Metamorphism - Knowledge

349: 1379: 2067: 1218: 1411: 1426: 222: 94: 341: 38: 515: 485: 4763: 4912: 2075: 1926: 437: 2054:) with increasing temperature and (usually) pressure conditions. These are solid state dehydration reactions, and involve the loss of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide. Prograde metamorphism results in rock characteristic of the maximum pressure and temperature experienced. Metamorphic rocks usually do not undergo further change when they are brought back to the surface. 1666:, the deformation of rock via the fracture and rotation of mineral grains; plastic deformation of individual mineral crystals; and movement of individual atoms by diffusive processes. The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on the depth at which they were formed, as the temperature and confining pressure determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. 2145:, which is its state of maximum stability. For example, shear stress (nonhydrodynamic stress) is incompatible with thermodynamic equilibrium, so sheared rock will tend to deform in ways that relieve the shear stress. The most stable assemblage of minerals for a rock of a given composition is that which minimizes the 277:, the circulation of fluids through buried rock, to the list of processes that help bring about metamorphism. However, metamorphism can take place without metasomatism (isochemical metamorphism) or at depths of just a few hundred meters where pressures are relatively low (for example, in contact metamorphism). 1907:

The metamorphic facies is not usually considered when classifying metamorphic rock based on protolith, mineral mode, or texture. However, a few metamorphic facies produce rock of such distinctive character that the facies name is used for the rock when more precise classification is not possible. The

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Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size of the aureole depends on the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall rocks. Dikes generally have small aureoles with minimal metamorphism, extending

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Burial metamorphism takes place simply through rock being buried to great depths below the Earth's surface in a subsiding basin. Here the rock is subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Burial metamorphism tends to produce low-grade

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There is considerable evidence that cataclasites form as much through plastic deformation and recrystallization as brittle fracture of grains, and that the rock may never fully lose cohesion during the process. Different minerals become ductile at different temperatures, with quartz being among the

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Pressure solution begins during diagenesis (the process of lithification of sediments into sedimentary rock) but is completed during early stages of metamorphism. For a sandstone protolith, the dividing line between diagenesis and metamorphism can be placed at the point where strained quartz grains

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minerals. For a rock that contains multiple phases, the boundaries between many phase transformations may be plotted, though the petrogenetic grid quickly becomes complicated. For example, a petrogenetic grid might show both the aluminium silicate phase transitions and the transition from aluminum

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Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures (and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those more stable at less extreme conditions. This is a relatively uncommon process,

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The particular mineral assemblage is somewhat dependent on the composition of that protolith, so that (for example) the amphibolite facies of a marble will not be identical with the amphibolite facies of a pellite. However, the facies are defined such that metamorphic rock with as broad a range of

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zones. In these environments, mechanical deformation is more important than chemical reactions in transforming the rock. The minerals present in the rock often do not reflect conditions of chemical equilibrium, and the textures produced by dynamic metamorphism are more significant than the mineral

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The strain rate also affects the way in which rocks deform. Ductile deformation is more likely at low strain rates (less than 10 sec) in the middle and lower crust, but high strain rates can cause brittle deformation. At the highest strain rates, the rock may be so strongly heated that it briefly

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Many complex high-temperature reactions may take place between minerals without them melting, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism. These reactions are possible because of rapid diffusion of atoms at elevated

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Metamorphic rocks are classified by their protolith, if this can be determined from the properties of the rock itself. For example, if examination of a metamorphic rock shows that its protolith was basalt, it will be described as a metabasalt. When the protolith cannot be determined, the rock is

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appear; these are quite hard rocks consist of crushed rock fragments in a flinty matrix, which forms only at elevated temperature. At still greater depths, where temperatures exceed 300 °C (572 °F), plastic deformation takes over, and the fault zone is composed of mylonite. Mylonite is

1175:, which causes it to shear or bend, but not break. In order for this to happen temperatures must be high enough that brittle fractures do not occur, but not so high that diffusion of crystals takes place. As with pressure solution, the early stages of plastic deformation begin during diagenesis. 2293:

The Gibbs free energy of a particular mineral at a specified temperature and pressure can be expressed by various analytic formulas. These are calibrated against experimentally measured properties and phase boundaries of mineral assemblages. The equilibrium mineral assemblage for a given bulk

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In other words, a metamorphic reaction will take place only if it lowers the total Gibbs free energy of the protolith. Recrystallization to coarser crystals lowers the Gibbs free energy by reducing surface energy, while phase changes and neocrystallization reduce the bulk Gibbs free energy. A

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because volatiles produced during prograde metamorphism usually migrate out of the rock and are not available to recombine with the rock during cooling. Localized retrograde metamorphism can take place when fractures in the rock provide a pathway for groundwater to enter the cooling rock.

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Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Marble lacks platy minerals and is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture.

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Metamorphic rocks are typically more coarsely crystalline than the protolith from which they formed. Atoms in the interior of a crystal are surrounded by a stable arrangement of neighboring atoms. This is partially missing at the surface of the crystal, producing a

159:. Metamorphism takes place at temperatures in excess of 150 °C (300 °F), and often also at elevated pressure or in the presence of chemically active fluids, but the rock remains mostly solid during the transformation. Metamorphism is distinct from 2290:) are favored at high temperature. Thus andalusite is stable only at low pressure, since it has the lowest density of any aluminium silicate polymorph, while sillimanite is the stable form at higher temperatures, since it has the least ordered structure. 190:

metamorphism. These differ in the characteristic temperatures, pressures, and rate at which they take place and in the extent to which reactive fluids are involved. Metamorphism occurring at increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as

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Barker, Charles E.; Bone, Yvonne; Lewan, Michael D. (September 1998). "Fluid inclusion and vitrinite-reflectance geothermometry compared to heat-flow models of maximum paleotemperature next to dikes, western onshore Gippsland Basin, Australia".

1281:, to become rotated such that their short axes are parallel to the direction of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated, rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Foliated rock often develops planes of 288:

of existing minerals or crystallization of new minerals with different crystalline structures or chemical compositions (neocrystallization). The transformation converts the minerals in the protolith into forms that are more stable (closer to

2082:(aluminium-calcium-iron) showing phase equilibria in metamorphic mafic rocks at different P-T circumstances (metamorphic facies). Dots represent mineral phases, thin grey lines are equilibria between two phases. Mineral abbreviations: act = 1300:, the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: The mudstone is first converted to slate, which is a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism. Slate in turn is converted to 1887:

or zones with an assemblage of key minerals that were in equilibrium under specific range of temperature and pressure during a metamorphic event. The facies are named after the metamorphic rock formed under those facies conditions from

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process. The solidus temperature depends on the composition of the rock, the pressure, and whether the rock is saturated with water. Typical solidus temperatures range from 650 °C (1,202 °F) for wet granite at a few hundred

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when the temperature reaches about 800 °C (1,470 °F). At pressures above about 4 kbar (400 MPa), kyanite transforms directly to sillimanite as the temperature increases. A similar phase change is sometimes seen between

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Cooper, D. C.; Lee, M. K.; Fortey, N. J.; Cooper, A. H.; Rundle, C. C.; Webb, B. C.; Allen, P. M. (July 1988). "The Crummock Water aureole: a zone of metasomatism and source of ore metals in the English Lake District".

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Metamorphism is the set of processes by which existing rock is transformed physically or chemically at elevated temperature, without actually melting to any great degree. The importance of heating in the formation of

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shows how the mineral assemblage varies with composition at a fixed temperature and pressure. Compatibility diagrams provide an excellent way to analyze how variations in the rock's composition affect the mineral

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Phase change metamorphism is the creating of a new mineral with the same chemical formula as a mineral of the protolith. This involves a rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals. An example is provided by the

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is the result of the interaction of a rock with a high-temperature fluid of variable composition. The difference in composition between an existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of metamorphic and

1560:. Cooling bodies of carbonatite magma give off highly alkaline fluids rich in sodium as they solidify, and the hot, reactive fluid replaces much of the mineral content in the aureole with sodium-rich minerals. 1421:, and the pinkish rock on the bottom is the sedimentary country rock, a siltstone. In between, the metamorphosed siltstone is visible as both the dark layer (~5 cm thick) and the pale layer below it. 2324:

at their pressure and temperature conditions for a given rock composition. This allows metamorphic petrologists to determine the pressure and temperature conditions under which rocks metamorphose. The Al

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However, it is often very useful to represent equilibrium mineral assemblages using various kinds of diagrams. These include petrogenetic grids and compatibility diagrams (compositional phase diagrams.)

1262:. The orogenic belt is characterized by thickening of the Earth's crust, during which the deeply buried crustal rock is subjected to high temperatures and pressures and is intensely deformed. Subsequent 405:

During recrystallization, the identity of the mineral does not change, only its texture. Recrystallization generally begins when temperatures reach above half the melting point of the mineral on the

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A mineral phase will generally be more stable if it has a lower internal energy, reflecting tighter binding between its atoms. Phases with a higher density (expressed as a lower molar volume

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hornfels, and sillimanite hornfels, in increasing order of temperature of formation. However, the albite-epidote hornfels is often not formed, even though it is the lowest temperature grade.

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for instance) collides with the Earth's surface. Impact metamorphism is, therefore, characterized by ultrahigh pressure conditions and low temperature. The resulting minerals (such as SiO

779:, hydrous minerals break down, producing copious quantities of water. The water rises into the overlying mantle, where it lowers the melting temperature of the mantle rock, generating 1594:

produces extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other submarine volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents on the ocean floor known as

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Metamorphic Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks

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in 1921, with refinements based on subsequent experimental work. Eskola drew upon the zonal schemes, based on index minerals, that were pioneered by the British geologist,

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as a classification for rock metamorphosed to the granulite facies. Instead, such rock will often be classified as a granofels. However, this is not universally accepted.

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compositions as is practical can be assigned to a particular facies. The present definition of metamorphic facies is largely based on the work of the Finnish geologist,

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The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic mineral which forms in the aureole. This is usually related to the metamorphic temperatures of

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on regional metamorphism in the Scottish Highlands showed that some regional metamorphism produces well-defined, mappable zones of increasing metamorphic grade. This

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in zones of progressive metamorphism in Scotland), metamorphic grades are also classified by mineral assemblage based on the appearance of key minerals in rocks of

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are rocks formed at this upper limit, which contains pods and veins of material that has started to melt but has not fully segregated from the refractory residue.

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digest the minerals of the protolith which yields new minerals. This is a very slow process as it can also involve the diffusion of atoms through solid crystals.

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in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their points of contact (

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Brodie, K. H.; Rutter, E. H. (1985). "On the Relationship between Deformation and Metamorphism, with Special Reference to the Behavior of Basic Rocks".

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distinguished by its strong foliation, which is absent in most cataclastic rock. It is distinguished from the surrounding rock by its finer grain size.

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Robinson, D.; Bevins, R. E.; Aguirre, L.; Vergara, M. (1 January 2004). "A reappraisal of episodic burial metamorphism in the Andes of central Chile".

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that makes the surface thermodynamically unstable. Recrystallization to coarser crystals reduces the surface area and so minimizes the surface energy.

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A metamorphic aureole in the Henry Mountains, Utah. The greyish rock on top is the igneous intrusion, consisting of porphyritic granodiorite from the

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that develops in a rock at particular pressure and temperature conditions. Because of the difficulty of depicting more than three components (as a

1512:. An extensive addition of magmatic fluids can significantly modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case the metamorphism grades into 2379:), usually only the three most important components are plotted, though occasionally a compatibility diagram for four components is plotted as a 246:, who is often described as the father of modern geology. Hutton wrote in 1795 that some rock beds of the Scottish Highlands had originally been 1700:

first to become ductile, and sheared rock composed of different minerals may simultaneously show both plastic deformation and brittle fracture.

1546:, is a distinctive form of contact metamorphism accompanied by metasomatism. It takes place around intrusions of a rare type of magma called a 1240:

To many geologists, regional metamorphism is practically synonymous with dynamothermal metamorphism. This form of metamorphism takes place at

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The metamorphic process can occur at almost any pressure, from near surface pressure (for contact metamorphism) to pressures in excess of 16

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reaction will begin at the temperature and pressure where the Gibbs free energy of the reagents becomes greater than that of the products.

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Rock can be transformed without melting because heat causes atomic bonds to break, freeing the atoms to move and form new bonds with other

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Yuan, S.; Pan, G.; Wang, L.; Jiang, X.; Yin, F.; Zhang, W.; Zhuo, J. (2009). "Accretionary Orogenesis in the Active Continental Margins".

1689:, in which the larger rock fragments are cemented together by calcite or quartz. At depths greater than about 5 kilometers (3.1 mi), 4642: 1273:. Foliation develops when a rock is being shortened along one axis during metamorphism. This causes crystals of platy minerals, such as 265:

constructed from a cannon barrel and heated it in an iron foundry furnace. Hall found that this produced a material strongly resembling

1462:. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs of strong deformation and are often fine-grained and extremely tough. The 1266:

of the mountains exposes the roots of the orogenic belt as extensive outcrops of metamorphic rock, characteristic of mountain chains.

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Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 3. Structural terms including fault rock terms

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Smith, R. E.; Perdrix, J. L.; Parks, T. C. (1 February 1982). "Burial Metamorphism in the Hamersley Basin, Western Australia".

120:, Norway showing the strong strain fabric of schists. The black crystal is garnet, the pink-orange-yellow colored strands are 4656: 4625:

Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 2. Types, Grade, and Facies of Metamorphism

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Holland, T. J. B.; Powell, R. (1998). "An internally consistent thermodynamic data set for phases of petrological interest".

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metamorphic rock. This shows none of the effects of deformation and folding so characteristic of dynamothermal metamorphism.

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is medium to coarse-grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism. High-grade metamorphism transforms the rock to

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within and adjacent to the contact of the granite. Metasomatic altered aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic

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Metamorphism is generally regarded to begin at temperatures of 100 to 200 °C (212 to 392 °F). This excludes

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Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 1. How to Name a Metamorphic Rock

2153: 4669: 3986:"Calculation of phase relations involving haplogranitic melts using an internally consistent thermodynamic dataset" 2348: 1627: 472:, or olivine, are particularly prone to form mylonites, while feldspar and garnet are resistant to mylonitization. 284:. Pore fluid present between mineral grains is an important medium through which atoms are exchanged. This permits 2286:) are more stable at higher pressure, while minerals with a less ordered structure (expressed as a higher entropy 4732: 17: 4635:

Recommendations by the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks, 4. High P/T Metamorphic Rocks

4941: 4742: 4552: 4069: 3683: 3664: 522: 308:, which result in the formation of sedimentary rocks. The upper boundary of metamorphic conditions lies at the 2366:

Whereas a petrogenetic grid shows phases for a single composition over a range of temperature and pressure, a

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of the rock, which is the temperature at which the rock begins to melt. At this point, the process becomes an

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Hutton also speculated that pressure was important in metamorphism. This hypothesis was tested by his friend,

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or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they form. The metamorphic grades of aureoles at shallow depth are

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is a general term for metamorphism that affects entire regions of the Earth's crust. It most often refers to

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temperature. Pore fluid between mineral grains can be an important medium through which atoms are exchanged.

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phase diagram shown is a very simple petrogenetic grid for rocks that only have a composition consisting of

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Although grain coarsening is a common result of metamorphism, rock that is intensely deformed may eliminate

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under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces

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Whitney, D.L. (2002). "Coexisting andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite: Sequential formation of three Al

3852: 1364:, and it is not unique even in pelitic rock. A different sequence in the northeast of Scotland defines 98: 4661: 4396:(in Russian). Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 1450:. The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact metamorphism effects are present is called the 791:

tend to produce dangerous eruptions, because their high water content makes them extremely explosive.

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The change in the grain size and orientation in the rock during the process of metamorphism is called

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Schmid, R.; Fettes, D.; Harte, B.; Davis, E.; Desmons, J. (2007). "How to name a metamorphic rock.".

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High-pressure geochemistry and mineral physics : basics for planetology and geo-material science

2142: 1901: 1897: 1740: 1339: 179: 3821:"Geology and Geochronology of Precambrian Rocks in the Central Interior Region of the United States" 2347:(O). As the rock undergoes different temperatures and pressure, it could be any of the three given 1296:

The type of foliation that develops depends on the metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a

1576: 1391: 1332: 571:. Kyanite is stable at surface conditions. However, at atmospheric pressure, kyanite transforms to 2294:

composition of rock at a specified temperature and pressure can then be calculated on a computer.

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reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be magmatic (originate in an intruding magma), circulating

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not more than one or two dike thicknesses into the surrounding rock, whereas the aureoles around

1293:, and it typically shows well-developed cleavage that allows slate to be split into thin plates. 760: 441: 321:(MPa) of pressure to about 1,080 °C (1,980 °F) for wet basalt at atmospheric pressure. 1447: 1344: 1217: 596:

Neocrystallization involves the creation of new mineral crystals different from the protolith.

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Ghent, Edward (1 July 2020). "Metamorphic facies: A review and some suggestions for changes".

588:, with calcite transforming to aragonite at elevated pressure and relatively low temperature. 4639: 4242: 3752:

Buseck, Peter R. (1 May 1967). "Contact metasomatism and ore deposition, Tem Piute, Nevada".

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Examples of metamorphic rocks formed by burial metamorphism include some of the rocks of the

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At the shallowest depths, a fault zone will be filled with various kinds of unconsolidated

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Petrogenetic grid showing aluminium silicate-muscovite-quartz-K feldspar phase boundaries

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at a temperature of about 190 °C (374 °F). Andalusite, in turn, transforms to

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polymorphs during progressive metamorphism near the triple point, Sivrihisar, Turkey".

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Sokol, E.V.; Maksimova, N.V.; Nigmatulina, E.N.; Sharygin, V.V.; Kalugin, V.M. (2005).

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A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as

1349: 1282: 1253: 1026: 545: 230: 221: 183: 86: 82: 4583: 4270: 3857:(Second ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 61. 3820: 3647: 759:

A particularly important group of neocrystallization reactions are those that release

293:) under the conditions of pressure and temperature at which metamorphism takes place. 225:(Left) Randomly-orientated grains in a rock before metamorphism. (Right) Grains align 4887: 4864: 4796: 4602: 4548: 4529: 4514: 4463: 4444: 4357: 4322: 4227: 4187: 4168: 4149: 4122: 4103: 4084: 4065: 4052: 3976: 3968: 3933: 3914: 3901: 3858: 3811: 3731: 3710: 3679: 3660: 2313: 2307: 2146: 1865:

A more complete indication of this intensity or degree is provided by the concept of

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of oceanic crust. The conditions within the subducting slab as it plunges toward the

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produced by heating of chalk in the open air. French geologists subsequently added

247: 239: 2812: 1685:. At greater depths, these are replaced by consolidated cataclastic rock, such as 4849: 4839: 4646: 4010: 3985: 3725: 2376: 2219: 1706: 1649: 1415: 1399: 1395: 262: 4384: 4145: 3911:

Metamorphic geology : an introduction to tectonic and metamorphic processes

3706: 4916: 4844: 4806: 4786: 4781: 4271:"BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 2: Classification of metamorphic rocks" 3773: 2933: 1953: 1778: 1278: 1245: 1197: 764: 451: 430: 144: 50: 4314: 4930: 4831: 4791: 4020: 3803: 3192: 2317: 2237: 2131: 1681: 1595: 863: 459: 305: 2945: 2587: 1750:

Low grade ------------------- Intermediate --------------------- High grade

4897: 4714: 3893: 2332: 1583: 1513: 1439: 1120: 788: 784: 535: 429:, characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains ( 418: 274: 243: 101: 4762: 425:, characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then 413:

begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a

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Change of minerals in pre-existing rocks without melting into liquid magma

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Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the

1463: 608: 576: 557: 506: 66: 4064:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. 2401: 1458:, or simply the aureole. Contact metamorphic rocks are usually known as 1269:

Metamorphic rock formed in these settings tends to shown well-developed

514: 167:, which are changes that take place at or just beneath Earth's surface. 4854: 4811: 4801: 3819:

Denison, R.E.; Bickford, M.E.; Lidiak, E.G.; Kisvarsanyi, E.B. (1987).

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Greenschist ------------- Amphibolite ----------------------- Granulite

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are used as a guide in the search for deposits of valuable metal ores.

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is the study of metamorphism. Metamorphic petrologists rely heavily on

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Metamorphic processes : reactions and microstructure development

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Metamorphism of Carbonate Rocks: University of Wisconsin – Green Bay

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is an informal indication of the amount or degree of metamorphism.

1528:-rich magmatic waters which leave a cooling granite may often form 1525: 1502: 1459: 1442:

as a result of the temperature increase caused by the intrusion of

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Amphibolite formed by metamorphism of basalt showing coarse texture

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classified by its mineral composition or its degree of foliation.

436: 4892: 4882: 4705: 4391: 3678:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. 3198: 3156: 3017: 2897: 2340: 2271: 2135: 2115: 2099: 2087: 1818: 1788: 1744: 1630: 1529: 1498: 1353: 1263: 1258: 581: 549: 492: 361: 313: 152: 125: 54: 3818: 3603: 3546: 3519: 3507: 3468: 3168: 2951: 2885: 2725: 3581: 3579: 3531: 2701: 2409: – Crustal metamorphism with temperatures exceeding 900 °C 2344: 2261: 2107: 1889: 1798: 1769: 1765: 1591: 1557: 1494: 1490: 1309: 1305: 1289:

is an example of a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from

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An example of a neocrystallization reaction is the reaction of

406: 381: 373: 266: 129: 113: 105: 70: 58: 4547:. Harlow, Essex, England: Longman Scientific & Technical. 3730:(7th completely rev. and updated ed.). Berlin: Springer. 3005: 2873: 2957: 2861: 2640: 2638: 2223: 1757: 1521: 1443: 1352:

in the world. However, Barrovian metamorphism is specific to

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was first recognized by the pioneering Scottish naturalist,

4226:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 4083:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 184–188. 3566: 3564: 3072: 2575: 2565: 2563: 2548: 2352:

silicate plus potassium feldspar to muscovite plus quartz.

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Metamorphic processes act to bring the protolith closer to

1274: 389: 329: 281: 109: 2749: 2674: 2635: 2599: 3495: 3429: 3407: 3405: 3288: 2993: 1533: 1370:, which took place at lower pressure than the Barrovian. 393: 195:, while decreasing temperature and pressure characterize 3561: 3377: 3375: 3360: 3264: 3060: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2773: 2691: 2689: 2560: 2524: 2451: 2449: 2424: 2422: 3240: 2476: 1637:) and textures are characteristic of these conditions. 468:. Certain kinds of rock, such as those rich in quartz, 4339:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–15 4329: 3657:

Petrology : igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

3485: 3483: 3402: 3396: 3204: 3120: 2969: 2761: 2737: 2650: 2466: 2464: 1713: 4704: 3780: 3372: 3348: 3336: 3300: 3276: 3228: 3162: 3084: 2824: 2713: 2686: 2446: 2419: 2156: 4668:) – Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 4599:

An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology

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change into larger crystals in the metamorphic rock

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if a rock is subjected to stress during metamorphism

3480: 3132: 2461: 3180: 3144: 2623: 2500: 2434: 2201: 2061: 1660:by which rock is mechanically deformed. These are 1329:their own distinctive regional metamorphic effects 1171:In plastic deformation pressure is applied to the 4370: 4078: 3444: 3417: 2963: 2855: 2512: 1382:Sioux Quartzite, a product of burial metamorphism 462:by recrystallizing as a fine-grained rock called 4928: 4561: 2903: 2398: – History of rock pressure and temperature 1929:Temperatures and pressures of metamorphic facies 1648:is associated with zones of high strain such as 4224:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology 3624: 3078: 170:Various forms of metamorphism exist, including 4521: 4079:Kearey, P.; Klepeis, K.A.; Vine, F.J. (2009). 2891: 1252:collide. The collision zone becomes a belt of 4690: 4401:Stern, Robert J. (2002), "Subduction zones", 4221: 4136:Mason, Roger (1990). "Dynamic metamorphism". 3983: 3946: 3609: 3597: 3585: 3555: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3474: 3462: 3330: 3318: 3222: 3174: 3114: 3102: 3023: 2927: 2554: 2542: 2530: 2494: 611:at elevated pressure and temperature to form 77:. This reaction takes place in nature when a 4222:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). 4121:(3rd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. 3825:Tulsa Geological Society Special Publication 3692: 3676:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy 3270: 1536:minerals and thus are of economic interest. 560:. All three have the identical composition, 1079:An example of a decarbonation reaction is: 4697: 4683: 4356:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 18, 113–126. 3654: 3438: 3035: 3011: 2037: 1619:occurs when an extraterrestrial object (a 1312:, which is coarse to very coarse-grained. 513: 250:, but had been transformed by great heat. 4422: 4351: 4295:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 4278:British Geological Survey Research Report 4268: 4181: 4102:(9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley. 4009: 3381: 2915: 2731: 2355: 4738:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 4545:An introduction to metamorphic petrology 3659:(2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. 3655:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). 2073: 2065: 1924: 1739:In the Barrovian sequence (described by 1424: 1409: 1377: 1221:A metamorphic rock, deformed during the 1216: 435: 347: 339: 220: 216: 92: 36: 4542: 4476: 4240: 4116: 4059: 3570: 3540: 3489: 3411: 3366: 3354: 3258: 3234: 3210: 3138: 3126: 3090: 3066: 3029: 2999: 2987: 2975: 2879: 2843: 2818: 2806: 2794: 2767: 2755: 2707: 2680: 2668: 2656: 2644: 2605: 2593: 2581: 2569: 2482: 2470: 2455: 2428: 344:Basalt hand sample showing fine texture 14: 4929: 4748:Principle of inclusions and components 4640:James Madison University: Metamorphism 4457: 4438: 4200: 4018: 3927: 3908: 3850: 3751: 3723: 3342: 3306: 3294: 3282: 3186: 3150: 3048:from the original on 24 September 2023 2695: 2629: 2617: 2518: 2506: 2440: 1720:Metamorphic rock § Classification 1486:can be up to several kilometers wide. 1319:Collisional orogenies are preceded by 1166: 504: 497: 490: 128:mica. The grey and white crystals are 4678: 4400: 4162: 4135: 4097: 3871: 3697:. Advances in Physical Geochemistry. 3673: 3628:International Journal of Coal Geology 3450: 3423: 3246: 2867: 2779: 2743: 2719: 2301: 2042:Metamorphism is further divided into 1872: 1728: 591: 213:to understand metamorphic processes. 4167:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 425. 4019:Howard, Jeffrey L. (November 2005). 3984:Holland, Tim; Powell, Roger (2001). 1883:Metamorphic facies are recognizable 1704:melts, forming a glassy rock called 1478:was formed by contact metamorphism. 1205:is taking place), but also includes 1156: 1081: 1069: 950: 941: 800: 745: 617: 384:sand grains results in very compact 380:, recrystallization of the original 335: 4723:Principle of original horizontality 4652:Barrovian Metamorphism: Brock Univ. 4460:Principles of Metamorphic Petrology 4186:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. 3847:, Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr., 6, 143–194 3038:"Contact and Regional Metamorphism" 2407:Ultra-high-temperature metamorphism 1714:Classification of metamorphic rocks 45:. Abbreviations of minerals: act = 24: 4761: 4591: 4184:Metamorphism and Metamorphic Belts 4138:Petrology of the Metamorphic Rocks 3932:(2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. 2320:that plots experimentally derived 1516:. If the intruded rock is rich in 402:) and redeposition in pore space. 364:crystals in the sedimentary rocks 143:is the transformation of existing 25: 4953: 4613: 4522:Wicander, R.; Munroe, J. (2005). 4021:"The Quartzite Problem Revisited" 3784:Journal of the Geological Society 3727:Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks 124:mica, and the brown crystals are 4910: 4670:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 3969:10.1111/j.1525-1314.1998.00140.x 3913:. London: G. Allen & Unwin. 1212: 483: 4733:Principle of lateral continuity 4352:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). 4060:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). 2964:Smith, Perdrix & Parks 1982 2856:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009 2809:, "dynamothermal metamorphism". 2671:, pp. 32–33, 110, 130–131. 2062:Equilibrium mineral assemblages 1570: 1501:hornfels, hornblende hornfels, 475: 4743:Principle of faunal succession 4662:Metamorphic Petrology Database 4462:. Cambridge University Press. 4458:Vernon, Ronald Holden (2008). 3949:Journal of Metamorphic Geology 2202:{\displaystyle G(p,T)=U+pV-TS} 2172: 2160: 1394:of North America, such as the 1248:or a continental plate and an 41:Schematic representation of a 13: 1: 4584:10.1016/S1872-5791(08)60095-0 3648:10.1016/S0166-5162(98)00018-4 3618: 3079:Barker, Bone & Lewan 1998 2034:See diagram for more detail. 1327:in a subduction zone produce 32:Metamorphism (disambiguation) 2413: 2274:(SI unit: joule per kelvin), 798:that release water include: 7: 4146:10.1007/978-94-010-9603-4_4 3845:The Mineral Facies of Rocks 3707:10.1007/978-1-4612-5066-1_6 2389: 1747:(shaly, aluminous) origin: 1552:that is highly enriched in 1476:Arlington National Cemetery 1472:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier 1242:convergent plate boundaries 1183: 151:) to rock with a different 10: 4958: 4543:Yardley, B. W. D. (1989). 4011:10.1093/petrology/42.4.673 3774:10.2113/gsecongeo.62.3.331 2892:Wicander & Munroe 2005 2797:, "regional metamorphism". 2359: 2305: 1876: 1717: 1640: 1609: 1405: 1193:dynamothermal metamorphism 417:that can be identified in 360:. For instance, the small 29: 4906: 4873: 4830: 4772: 4759: 4713: 4385:10.1093/petrology/23.1.75 4315:10.1007/s00410-003-0516-4 4182:Miyashiro, Akiho (1973). 4163:Mitra, Sachinath (2004). 4117:Marshak, Stephen (2009). 4098:Levin, Harold L. (2010). 3874:The Canadian Mineralogist 3610:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3598:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3586:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3556:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3526:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3514:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3502:Holland & Powell 1998 3475:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3463:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3331:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3319:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3223:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3175:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3115:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3103:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3024:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2928:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2555:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2543:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2531:Holland & Powell 2001 2495:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2143:thermodynamic equilibrium 1373: 767:. During metamorphism of 4832:Geomorphologic processes 4715:Stratigraphic principles 4708:principles and processes 3804:10.1144/gsjgs.145.4.0523 3543:, pp. 32–33, 52–55. 3271:Brodie & Rutter 1985 3225:, pp. 70, 243, 346. 2870:, pp. 76–77, 82–83. 2821:, "burial metamorphism". 2710:, pp. 110, 130–131. 2497:, pp. 149, 420–425. 1605: 1435:occurs typically around 1392:Midcontinent Rift System 1333:paired metamorphic belts 1178: 269:, rather than the usual 4564:Earth Science Frontiers 4394:Combustion metamorphism 4203:"Types of Metamorphism" 3851:Fossen, Haakon (2016). 2734:, pp. 18, 113–126. 2048:retrograde metamorphism 2038:Prograde and retrograde 1768:---------------------- 1600:hydrothermal alteration 1598:. The patterns of this 1348:is the most recognized 1338:The pioneering work of 1195:, which takes place in 442:petrographic microscope 427:porphyroblastic texture 197:retrograde metamorphism 4898:Mass wasting processes 4766: 4439:Vernon, R. H. (1976). 4269:Robertson, S. (1999). 4241:Rakovan, John (2007). 4100:The earth through time 4025:The Journal of Geology 3928:Grapes, R. H. (2011). 3894:10.3749/canmin.1900078 3439:Blatt & Tracy 1996 3012:Blatt & Tracy 1996 2882:, p. 22, 168–170. 2356:Compatibility diagrams 2203: 2138: 2080:compatibility diagrams 2071: 1930: 1658:deformation mechanisms 1429: 1422: 1383: 1345:Barrovian metamorphism 1237: 445: 440:A mylonite (through a 353: 345: 234: 211:experimental petrology 137: 90: 4942:Metamorphic petrology 4774:Petrologic principles 4765: 4525:Essentials of Geology 4487:American Mineralogist 4403:Reviews of Geophysics 4119:Essentials of Geology 3724:Bucher, Kurt (2002). 3695:Metamorphic Reactions 2402:Metamorphosis of snow 2368:compatibility diagram 2362:Compatibility diagram 2322:metamorphic reactions 2204: 2077: 2069: 1928: 1510:metamorphic reactions 1428: 1413: 1381: 1220: 1189:Regional metamorphism 796:dehydration reactions 439: 351: 343: 224: 217:Metamorphic processes 207:statistical mechanics 203:Metamorphic petrology 193:prograde metamorphism 118:Salangen Municipality 96: 40: 4937:Geological processes 4860:Marine transgression 4728:Law of superposition 4528:. Cengage Learning. 4507:10.2138/am-2002-0404 4424:10.1029/2001RG000108 4373:Journal of Petrology 4207:EENS 2120: Petrology 3990:Journal of Petrology 3909:Gillen, Con (1982). 3026:, pp. 422, 428. 3014:, pp. 367, 512. 2940:Robinson et al. 2004 2584:, pp. 127, 154. 2154: 1967:Prehnite-Pumpellyite 1646:Dynamic metamorphism 1433:Contact metamorphism 291:chemical equilibrium 43:metamorphic reaction 30:For other uses, see 4597:Winter J.D., 2001, 4576:2009ESF....16...31Y 4499:2002AmMin..87..405W 4415:2002RvGeo..40.1012S 4307:2004CoMP..146..513R 4209:. Tulane University 4201:Nelson, Stephen A. 4062:Glossary of geology 4037:2005JG....113..707H 4002:2001JPet...42..673H 3961:1998JMetG..16..309H 3886:2020CaMin..58..437G 3796:1988JGSoc.145..523C 3766:1967EcGeo..62..331B 3674:Boggs, Sam (2006). 3640:1998IJCG...37...73B 3558:, pp. 424–425. 3528:, pp. 447–470. 3516:, pp. 161–162. 3477:, pp. 159–160. 3297:, pp. 184–186. 3177:, pp. 396–397. 2952:Denison et al. 1987 2942:, pp. 513–528. 2918:, pp. 368–369. 2858:, pp. 275–279. 2782:, pp. 147–154. 2758:, pp. 75, 102. 2683:, pp. 183–183. 2647:, pp. 148–158. 2608:, pp. 154–158. 1908:chief examples are 1452:metamorphic aureole 1367:Buchan metamorphism 1331:, characterized by 1207:burial metamorphism 1167:Plastic deformation 615:. The reaction is: 525:Phase diagram of Al 376:. In metamorphosed 4917:Geology portal 4875:Sediment transport 4767: 4645:2011-03-04 at the 4250:Rocks and Minerals 3854:Structural geology 3612:, p. 454-455. 3397:Schmid et al. 2007 3249:, pp. 94–106. 3163:Cooper et al. 1988 3002:, pp. 12, 26. 2894:, pp. 174–77. 2596:, "metaquartzite". 2396:Geothermobarometry 2302:Petrogenetic grids 2199: 2139: 2072: 1931: 1879:Metamorphic facies 1873:Metamorphic facies 1867:metamorphic facies 1729:Metamorphic grades 1617:Shock metamorphism 1612:Shock metamorphism 1430: 1423: 1384: 1356:rock, formed from 1350:metamorphic series 1254:mountain formation 1246:continental plates 1238: 1027:potassium feldspar 763:such as water and 598:Chemical reactions 592:Neocrystallization 546:aluminium silicate 470:carbonate minerals 446: 354: 346: 235: 138: 91: 87:greenschist facies 83:amphibolite facies 4924: 4923: 4893:Glacial processes 4888:Aeolian processes 4883:Fluvial processes 4865:Marine regression 4443:. London: Murby. 4155:978-0-04-552028-2 3843:Eskola P., 1920, 3716:978-1-4612-9548-8 3573:, pp. 32–33. 3369:, pp. 21–27. 3199:Sokol et al. 2005 3069:, pp. 10–11. 2906:, pp. 31–48. 2746:, pp. 27–28. 2572:, pp. 49–51. 2485:, pp. 29–30. 2314:petrogenetic grid 2308:Petrogenetic grid 2147:Gibbs free energy 2032: 2031: 1734:Metamorphic grade 1470:exterior and the 1203:mountain building 1164: 1163: 1077: 1076: 949: 948: 753: 752: 399:pressure solution 358:recrystallization 336:Recrystallization 286:recrystallization 261:into a makeshift 16:(Redirected from 4949: 4915: 4914: 4699: 4692: 4685: 4676: 4675: 4601:, Prentice-Hall 4587: 4558: 4539: 4518: 4473: 4454: 4435: 4426: 4397: 4388: 4367: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4338: 4326: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4275: 4265: 4263: 4261: 4247: 4237: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4197: 4178: 4159: 4132: 4113: 4094: 4081:Global tectonics 4075: 4056: 4015: 4013: 3980: 3943: 3930:Pyrometamorphism 3924: 3905: 3868: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3815: 3777: 3754:Economic Geology 3748: 3746: 3744: 3720: 3689: 3670: 3651: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3574: 3568: 3559: 3553: 3544: 3538: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3487: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3400: 3394: 3385: 3379: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3042:MartinCooney.com 3036:Cooney, Martin. 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2904:Yuan et al. 2009 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2722:, pp. 6–10. 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2684: 2678: 2672: 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684: 676: 675: 667: 666: 656: 650: 649: 648: 647: 646: 645: 637: 636: 625: 618: 570: 517: 509: 502: 495: 487: 248:sedimentary rock 240:metamorphic rock 21: 4957: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4920: 4909: 4902: 4869: 4850:Tectonic uplift 4840:Plate tectonics 4826: 4768: 4757: 4709: 4703: 4647:Wayback Machine 4616: 4594: 4592:Further reading 4555: 4536: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4451: 4364: 4342: 4340: 4336: 4283: 4281: 4273: 4259: 4257: 4245: 4234: 4212: 4210: 4194: 4175: 4156: 4129: 4110: 4091: 4072: 3940: 3921: 3865: 3834: 3832: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3717: 3686: 3667: 3634:(1–2): 73–111. 3621: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3577: 3569: 3562: 3554: 3547: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3481: 3473: 3469: 3461: 3457: 3449: 3445: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3403: 3395: 3388: 3380: 3373: 3365: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3341: 3337: 3329: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3281: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3261:, "cataclasis". 3257: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3233: 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1707:pseudotachylite 1643: 1626: 1614: 1608: 1573: 1544:Na-metasomatism 1456:contact aureole 1416:Henry Mountains 1408: 1400:Hamersley Basin 1396:Sioux Quartzite 1376: 1215: 1201:(regions where 1186: 1181: 1169: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1137: 1136: 1135: 1129: 1125: 1124: 1119: 1118: 1117: 1111: 1107: 1106: 1103: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1003: 1002: 996: 992: 990: 987: 986: 985: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 961: 956: 955: 954: 929: 925: 923: 920: 919: 918: 912: 908: 904: 900: 898: 893: 892: 891: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 867: 862: 861: 860: 854: 850: 848: 845: 844: 843: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 811: 806: 805: 804: 732: 729: 728: 727: 723: 720: 719: 718: 714: 711: 710: 709: 705: 702: 701: 700: 698: 696: 693: 692: 691: 683: 680: 679: 678: 674: 671: 670: 669: 665: 662: 661: 660: 658: 657: 654: 653: 652: 644: 641: 640: 639: 635: 632: 631: 630: 628: 626: 623: 622: 621: 594: 569: 565: 561: 541: 540: 539: 533: 532: 528: 524: 519: 518: 511: 510: 505: 503: 498: 496: 491: 488: 478: 338: 300:changes due to 263:pressure vessel 229:to the applied 219: 155:composition or 99:cross-polarized 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Contact aureole 15: 12: 11: 5: 4955: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4922: 4921: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4879: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4845:Salt tectonics 4842: 4836: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4807:Soil formation 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4778: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4702: 4701: 4694: 4687: 4679: 4673: 4672: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4615: 4614:External links 4612: 4611: 4610: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4559: 4553: 4540: 4535:978-0495013655 4534: 4519: 4493:(4): 405–416. 4482: 4478: 4474: 4469:978-0521871785 4468: 4455: 4450:978-0045520107 4449: 4436: 4398: 4389: 4368: 4362: 4349: 4327: 4301:(4): 513–528. 4290: 4266: 4238: 4232: 4219: 4198: 4192: 4179: 4173: 4160: 4154: 4133: 4128:978-0393196566 4127: 4114: 4109:978-0470387740 4108: 4095: 4089: 4076: 4070: 4057: 4045:10.1086/449328 4031:(6): 707–713. 4016: 3996:(4): 673–683. 3981: 3955:(3): 309–343. 3944: 3938: 3925: 3920:978-0045510580 3919: 3906: 3880:(4): 437–444. 3869: 3863: 3848: 3841: 3816: 3790:(4): 523–540. 3778: 3760:(3): 331–353. 3749: 3736: 3721: 3715: 3690: 3684: 3671: 3665: 3652: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3602: 3600:, p. 453. 3590: 3588:, p. 447. 3575: 3560: 3545: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3479: 3467: 3465:, p. 159. 3455: 3443: 3441:, p. 399. 3428: 3416: 3414:, p. 183. 3401: 3386: 3382:Robertson 1999 3371: 3359: 3347: 3345:, p. 184. 3335: 3333:, p. 443. 3323: 3321:, p. 441. 3311: 3309:, p. 341. 3299: 3287: 3285:, p. 185. 3275: 3263: 3251: 3239: 3227: 3215: 3213:, p. 190. 3203: 3191: 3179: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3131: 3129:, p. 126. 3119: 3117:, p. 422. 3107: 3105:, p. 427. 3095: 3083: 3071: 3059: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2980: 2978:, p. 187. 2968: 2956: 2944: 2932: 2930:, p. 417. 2920: 2916:Miyashiro 1973 2908: 2896: 2884: 2872: 2860: 2848: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2784: 2772: 2770:, p. 127. 2760: 2748: 2736: 2732:Schmincke 2003 2724: 2712: 2700: 2698:, p. 149. 2685: 2673: 2661: 2659:, p. 158. 2649: 2634: 2622: 2610: 2598: 2586: 2574: 2559: 2547: 2545:, p. 252. 2535: 2523: 2511: 2499: 2487: 2475: 2460: 2445: 2433: 2431:, p. 177. 2417: 2415: 2412: 2411: 2410: 2404: 2399: 2391: 2388: 2360:Main article: 2357: 2354: 2329: 2325: 2316:is a geologic 2306:Main article: 2303: 2300: 2276: 2275: 2265: 2251: 2241: 2227: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2063: 2060: 2039: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1963:Lower Moderate 1961: 1960:Lower Moderate 1957: 1956: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1877:Main article: 1874: 1871: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1845: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1776: 1755: 1730: 1727: 1718:Main article: 1715: 1712: 1642: 1639: 1624: 1610:Main article: 1607: 1604: 1572: 1569: 1407: 1404: 1402:of Australia. 1375: 1372: 1227:Vall de Cardós 1214: 1211: 1198:orogenic belts 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1152: 1150: 1143: 1138:carbon dioxide 1127: 1109: 1093: 1075: 1074: 1065: 1063: 1055: 1038: 1034: 1015: 1011: 994: 977: 973: 969: 965: 947: 946: 937: 935: 927: 910: 906: 902: 883: 879: 875: 871: 852: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 765:carbon dioxide 751: 750: 741: 739: 730: 721: 712: 703: 681: 672: 663: 642: 633: 593: 590: 567: 563: 530: 526: 521: 520: 512: 489: 482: 481: 480: 479: 477: 474: 452:surface energy 431:porphyroblasts 415:mortar texture 337: 334: 218: 215: 132:and (limited) 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4954: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4919: 4918: 4913: 4905: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4829: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4764: 4754: 4753:Walther's law 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4695: 4693: 4688: 4686: 4681: 4680: 4677: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4608: 4607:0-13-240342-0 4604: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4556: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4379:(1): 75–102. 4378: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4363:9783540436508 4359: 4355: 4350: 4335: 4334: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4279: 4272: 4267: 4255: 4251: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4233:9780521880060 4229: 4225: 4220: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4193:9789401168366 4189: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4174:9780080458229 4170: 4166: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4090:9781405107778 4086: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3939:9783642155888 3935: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3864:9781107057647 3860: 3856: 3855: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3739: 3737:9783540431305 3733: 3729: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3611: 3606: 3599: 3594: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3572: 3567: 3565: 3557: 3552: 3550: 3542: 3537: 3535: 3527: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3486: 3484: 3476: 3471: 3464: 3459: 3452: 3447: 3440: 3435: 3433: 3425: 3420: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3398: 3393: 3391: 3383: 3378: 3376: 3368: 3363: 3357:, p. 26. 3356: 3351: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3327: 3320: 3315: 3308: 3303: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3267: 3260: 3255: 3248: 3243: 3237:, p. 13. 3236: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3195: 3188: 3183: 3176: 3171: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3128: 3123: 3116: 3111: 3104: 3099: 3093:, p. 43. 3092: 3087: 3080: 3075: 3068: 3063: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3025: 3020: 3013: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2989: 2984: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2960: 2953: 2948: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2912: 2905: 2900: 2893: 2888: 2881: 2876: 2869: 2864: 2857: 2852: 2846:, p. 12. 2845: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2820: 2815: 2808: 2803: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2781: 2776: 2769: 2764: 2757: 2752: 2745: 2740: 2733: 2728: 2721: 2716: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2690: 2682: 2677: 2670: 2665: 2658: 2653: 2646: 2641: 2639: 2631: 2626: 2620:, p. 31. 2619: 2614: 2607: 2602: 2595: 2590: 2583: 2578: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2557:, p. 44. 2556: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2532: 2527: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2484: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2465: 2457: 2452: 2450: 2442: 2437: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2418: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2393: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2363: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2323: 2319: 2318:phase diagram 2315: 2309: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2250:(SI unit: m), 2249: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2209: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2157: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2137: 2133: 2132:orthopyroxene 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2068: 2059: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2035: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1927: 1923: 1921: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1905: 1903: 1902:George Barrow 1899: 1898:Pentti Eskola 1893: 1891: 1886: 1880: 1870: 1868: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1796: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1741:George Barrow 1737: 1735: 1726: 1721: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1701: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1687:crush breccia 1684: 1683: 1682:fault breccia 1678: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1629: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1596:black smokers 1593: 1589: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1568: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1440:igneous rocks 1438: 1434: 1427: 1420: 1417: 1412: 1403: 1401: 1398:, and in the 1397: 1393: 1388: 1380: 1371: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1341: 1340:George Barrow 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1213:Dynamothermal 1210: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1176: 1174: 1160: 1153: 1151: 1122: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1073: 1066: 1064: 1028: 959: 953: 952: 945: 938: 936: 896: 865: 864:cummingtonite 809: 803: 802: 799: 797: 792: 790: 789:arc volcanoes 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 757: 749: 742: 740: 620: 619: 616: 614: 610: 606: 601: 599: 589: 587: 583: 578: 574: 559: 555: 551: 547: 537: 536:nesosilicates 523: 516: 508: 501: 494: 486: 473: 471: 467: 466: 461: 460:strain energy 456: 454: 453: 443: 438: 434: 432: 428: 424: 420: 419:thin sections 416: 410: 408: 403: 401: 400: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 350: 342: 333: 331: 326: 324: 320: 315: 311: 307: 306:lithification 303: 299: 294: 292: 287: 283: 278: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 257:, who sealed 256: 251: 249: 245: 241: 232: 228: 223: 214: 212: 208: 204: 200: 198: 194: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 168: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 100: 95: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 39: 33: 19: 4908: 4822:Metamorphism 4821: 4598: 4570:(3): 31–48. 4567: 4563: 4544: 4524: 4490: 4486: 4459: 4440: 4406: 4402: 4393: 4376: 4372: 4353: 4341:. Retrieved 4332: 4298: 4294: 4282:. Retrieved 4277: 4258:. Retrieved 4253: 4249: 4223: 4211:. Retrieved 4206: 4183: 4164: 4137: 4118: 4099: 4080: 4061: 4028: 4024: 3993: 3989: 3952: 3948: 3929: 3910: 3877: 3873: 3853: 3844: 3833:. Retrieved 3828: 3824: 3787: 3783: 3757: 3753: 3741:. Retrieved 3726: 3698: 3694: 3675: 3656: 3631: 3627: 3605: 3593: 3571:Yardley 1989 3541:Yardley 1989 3521: 3509: 3497: 3490:Whitney 2002 3470: 3458: 3446: 3419: 3412:Marshak 2009 3367:Yardley 1989 3362: 3355:Yardley 1989 3350: 3338: 3326: 3314: 3302: 3290: 3278: 3266: 3259:Jackson 1997 3254: 3242: 3235:Yardley 1989 3230: 3218: 3211:Marshak 2009 3206: 3194: 3182: 3170: 3158: 3146: 3139:Rakovan 2007 3134: 3127:Yardley 1989 3122: 3110: 3098: 3091:Yardley 1989 3086: 3074: 3067:Yardley 1989 3062: 3050:. Retrieved 3041: 3031: 3019: 3007: 3000:Yardley 1989 2995: 2990:, "aureole". 2988:Jackson 1997 2983: 2976:Marshak 2009 2971: 2959: 2947: 2935: 2923: 2911: 2899: 2887: 2880:Yardley 1989 2875: 2863: 2851: 2844:Yardley 1989 2819:Jackson 1997 2814: 2807:Jackson 1997 2802: 2795:Jackson 1997 2775: 2768:Yardley 1989 2763: 2756:Yardley 1989 2751: 2739: 2727: 2715: 2708:Yardley 1989 2703: 2681:Yardley 1989 2676: 2669:Yardley 1989 2664: 2657:Yardley 1989 2652: 2645:Yardley 1989 2625: 2613: 2606:Yardley 1989 2601: 2594:Jackson 1997 2589: 2582:Yardley 1989 2577: 2570:Yardley 1989 2550: 2538: 2526: 2514: 2509:, p. 4. 2502: 2490: 2483:Yardley 1989 2478: 2473:, p. 5. 2471:Yardley 1989 2456:Yardley 1989 2443:, p. 1. 2436: 2429:Marshak 2009 2367: 2365: 2333:nesosilicate 2311: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2281: 2277: 2267: 2253: 2243: 2229: 2215: 2210: 2150: 2140: 2056: 2047: 2043: 2041: 2033: 1917: 1906: 1894: 1882: 1864: 1749: 1738: 1733: 1732: 1723: 1705: 1702: 1698: 1692:cataclasites 1690: 1686: 1680: 1674: 1668: 1661: 1655: 1645: 1644: 1616: 1615: 1579:metamorphism 1577:Hydrothermal 1575: 1574: 1571:Hydrothermal 1562: 1547: 1543: 1540:Fenitization 1539: 1538: 1514:metasomatism 1507: 1488: 1480: 1466:used on the 1455: 1451: 1448:country rock 1446:into cooler 1432: 1431: 1389: 1385: 1365: 1343: 1337: 1318: 1314: 1295: 1268: 1257: 1244:, where two 1239: 1206: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1187: 1170: 1154: 1121:wollastonite 1078: 1067: 939: 795: 794:Examples of 793: 785:flux melting 758: 754: 743: 602: 595: 542: 476:Phase change 463: 457: 450: 447: 426: 423:foam texture 422: 414: 411: 404: 397: 355: 332:(1600 MPa). 327: 295: 279: 275:metasomatism 252: 244:James Hutton 236: 201: 196: 192: 180:hydrothermal 169: 141:Metamorphism 140: 139: 102:thin section 4797:Exfoliation 4409:(4): 6–10, 4343:28 February 4284:27 February 3701:: 138–179. 3343:Fossen 2016 3307:Fossen 2016 3295:Fossen 2016 3283:Fossen 2016 3187:Grapes 2011 3151:Buseck 1967 2696:Vernon 1976 2630:Howard 2005 2618:Gillen 1982 2519:Nelson 2022 2507:Bucher 2002 2441:Vernon 2008 2384:tetrahedron 2373:paragenesis 2349:polymorphic 2258:temperature 2124:plagioclase 2104:glaucophane 2052:paragenesis 2010:Amphibolite 2006:Greenschist 1936:Temperature 1910:amphibolite 1829:Sillimanite 1764:---------- 1676:fault gouge 1588:groundwater 1584:metasomatic 1556:and low in 1549:carbonatite 1464:Yule Marble 1005:sillimanite 655:plagioclase 609:plagioclase 577:sillimanite 558:sillimanite 507:Sillimanite 319:megapascals 104:image of a 67:plagioclase 4931:Categories 4855:Subsidence 4817:Compaction 4812:Diagenesis 4802:Weathering 4554:0582300967 4280:. RR 99-02 4260:6 February 4213:3 February 4140:: 94–106. 4071:0922152349 3835:5 February 3831:(`): 12–14 3743:2 February 3685:0131547283 3666:0716724383 3619:References 3451:Mitra 2004 3424:Ghent 2020 3247:Mason 1990 2868:Levin 2010 2780:Boggs 2006 2744:Stern 2002 2720:Stern 2002 2343:(Si), and 2260:(SI unit: 2236:(SI unit: 2222:(SI unit: 2112:hornblende 2084:actinolite 1993:Blueschist 1809:Staurolite 1673:, such as 1663:cataclasis 1635:stishovite 1628:polymorphs 1554:carbonates 1484:batholiths 1321:subduction 1256:called an 1250:island arc 1157:Reaction 4 1070:Reaction 3 942:Reaction 2 808:hornblende 746:Reaction 1 573:andalusite 554:andalusite 548:minerals, 500:Andalusite 323:Migmatites 302:compaction 298:diagenetic 255:James Hall 227:orthogonal 165:diagenesis 161:weathering 81:goes from 79:mafic rock 75:K-feldspar 63:hornblende 47:actinolite 4787:Extrusive 4782:Intrusive 4515:131616262 4354:Volcanism 4323:140567746 4256:: 157–159 4243:"Greisen" 4053:128463511 3977:109930611 3902:225617545 3812:128498184 2414:Footnotes 2381:projected 2191:− 2128:omphacite 2122:; plag = 2120:lawsonite 2102:; glau = 2014:Granulite 1919:granulite 1774:Migmatite 1621:meteorite 1518:carbonate 1437:intrusive 1419:laccolith 1362:siltstone 1271:foliation 1173:protolith 958:muscovite 895:anorthite 761:volatiles 586:aragonite 386:quartzite 378:sandstone 366:limestone 271:quicklime 149:protolith 122:muscovite 65:; plag = 4792:Volcanic 4706:Geologic 4666:MetPetDB 4643:Archived 4433:15347100 3052:26 March 3046:Archived 2390:See also 2337:aluminum 2234:pressure 2130:; opx = 2118:; law = 2110:; hbl = 2096:diopside 2092:chlorite 2090:; chl = 2044:prograde 2027:Eclogite 2002:Moderate 1980:Hornfels 1939:Pressure 1914:eclogite 1885:terranes 1779:Chlorite 1762:Phyllite 1653:makeup. 1530:greisens 1526:Fluorine 1503:pyroxene 1460:hornfels 1358:mudstone 1302:phyllite 1298:mudstone 1283:cleavage 1279:chlorite 1184:Regional 773:eclogite 624:fayalite 605:fayalite 465:mylonite 172:regional 134:feldspar 61:; hbl = 51:chlorite 49:; chl = 4572:Bibcode 4495:Bibcode 4411:Bibcode 4303:Bibcode 4033:Bibcode 3998:Bibcode 3957:Bibcode 3882:Bibcode 3792:Bibcode 3762:Bibcode 3636:Bibcode 2341:silicon 2272:entropy 2270:is the 2256:is the 2218:is the 2211:where: 2136:zoisite 2134:; zo = 2126:; om = 2116:kyanite 2114:; ky = 2106:; gt = 2100:epidote 2098:; ep = 2094:; di = 2088:calcite 2086:; cc = 1954:Zeolite 1942:Facies 1819:Kyanite 1789:Biotite 1745:pelitic 1641:Dynamic 1631:coesite 1592:basalts 1499:epidote 1491:pelitic 1406:Contact 1354:pelitic 1264:erosion 1259:orogeny 1088:calcite 582:calcite 550:kyanite 493:Kyanite 409:scale. 362:calcite 314:igneous 310:solidus 188:dynamic 176:contact 157:texture 153:mineral 126:biotite 57:; gt = 55:epidote 53:; ep = 4605: 4551: 4532: 4513: 4466: 4447: 4431: 4360: 4321: 4230: 4190: 4171: 4152: 4125: 4106: 4087: 4068: 4051: 3975: 3936: 3917: 3900: 3861: 3810: 3734: 3713: 3682: 3663: 2345:oxygen 2339:(Al), 2262:kelvin 2248:volume 2238:pascal 2108:garnet 1890:basalt 1799:Garnet 1770:Gneiss 1766:Schist 1558:silica 1495:albite 1454:, the 1374:Burial 1325:mantle 1310:gneiss 1306:Schist 1231:Lérida 1104:quartz 988:quartz 846:quartz 769:basalt 694:garnet 613:garnet 556:, and 407:Kelvin 382:quartz 374:marble 267:marble 231:stress 186:, and 130:quartz 114:schist 106:garnet 71:quartz 59:garnet 4511:S2CID 4429:S2CID 4337:(PDF) 4319:S2CID 4274:(PDF) 4246:(PDF) 4049:S2CID 3973:S2CID 3898:S2CID 3808:S2CID 2224:joule 1821:zone 1811:zone 1801:zone 1791:zone 1781:zone 1758:Slate 1650:fault 1606:Shock 1542:, or 1522:skarn 1444:magma 1291:shale 1287:Slate 1235:Spain 1225:, at 1179:Types 1126:CaSiO 1049:water 1033:KAlSi 976:)(OH) 968:(AlSi 921:water 781:magma 607:with 390:atoms 370:chalk 282:atoms 259:chalk 184:shock 147:(the 116:from 4603:ISBN 4549:ISBN 4530:ISBN 4464:ISBN 4445:ISBN 4358:ISBN 4345:2021 4286:2021 4262:2022 4228:ISBN 4215:2022 4188:ISBN 4169:ISBN 4150:ISBN 4123:ISBN 4104:ISBN 4085:ISBN 4066:ISBN 3934:ISBN 3915:ISBN 3859:ISBN 3837:2022 3745:2022 3732:ISBN 3711:ISBN 3680:ISBN 3661:ISBN 3054:2024 2078:ACF 2046:and 2023:High 1912:and 1831:zone 1772:--- 1760:--- 1633:and 1277:and 1275:mica 1092:CaCO 901:CaAl 882:(OH) 834:(OH) 783:via 699:CaFe 659:CaAl 584:and 394:ions 392:and 368:and 330:kbar 304:and 209:and 145:rock 110:mica 73:and 4580:doi 4503:doi 4481:SiO 4419:doi 4381:doi 4311:doi 4299:146 4142:doi 4041:doi 4029:113 4006:doi 3965:doi 3890:doi 3800:doi 3788:145 3770:doi 3703:doi 3644:doi 2328:SiO 2246:is 2232:is 1976:Low 1950:Low 1947:Low 1679:or 1534:ore 1474:in 1360:or 1285:. 1108:SiO 1014:SiO 993:SiO 964:KAl 851:SiO 775:in 771:to 638:SiO 566:SiO 529:SiO 433:.) 163:or 85:to 4933:: 4578:. 4568:16 4566:. 4509:. 4501:. 4491:87 4489:. 4427:, 4417:, 4407:40 4405:, 4377:23 4375:. 4317:. 4309:. 4297:. 4276:. 4254:82 4252:. 4248:. 4205:. 4148:. 4047:. 4039:. 4027:. 4023:. 4004:. 3994:42 3992:. 3988:. 3971:. 3963:. 3953:16 3951:. 3896:. 3888:. 3878:58 3876:. 3827:. 3823:. 3806:. 3798:. 3786:. 3768:. 3758:62 3756:. 3709:. 3642:. 3632:37 3630:. 3578:^ 3563:^ 3548:^ 3533:^ 3482:^ 3431:^ 3404:^ 3389:^ 3374:^ 3044:. 3040:. 2826:^ 2787:^ 2688:^ 2637:^ 2562:^ 2463:^ 2448:^ 2421:^ 2386:. 2312:A 2264:), 2240:), 2226:), 1904:. 1892:. 1869:. 1567:. 1524:. 1335:. 1233:, 1229:, 1142:CO 1134:+ 1116:→ 1100:+ 1045:+ 1022:+ 1010:Al 1001:→ 984:+ 974:10 917:+ 905:Si 899:14 890:+ 880:22 874:Si 870:Mg 859:→ 849:10 842:+ 832:22 826:Si 822:Al 818:Mg 814:Ca 731:12 717:Si 708:Al 697:2 690:→ 668:Si 651:+ 629:Fe 627:3 562:Al 552:, 199:. 182:, 178:, 174:, 97:A 4698:e 4691:t 4684:v 4664:( 4609:. 4586:. 4582:: 4574:: 4557:. 4538:. 4517:. 4505:: 4497:: 4483:5 4479:2 4472:. 4453:. 4421:: 4413:: 4387:. 4383:: 4366:. 4347:. 4325:. 4313:: 4305:: 4288:. 4264:. 4236:. 4217:. 4196:. 4177:. 4158:. 4144:: 4131:. 4112:. 4093:. 4074:. 4055:. 4043:: 4035:: 4014:. 4008:: 4000:: 3979:. 3967:: 3959:: 3942:. 3923:. 3904:. 3892:: 3884:: 3867:. 3839:. 3829:3 3814:. 3802:: 3794:: 3776:. 3772:: 3764:: 3747:. 3719:. 3705:: 3699:4 3688:. 3669:. 3650:. 3646:: 3638:: 3504:. 3492:. 3453:. 3426:. 3399:. 3384:. 3273:. 3201:. 3189:. 3165:. 3153:. 3141:. 3081:. 3056:. 2966:. 2954:. 2632:. 2533:. 2521:. 2330:5 2326:2 2288:S 2284:V 2268:S 2254:T 2244:V 2230:p 2216:U 2197:S 2194:T 2188:V 2185:p 2182:+ 2179:U 2176:= 2173:) 2170:T 2167:, 2164:p 2161:( 2158:G 2012:→ 2008:→ 1625:2 1497:- 1159:) 1155:( 1144:2 1128:3 1110:2 1094:3 1072:) 1068:( 1058:O 1056:2 1054:H 1052:2 1039:8 1037:O 1035:3 1031:2 1016:5 1012:2 1008:2 995:2 991:2 978:2 972:O 970:3 966:2 962:2 944:) 940:( 930:O 928:2 926:H 924:4 911:8 909:O 907:2 903:2 884:2 878:O 876:8 872:7 868:3 853:2 836:2 830:O 828:6 824:4 820:3 816:2 812:7 748:) 744:( 726:O 722:3 713:2 704:2 682:8 677:O 673:2 664:2 643:4 634:2 568:5 564:2 538:) 534:( 531:5 527:2 444:) 136:. 112:- 108:- 89:. 34:. 20:)

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