces because of high levels of moisture. Rust inhibiting coatings were applied to the cast-iron posts. Many historic parts, such as the fasteners, that were in good
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was either used for construction on the exterior or in combination with masonry and/or iron to build components of the lighthouse (ex. stairs). The largest cause for deterioration of wood in lighthouses is from exposure to moisture. This exposure is normally the result of direct and prolonged
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The ground consists of the land, outbuildings, and landscape that the lighthouse property sits on. The grounds may also include buildings from other time periods. The types of buildings, their relationship to one another, their location over the whole of the property, types of flora and their
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growth. Seek professional conservators to assist in damaged historical components. Following the conservator's
Cardinal Rule to "do no more harm" separate non-historical and historical materials and do the technical research regarding the required different approaches for different materials.
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Documentation of the prism normally begins with labeling all issues starting from the center prism, listed as number one, and then working outward sequentially. Identification should indicate whether it is an upper or lower prism. Prisms are checked for firm seating by gently tapping on the
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component of a lighthouse is made up of the bricks and stones on the exterior. Damage to masonry is primarily caused by water, salt accumulation, expansion and contraction, abrasion, poor ventilation, and inappropriate cleaning techniques (ex. sandblasting). Masonry may show many signs of
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buildings that remain intact and in their original location are historically important to the relationship and usage of the lighthouse. Materials, colors, and details are all representative of the lighthouse when it was active and are often considered during the preservation process.
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of 2000 allows lighthouses to be transferred at no cost to federal agencies, state and local governments, nonprofits, educational agencies, and community development organizations so long as they comply with the conditions standards and can financially care for the lighthouse.
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Preparation includes a risk assessment. A risk assessment is performed to find vulnerabilities include evaluating the land in which the lighthouse sits, the materials used to build the lighthouse, and the type of storms or other natural disasters that occur in the area.
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Any conservation or restoration processes should keep in mind that the lantern, ventilation shafts, and lens should not be obstructed in any way. Any replacement glass must be rated for wind standards that are likely to occur at the top of the lighthouse.
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is when lighthouse structures are preserved through detailed examination, cleaning, and in-kind replacement of materials. Given the wide variety of materials used to construct lighthouses, a variety of techniques and considerations are required.
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was first added to lighthouses to reinforce them from earthquakes. Concrete can mean a variety of compositions including sand, gravel, and crushed stone bound with lime or cements. It was used in both the surfaces and features of the lighthouse.
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exposure to damp conditions. Other causes for deterioration include pests, fungus, and insects. Some signs of decomposition include cracking, bulging, holes, peeling paint, leaning of the structure, gaps between joints, and exposed bare wood.
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prolonging its usable life. The most common treatment for replacing degraded wood is to use a splicing technique where new pieces of wood are joined with original wood features. For severe cases, large in-kind replacements may be necessary.
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protective barrier around the brass. The brass should be cleaned from dirt or dust using a vacuum or soft brush. Any residue polish from the past should be removed using a diluted detergent solution and a soft brush or cotton swab.
113:. Cast iron was the most popular material because it resists corrosion and can be cast into a multitude of shapes. Though iron is sturdy it can be prone to deterioration through corrosion (oxidation, galvanic corrosion, and
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The first step in recovery is to attend anyone who was injured. Next the area is assessed for damage. The assessment includes touring the area and building for safety hazards, such as broken glass, down power lines, and
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important to consult a conservator before attempting any conservation on a lens. The glass that was used to make the lens is often brittle and may chip easily. Lens glass etches easily from contact with oils or dust.
194:
Most lighthouse interiors were simple in construction and decoration unless used as part of the light keeper's residence. Addressing issues on the exterior is required first to protect the inside of the structure.
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816:
2077:
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material investigations, surveying, and the creation of historical metals to replicate what was necessary. The 4,800 ton lighthouse had to be moved 0.5 miles (0.8 km) to its new location.
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235:
The lantern is the large round glass structure, that houses the lens, located at the top of the lighthouse. This structure is made out of multiple materials, primarily glass, wood, and iron.
319:
is a non-profit with resource materials available to the public. State
Historic Preservation Offices have resources and information that may be used towards the preservation of lighthouses.
769:
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hurricanes, flooding, and earthquake. Past disasters include being "swept away by tsunamis, destroyed by hurricanes, toppled by erosion, gutted by fire, even targeted by weapons of war."
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deterioration to include: bulges, cracks, efflorescence, erosion, flaking, sloping or uneven settlement, mold or mildew, missing stones or bricks, condensation buildup, and blistering.
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Preservation and restoration of iron should be completed using the least invasive approach possible. Iron is strong but can be easily damaged through improper or harsh procedures.
441:, while also conserving existing lanterns considering the limited budget available. This incremental program would also become the model for preserving other lighthouse lanterns.
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1990:
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117:), weathering, and flaws from the manufacturing process. Degradation of iron is visible through pitting, cracks, erosion, rust, blistering, flaking, and scaling.
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Doors and windows should be repaired with care taken not to damage historic moldings and entry features of the lighthouse. Wooden or steel doors can be used.
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location, and potential archaeological sites (if they have been identified), are all aspects that should be considered during conservation of the property.
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2006:
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Originally, the lens was "floated in a trough of mercury"; though this practice has been abandoned, mercury contamination may still exist in the area.
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has various grant programs for eligible lighthouses. Some lighthouses may also qualify for a state or federal historic rehabilitation tax credit.
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coating of either paint, stucco, or lime-mortar-wash is typically applied to concrete lighthouses as a layer of defense from external elements.
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land in order to preserve the structure. There are four major lighthouse moves that have taken place in the United States:
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A majority of the lighthouse interiors' issues stem from moisture, condensation, neglect, or inappropriate treatments.
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745:"The Cleaning, Polishing and Protective Waxing of Brass and Copper – Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 9/3"
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and the continued rise of sea levels. Given these conditions preservation and conservation efforts have increased.
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Neglect causes deterioration due to lack of cleaning, regular maintenance of windows, stairs, floors, or painting.
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deflection, and spalling. Analysis and testing are key to maintaining and repairing concrete used on lighthouses.
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Iron was a popular material used in lighthouse construction. Multiple types of iron were used including:
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Regardless of specific disaster risks, the same steps are taken: preparation, response, and recovery.
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United States Coast Guard
Lighthouses, Lightships, Tenders & Other Aids to Navigation Subjects
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To secure the prisms of the lens a compound of calcium carbonate, lead, and linseed oil, called
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433:’s Civil Engineering Unit is responsible for the maintenance and preservation of the
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2016:
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1950:
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437:. One of their projects was the replacement of the panels in their third-order
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94:
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1980:
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1915:
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90:
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1920:
1744:
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166:
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1807:
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463:"History at Heceta Lightstation Interpretive Center • Yachats OR"
129:
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216:
77:
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Resources for
National Lighthouse Preservation Act Customers
411:
1515:
Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property
1499:
867:"Disaster Planning for Lighthouses | US Lighthouse Society"
150:
806:"The care and preservation of historical brass and bronze"
703:
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condition were extracted carefully in order to be reused.
1520:
Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property
955:
424:
1906:
Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment
2554:
Conservation-restoration of the
Sistine Chapel frescoes
950:
507:
Secretary of the
Interior's Standards and Guidelines.
1343:
681:"The Conservation of the Classical Lighthouse Lens"
644:"Assessing Cleaning and Water-Repellent Treatments"
570:"Piedras Blancas Lighthouse Preservation Expertise"
494:
2608:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
2559:Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty
1695:Mold control and prevention (library and archive)
1510:Conservation and restoration of cultural property
660:
623:
546:
2599:
2582:Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies
2572:Conservation response to flood of Arno, Florence
2536:Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's
600:"The Preservation and Repair of Historic Stucco"
2577:Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative
2549:Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin
743:Institute, Canadian Conservation (2017-09-14).
641:
597:
2513:Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum
1670:Integrated pest management (cultural property)
1353:International Lighthouse and Lightship Weekend
1434:
1001:
309:National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act
768:Gerald R. Ford Conservation Center (2017).
728:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
626:"Historic Lighthouse Preservation Handbook"
549:"Historic Lighthouse Preservation Handbook"
21:conservation and restoration of lighthouses
2078:Books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera
1441:
1427:
1008:
994:
956:Great Lakes Lighthouse Keepers Association
1625:Disaster preparedness (cultural property)
903:"How lighthouses prepare for a hurricane"
742:
412:Cape Hatteras Lighthouse – North Carolina
360:Lighthouse keepers have a "people first"
1525:Conservation science (cultural property)
509:"Treatment of Historic Properties, 1995"
326:
241:
185:
31:
925:"Case Study - Cape Hatteras Lighthouse"
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425:St. Simons Island Lighthouse – Georgia
381:
136:
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487:"IALA Lighthouse Conservation Manual"
1383:
1315:Lighthouses by century of completion
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322:
302:National Register of Historic Places
1403:
331:Bell Rock Lighthouse during a storm
16:Preservation of building structures
13:
1710:Preservation (library and archive)
976:United States Lighthouse Directory
883:
848:
694:
663:"Lighthouse Preservation Handbook"
277:
215:of prevailing winds by installing
14:
2624:
1320:Lighthouses by year of completion
951:Association of Lighthouse Keepers
939:
901:Maynard, Alex (August 26, 2019).
678:
654:
610:
519:
389:Block Island Southeast Lighthouse
2564:Conservation-restoration of the
2440:Indigenous intellectual property
1402:
1392:
1382:
1373:
1372:
1348:Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society
1310:Lighthouses by heritage register
1140:
913:from the original on 2019-08-26.
844:from the original on 2020-11-28.
822:from the original on 2016-04-02.
704:Commandant Instruction 16500.9.
688:United States Lighthouse Society
556:United States Lighthouse Society
317:United States Lighthouse Society
198:
1675:Inventory (library and archive)
1575:Cultural property documentation
1015:
961:Lighthouse Preservation Society
917:
826:
797:
770:"Caring for brass & bronze"
761:
736:
672:
406:
190:Rusted interior of a lighthouse
2073:Bone, horn, and antler objects
1615:Digital photograph restoration
946:American Lighthouse Foundation
635:
591:
562:
500:
479:
455:
346:
1:
2258:South Asian household shrines
1956:Reconstruction (architecture)
1886:Cultural property radiography
1843:Registrar (cultural property)
1595:Cultural resources management
1555:Collections management system
448:
209:
2527:Conservation-restoration of
2518:Conservation-restoration of
1891:Detachment of wall paintings
1665:Intangible cultural heritage
1580:Cultural property exhibition
1565:Cultural heritage management
1338:General lighthouse authority
706:"Classical Lens Maintenance"
435:St. Simons Island Lighthouse
246:Lantern with a lens inside (
7:
1971:Transfer of panel paintings
1033:Conservation of lighthouses
777:Nebraska Historical Society
574:American Lighthouse Council
367:
355:
222:
181:
161:
58:
40:
10:
2629:
2435:Heritage language learning
1705:Optical media preservation
295:
230:
123:
2503:
2475:Oral history preservation
2316:
2045:
1989:
1856:
1758:
1590:Cultural property storage
1585:Cultural property imaging
1460:
1368:
1328:
1297:
1251:
1220:
1149:
1138:
1105:
1053:
1046:
1023:
834:"Lighthouse Preservation"
467:Heceta Lighthouse B&B
72:
45:
36:Havre De Grace Lighthouse
2522:by ElĂas GarcĂa MartĂnez
1740:Sustainable preservation
981:World Lighthouse Society
418:Cape Hatteras Lighthouse
393:Cape Hatteras Lighthouse
63:
2480:Preservation of meaning
2465:Language revitalization
2133:Illuminated manuscripts
1911:Historic paint analysis
1803:Conservation technician
1605:Deaccessioning (museum)
1545:Collections maintenance
1470:Agents of deterioration
661:National Park Service.
624:National Park Service.
547:National Park Service.
397:Sankaty Head Lighthouse
254:
145:
84:
2490:Tradition preservation
2143:Iron and steel objects
2032:Outdoor bronze objects
1976:UVC-based preservation
1833:Photograph conservator
1798:Conservation scientist
1550:Collections management
1480:Archaeological science
1167:Automatic lamp changer
1028:History of lighthouses
332:
251:
191:
37:
2495:Traditional knowledge
2460:Language preservation
2068:Ancient Greek pottery
1966:Textile stabilization
1828:Paintings conservator
1715:Preservation metadata
1600:Database preservation
1454:historic preservation
838:National Park Service
648:National Park Service
642:Preservation Briefs.
604:National Park Service
598:Preservation Briefs.
513:National Park Service
330:
245:
189:
35:
2283:Time-based media art
2093:Copper-based objects
2007:Archaeological sites
1936:Mass deacidification
1881:Cradling (paintings)
1793:Conservator-restorer
1620:Digital preservation
1207:Light characteristic
1106:Navigational purpose
804:Deck, Clara (2016).
2587:World Heritage Site
2450:Indigenous language
2350:Endangered language
2248:Shipwreck artifacts
2228:Photographic plates
2178:Musical instruments
1931:Lining of paintings
1848:Textile conservator
1823:Objects conservator
1813:Exhibition designer
1720:Preservation survey
1645:Found in collection
1535:Collection (museum)
1505:Calendar (archives)
1475:Archival processing
1305:Lighthouse builders
401:Gay Head Lighthouse
382:Moving a lighthouse
137:Cleaning of Masonry
2445:Indigenous culture
1788:Collection manager
1685:Media preservation
1680:Inventory (museum)
1540:Collection catalog
840:. September 2019.
333:
252:
192:
38:
2595:
2594:
2544:Pompeian frescoes
2430:Heritage language
2320:cultural heritage
2108:Flags and banners
2053:cultural property
2017:Heritage railways
1997:cultural property
1946:Paleo-inspiration
1630:Film preservation
1570:Cultural property
1560:Cultural heritage
1450:Cultural heritage
1416:
1415:
1359:Lighthouse Digest
1172:Bird-cage lantern
1136:
1135:
323:Disaster planning
2620:
2531:by Thomas Eakins
2529:The Gross Clinic
2425:Folklore studies
2335:Applied folklore
2308:Wooden furniture
2303:Wooden artifacts
2298:Woodblock prints
2278:Tibetan thangkas
2138:Insect specimens
2027:Outdoor artworks
2022:Historic gardens
1655:Heritage science
1443:
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929:ICC Commonwealth
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779:. Archived from
774:
765:
759:
758:
756:
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740:
734:
733:
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719:
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710:
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658:
652:
651:
639:
633:
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630:
621:
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607:
595:
589:
588:
586:
585:
576:. Archived from
566:
560:
559:
553:
544:
517:
516:
504:
498:
497:
491:
483:
477:
476:
474:
473:
459:
431:U.S. Coast Guard
107:galvanized steel
2628:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2538:The Last Supper
2505:
2499:
2485:Primitive music
2395:Folk instrument
2370:Family folklore
2360:Ethnomusicology
2355:Ethnochoreology
2322:
2319:
2312:
2233:Plastic objects
2218:Performance art
2203:Panel paintings
2198:Painting frames
2163:Leather objects
2083:Ceramic objects
2055:
2052:
2050:
2049:and restoration
2048:
2041:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1993:and restoration
1992:
1985:
1951:Paper splitting
1866:Aging (artwork)
1858:
1852:
1838:Preservationist
1760:
1754:
1610:Digital library
1462:
1456:
1447:
1417:
1412:
1364:
1330:
1324:
1293:
1247:
1216:
1145:
1132:
1101:
1042:
1019:
1014:
942:
937:
936:
923:
922:
918:
899:
884:
875:
873:
865:
864:
849:
832:
831:
827:
819:
808:
802:
798:
789:
787:
783:
772:
766:
762:
753:
751:
741:
737:
721:
720:
713:
711:
708:
702:
695:
683:
677:
673:
665:
659:
655:
640:
636:
628:
622:
611:
596:
592:
583:
581:
568:
567:
563:
551:
545:
520:
505:
501:
489:
485:
484:
480:
471:
469:
461:
460:
456:
451:
427:
414:
409:
384:
370:
358:
349:
325:
298:
280:
278:Cleaning a lens
257:
233:
225:
212:
201:
184:
164:
148:
139:
126:
111:stainless steel
103:galvanized iron
87:
75:
66:
61:
48:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2626:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2533:
2524:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2470:Living history
2467:
2462:
2457:
2455:Language death
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2390:Folk etymology
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2340:Dance notation
2337:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2253:Silver objects
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2037:Outdoor murals
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1961:Rissverklebung
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1876:Arrested decay
1873:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1859:and techniques
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1764:
1762:
1756:
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1753:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1650:Heritage asset
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1495:Bioarchaeology
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1446:
1445:
1438:
1431:
1423:
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1400:
1390:
1380:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1295:
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1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1253:
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1248:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1118:Leading lights
1115:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1091:Skeletal tower
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1048:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1013:
1012:
1005:
998:
990:
984:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
941:
940:External links
938:
935:
934:
916:
882:
847:
825:
813:The Henry Ford
796:
760:
735:
693:
671:
653:
634:
609:
590:
561:
518:
499:
478:
453:
452:
450:
447:
426:
423:
413:
410:
408:
405:
383:
380:
369:
366:
357:
354:
348:
345:
324:
321:
297:
294:
279:
276:
256:
253:
232:
229:
224:
221:
211:
208:
200:
197:
183:
180:
163:
160:
147:
144:
138:
135:
125:
122:
115:graphitization
86:
83:
74:
71:
65:
62:
60:
57:
47:
44:
42:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2625:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
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2534:
2532:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
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2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2400:Folk medicine
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:Ancient music
2328:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2263:Stained glass
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2243:Road vehicles
2241:
2239:
2238:Rail vehicles
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2188:New media art
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:Ivory objects
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2128:Human remains
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2118:Glass objects
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1995:of immovable
1988:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1896:Desmet method
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
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1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:and expertise
1757:
1751:
1750:Web archiving
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1660:Inherent vice
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
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1568:
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1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1439:
1437:
1432:
1430:
1425:
1424:
1421:
1409:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1389:
1381:
1379:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1331:organizations
1327:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1290:
1289:South America
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1279:North America
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1011:
1006:
1004:
999:
997:
992:
991:
988:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
943:
930:
926:
920:
912:
908:
904:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
872:
868:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
843:
839:
835:
829:
818:
814:
807:
800:
786:on 2022-10-04
782:
778:
771:
764:
750:
746:
739:
731:
725:
707:
700:
698:
689:
682:
679:Byrne, Greg.
675:
664:
657:
649:
645:
638:
627:
620:
618:
616:
614:
605:
601:
594:
580:on 2016-05-26
579:
575:
571:
565:
557:
550:
543:
541:
539:
537:
535:
533:
531:
529:
527:
525:
523:
514:
510:
503:
495:
488:
482:
468:
464:
458:
454:
446:
442:
440:
436:
432:
422:
419:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
379:
376:
365:
363:
362:cardinal rule
353:
344:
341:
337:
329:
320:
318:
313:
310:
305:
303:
293:
289:
286:
275:
272:
270:
265:
262:
249:
248:KÄ«lauea Light
244:
240:
236:
228:
220:
218:
207:
204:
199:Deterioration
196:
188:
179:
175:
171:
168:
159:
155:
152:
143:
134:
131:
121:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
82:
79:
70:
56:
52:
34:
30:
27:
22:
2565:
2537:
2528:
2519:
2410:Folk process
2365:Ethnopoetics
2323:preservation
2183:Neon objects
2167:
2056:by item type
2047:Conservation
2000:by item type
1991:Conservation
1941:Overpainting
1901:Display case
1730:Repatriation
1357:
1238:Pharologists
1197:Lens lantern
1192:Fresnel lens
1128:Sector light
1054:Construction
1032:
928:
919:
906:
874:. Retrieved
870:
837:
828:
812:
799:
788:. Retrieved
781:the original
776:
763:
752:. Retrieved
748:
738:
712:. Retrieved
687:
674:
656:
647:
637:
603:
593:
582:. Retrieved
578:the original
573:
564:
555:
512:
502:
493:
481:
470:. Retrieved
466:
457:
443:
439:Fresnel lens
428:
415:
407:Case studies
385:
375:mass erosion
371:
359:
350:
342:
338:
334:
314:
306:
299:
290:
284:
281:
273:
266:
261:Fresnel lens
258:
237:
234:
226:
213:
205:
202:
193:
176:
172:
165:
156:
149:
140:
127:
119:
95:wrought iron
88:
76:
67:
53:
49:
20:
18:
2613:Lighthouses
2566:H.L. Hunley
2345:Early music
2293:Vinyl discs
2288:Totem poles
2223:Photographs
2168:Lighthouses
2158:Lacquerware
2113:Fur objects
2051:of movable
1981:VisualAudio
1926:Leafcasting
1871:Anastylosis
1818:Mount maker
1778:Art handler
1635:Finding aid
1485:Archaeology
1408:WikiProject
1221:Maintenance
1182:Dalén light
1177:Carcel lamp
1162:Argand lamp
1017:Lighthouses
347:Preparation
26:Lighthouses
2602:Categories
2405:Folk music
2385:Folk dance
2318:Intangible
1916:Inpainting
1783:Auctioneer
1773:Art dealer
1725:Provenance
1530:Collecting
1463:and issues
1398:Wiktionary
1298:Categories
1264:Antarctica
1233:Light dues
1202:Lewis lamp
1157:Aerobeacon
1086:Screw-pile
876:2021-03-27
790:2021-03-28
754:2021-03-27
584:2016-04-17
472:2021-04-04
449:References
210:Treatments
2520:Ecce Homo
2415:Folk play
2268:Taxidermy
2213:Parchment
2193:Paintings
1768:Archivist
1252:Locations
907:AlabamaWX
871:uslhs.org
91:cast iron
2506:projects
2420:Foodways
2380:Folk art
2375:Folklore
2273:Textiles
2123:Herbaria
2098:Feathers
2063:Aircraft
1921:Kintsugi
1745:Treasure
1378:Category
1150:Fixtures
1123:Sea mark
1098:(acting)
1076:Integral
911:Archived
842:Archived
817:Archived
724:cite web
714:24 April
368:Recovery
356:Response
269:litharge
223:Security
182:Interior
167:Concrete
162:Concrete
59:Coatings
41:Exterior
2504:Notable
2208:Papyrus
2153:Judaica
2012:Frescos
1857:Methods
1808:Curator
1490:Archive
1388:Commons
1284:Oceania
1228:Keepers
1187:Foghorn
1113:Daymark
1066:Caisson
1038:Museums
296:Funding
285:outside
231:Lantern
217:louvers
130:masonry
124:Masonry
2173:Metals
2088:Clocks
1700:Museum
1690:Midden
1461:Topics
1329:Global
1274:Europe
1259:Africa
1243:Tender
1212:VRB-25
1096:Vessel
1061:Aerial
399:, and
109:, and
78:Stucco
73:Stucco
46:Ground
1759:Roles
1735:Ruins
1640:Fonds
1047:Types
820:(PDF)
809:(PDF)
784:(PDF)
773:(PDF)
709:(PDF)
684:(PDF)
666:(PDF)
629:(PDF)
552:(PDF)
490:(PDF)
99:steel
64:Paint
2103:Film
1500:Book
1452:and
1269:Asia
1081:Pile
1071:Crib
730:link
716:2016
429:The
416:The
315:The
307:The
300:The
259:The
255:Lens
151:Wood
146:Wood
128:The
85:Iron
19:The
749:aem
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