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1048:(GFPs). Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress and if the stress subsides they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies. Zooxanthellae are located within the coral cytoplasm and due to the algae's photosynthetic activity the internal pH of the coral can be raised; this behavior indicates that the zooxanthellae are responsible to some extent for the metabolism of their host corals. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease has been associated with the breakdown of host-zooxanthellae physiology. Moreover, Vibrio bacterium are known to have virulence traits used for host coral tissue damage and photoinhibition of algal symbionts. Therefore, both coral and their symbiotic microorganisms could have evolved to harbour traits resistant to disease and transmission.
2497:
1332:
1444:
1524:
2297:
1503:
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1512:
enter the holobiont from environmental sources (e.g., seawater, prey items, or suspension feeding) and removal rates exceed growth/immigration rates such that a dynamic and high-diversity microbiota results. Transient and stable populations compete for resources including nutrients, light and space and the outcome of resource-based competition (bottom-up control) ultimately determines population growth rate and thus ability to persist when subject to removal. Whether a population is categorized as stable or transient may depend on the timeframe considered.
1790:
1774:
2782:
2892:
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1812:
2837:
152:
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1636:
130:
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1230:, as many as 10 out of 50 species may be showing spawning asynchrony, compared to 30 years ago. The establishment of new corals in the area has decreased and in some cases ceased. The area was previously considered a refuge for corals because mass bleaching events due to climate change had not been observed there. Coral restoration techniques for coral reef management are being developed to increase fertilization rates, larval development, and settlement of new corals.
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1243:
1168:
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924:
954:
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2817:
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1025:. Young corals are not born with zooxanthellae, but acquire the algae from the surrounding environment, including the water column and local sediment. The main benefit of the zooxanthellae is their ability to photosynthesize which supplies corals with the products of photosynthesis, including glucose, glycerol, also amino acids, which the corals can use for energy. Zooxanthellae also benefit corals by aiding in
899:, but the polyps of most are connected by sheets of tissue called coenosarc, and in some species these sheets are thick and the polyps deeply embedded in them. Some soft corals encrust other sea objects or form lobes. Others are tree-like or whip-like and have a central axial skeleton embedded at their base in the matrix of the supporting branch. These branches are composed of a fibrous protein called
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5697:
5634:
5502:
761:
560:
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1937:
733:(HSP) that are also in the category of DE across species. These HSPs help corals combat the increased temperatures they are facing which lead to protein denaturing, growth loss, and eventually coral death. Approximately 33% of coral species are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's endangered species list and at risk of species loss.
1323:, where the colony splits into two or more colonies during early developmental stages. Bailout occurs when a single polyp abandons the colony and settles on a different substrate to create a new colony. Fragmentation involves individuals broken from the colony during storms or other disruptions. The separated individuals can start new colonies.
752:, heavily outweigh the typical reproduction rates of coral colonies when pH levels fall. Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat the increase in temperature and decrease in pH at a competitive rate to these pathogens responsible for coral bleaching, resulting in species loss.
982:) opens and its stinging apparatus fires the barb into the prey. The venom is injected through the hollow filament to immobilise the prey; the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey into the stomach. Once the prey is digested the stomach reopens allowing the elimination of waste products and the beginning of the next hunting cycle.
2733:, which have been declining around the world. The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral fragments known as "seeds" are grown in nurseries then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef
1373:
Studies have also suggested that resident bacteria, archaea, and fungi additionally contribute to nutrient and organic matter cycling within the coral, with viruses also possibly playing a role in structuring the composition of these members, thus providing one of the first glimpses at a multi-domain
1238:
Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which is negatively buoyant, sinking onto the waiting egg carriers that harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occur even with these
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The polyps of stony corals have six-fold symmetry. In stony corals, the tentacles are cylindrical and taper to a point, but in soft corals they are pinnate with side branches known as pinnules. In some tropical species, these are reduced to mere stubs and in some, they are fused to give a paddle-like
2179:
have shifted in location. Not only have the symbionts and specific species been shown to shift, but there seems to be a certain growth rate favorable to selection. Slower-growing but more heat-tolerant corals have become more common. The changes in temperature and acclimation are complex. Some reefs
1265:
species or microbial biofilms. High failure rates afflict many stages of this process, and even though thousands of eggs are released by each colony, few new colonies form. During settlement, larvae are inhibited by physical barriers such as sediment, as well as chemical (allelopathic) barriers. The
1155:
is essential so that male and female gametes can meet. Spawning frequently takes place in the evening or at night, and can occur as infrequently as once a year, and within a window of 10â30 minutes. Synchronous spawning is very typical on the coral reef, and often, all corals spawn on the same night
7955:
Ehrlich, H.; Etnoyer, P.; Litvinov, S. D.; Olennikova, M.M.; Domaschke, H.; Hanke, T.; Born, R.; Meissner, H.; Worch, H. (2006). "Biomaterial structure in deep-sea bamboo coral (Anthozoa: Gorgonacea: Isididae): perspectives for the development of bone implants and templates for tissue engineering".
2447:
Many governments now prohibit removal of coral from reefs, and inform coastal residents about reef protection and ecology. While local action such as habitat restoration and herbivore protection can reduce local damage, the longer-term threats of acidification, temperature change and sea-level rise
1460:
and symbiont influence host health, however, the historic influence of each member on others is not well understood. Scleractinian corals have been diversifying for longer than many other symbiotic systems, and their microbiomes are known to be partially species-specific. It has been suggested that
1211:
Moonlight itself may actually suppress coral spawning. The most immediate cue to cause spawning appears to be the dark portion of the night between sunset and moonrise. Over the lunar cycle, moonrise shifts progressively later, occurring after sunset on the day of the full moon. The resulting dark
1590:
which require sunlight; reef-forming corals are therefore found mainly in shallow water. They secrete calcium carbonate to form hard skeletons that become the framework of the reef. However, not all reef-building corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae, and some deep water species, living at
1306:
Division forms two polyps that each become as large as the original. Longitudinal division begins when a polyp broadens and then divides its coelenteron (body), effectively splitting along its length. The mouth divides and new tentacles form. The two polyps thus created then generate their missing
1246:
Generalized life cycle of corals via sexual reproduction: Colonies release gametes in clusters (1) which float to the surface (2) then disperse and fertilize eggs (3). Embryos become planulae (4) and can settle onto a surface (5). They then metamorphose into a juvenile polyp (6) which then matures
846:
and fish larvae. Longitudinal muscular fibers formed from the cells of the ectoderm allow tentacles to contract to convey the food to the mouth. Similarly, circularly disposed muscular fibres formed from the endoderm permit tentacles to be protracted or thrust out once they are contracted. In both
2649:
Coastal communities near coral reefs rely heavily on them. Worldwide, more than 500 million people depend on coral reefs for food, income, coastal protection, and more. The total economic value of coral reef services in the United States - including fisheries, tourism, and coastal protection - is
2526:
Always considered a precious mineral, "the
Chinese have long associated red coral with auspiciousness and longevity because of its color and its resemblance to deer antlers (so by association, virtue, long life, and high rank". It reached its height of popularity during the Manchu or Qing Dynasty
2057:
To assess the threat level of coral, scientists developed a coral imbalance ratio, Log (Average abundance of disease-associated taxa / Average abundance of healthy associated taxa). The lower the ratio the healthier the microbial community is. This ratio was developed after the microbial mucus of
1511:
Stable microbes may be introduced to the holobiont through horizontal or vertical transmission and persist in ecological niches within the coral polyp where growth (or immigration) rates balance removal pressures from biophysical processes and immune or ecological interactions. Transient microbes
869:
The external form of the polyp varies greatly. The column may be long and slender, or may be so short in the axial direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be very few, in rare cases only one or two. They may be simple and unbranched, or feathery in
792:. Colonies of stony coral are markedly variable in appearance; a single species may adopt an encrusting, plate-like, bushy, columnar or massive solid structure, the various forms often being linked to different types of habitat, with variations in light level and water movement being significant.
621:
The delineation of coral species is challenging as hypotheses based on morphological traits contradict hypotheses formed via molecular tree-based processes. As of 2020, there are 2175 identified separate coral species, 237 of which are currently endangered, making distinguishing corals to be the
4934:
Ayalon, Inbal; Rosenberg, Yaeli; Benichou, Jennifer I. C.; Campos, Celine Luisa D.; Sayco, Sherry Lyn G.; Nada, Michael
Angelou L.; Baquiran, Jake Ivan P.; Ligson, Charlon A.; Avisar, Dror; Conaco, Cecilia; Kuechly, Helga U.; Kyba, Christopher C. M.; Cabaitan, Patrick C.; Levy, Oren (25 January
940:
Coral skeletons are biocomposites (mineral + organics) of calcium carbonate, in the form of calcite or aragonite. In scleractinian corals, "centers of calcification" and fibers are clearly distinct structures differing with respect to both morphology and chemical compositions of the crystalline
2044:
produce water with a naturally low pH (relatively high acidity) providing conditions similar to those expected to become widespread as the oceans absorb carbon dioxide. Surveys discovered multiple species of live coral that appeared to tolerate the acidity. The colonies were small and patchily
1614:
is thought to have been laid down about two million years ago. Over time, corals fragment and die, sand and rubble accumulates between the corals, and the shells of clams and other molluscs decay to form a gradually evolving calcium carbonate structure. Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine
2074:, death, and therefore shrinking coral populations. Although coral are able to adapt and acclimate, it is uncertain if this evolutionary process will happen quickly enough to prevent major reduction of their numbers. Climate change causes more frequent and more severe storms that can destroy
1752:
Rugose or horn corals became dominant by the middle of the
Silurian period, and during the Devonian, corals flourished with more than 200 genera. The rugose corals existed in solitary and colonial forms, and were also composed of calcite. Both rugose and tabulate corals became extinct in the
642:
There are two main classifications for corals: hard coral (scleractinian and stony coral) which form reefs by a calcium carbonate base, with polyps that bear six stiff tentacles, and soft coral (Alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral) which are pliable and formed by a colony of polyps with eight
1303:. The distance between the new and adult polyps grows, and with it, the coenosarc (the common body of the colony). Budding can be intratentacular, from its oral discs, producing same-sized polyps within the ring of tentacles, or extratentacular, from its base, producing a smaller polyp.
670:
as research models since they are the most diverse genus of hard coral, having over 120 species. Most species within this genus have polyps which are dimorphic: axial polyps grow rapidly and have lighter coloration, while radial polyps are small and are darker in coloration. In the
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and mushroom corals, which are especially easy to grow and propagate in a wide variety of conditions, because they originate in enclosed parts of reefs where water conditions vary and lighting may be less reliable and direct. More serious fishkeepers may keep small polyp
2640:
Healthy coral reefs absorb 97 percent of a wave's energy, which buffers shorelines from currents, waves, and storms, helping to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also more stable in terms of erosion than those without.
1307:
body parts and exoskeleton. Transversal division occurs when polyps and the exoskeleton divide transversally into two parts. This means one has the basal disc (bottom) and the other has the oral disc (top); the new polyps must separately generate the missing pieces.
7679:
7489:
Ren, Lei; Linsley, Braddock K.; Wellington, Gerard M.; Schrag, Daniel P.; Hoegh-guldberg, Ove (2003). "Deconvolving the δO seawater component from subseasonal coral δO and Sr/Ca at
Rarotonga in the southwestern subtropical Pacific for the period 1726 to 1997".
1609:
There are various types of shallow-water coral reef, including fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls; most occur in tropical and subtropical seas. They are very slow-growing, adding perhaps one centimetre (0.4 in) in height each year. The
1383:
is emerging as a central member of the coral's microbiome, with flexibility in its lifestyle. Given the recent mass bleaching occurring on reefs, corals will likely continue to be a useful and popular system for symbiosis and dysbiosis research.
2216:) crystalline structures as they grow. Geochemical anomalies within the crystalline structures of corals represent functions of temperature, salinity and oxygen isotopic composition. Such geochemical analysis can help with climate modeling. The
634:
produced and genetically identical modules called polyps. Polyps are connected by living tissue to produce the full organism. The living tissue allows for inter module communication (interaction between each polyp), which appears in colony
1841:
to fill the niche vacated by the extinct rugose and tabulate orders and is not closely related to the earlier forms. Unlike the corals prevalent before the
Permian extinction, which formed skeletons of a form of calcium carbonate known as
5598:
Hughes, T.P., Kerry, J.T., Ălvarez-Noriega, M., Ălvarez-Romero, J.G., Anderson, K.D., Baird, A.H., Babcock, R.C., Beger, M., Bellwood, D.R., Berkelmans, R. and Bridge, T.C. (2017) "Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals".
1365:
have been examined in a variety of studies, which demonstrate how oceanic environmental variations, most notably temperature, light, and inorganic nutrients, affect the abundance and performance of the microalgal symbionts, as well as
2573:
In medicine, chemical compounds from corals can potentially be used to treat cancer, neurological diseases, inflammation including arthritis, pain, bone loss, high blood pressure and for other therapeutic uses. Coral skeletons, e.g.
1260:
larvae develop at the water's surface before descending to seek a hard surface on the benthos to which they can attach and begin a new colony. The larvae often need a biological cue to induce settlement such as specific crustose
1482:
between corals and their tissue and skeleton microbiomes. The coral skeleton, which represents the most diverse of the three coral microbiomes, showed the strongest evidence of phylosymbiosis. Coral microbiome composition and
7257:
7753:
Hunt, Chloe V.; Harvey, James J.; Miller, Anne; Johnson, Vivienne; Phongsuwan, Niphon (2013). "The Green Fins approach for monitoring and promoting environmentally sustainable scuba diving operations in South East Asia".
941:
units. The organic matrices extracted from diverse species are acidic, and comprise proteins, sulphated sugars and lipids; they are species specific. The soluble organic matrices of the skeletons allow to differentiate
1040:, phosphate and nitrogenous waste. Stressed corals will eject their zooxanthellae, a process that is becoming increasingly common due to strain placed on coral by rising ocean temperatures. Mass ejections are known as
1318:
Whole colonies can reproduce asexually, forming two colonies with the same genotype. The possible mechanisms include fission, bailout and fragmentation. Fission occurs in some corals, especially among the family
780:. Each polyp varies from millimeters to centimeters in diameter, and colonies can be formed from many millions of individual polyps. Stony coral, also known as hard coral, polyps produce a skeleton composed of
1854:
and later periods. Although they are geologically younger than the tabulate and rugose corals, the aragonite of their skeletons is less readily preserved, and their fossil record is accordingly less complete.
5572:
Neave, M.J., Michell, C.T., Apprill, A. and
Voolstra, C.R. (2017) "Endozoicomonas genomes reveal functional adaptation and plasticity in bacterial strains symbiotically associated with diverse marine hosts".
5000:
Suzuki, Go; Okada, Wataru; Yasutake, Yoko; Yamamoto, Hidekazu; Tanita, Iwao; Yamashita, Hiroshi; Hayashibara, Takeshi; Komatsu, Toshiaki; Kanyama, Toru; Inoue, Masahito; Yamazaki, Masashi (September 2020).
5624:
2592:
as a supplement in the treatment of a variety of bone metabolic disorders associated with calcium deficiency. In classical times ingestion of pulverized coral, which consists mainly of the weak base
2459:, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates. A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.
1416:
sequences, since sequences produced by the
Illumina platform are of insufficient length (approximately 250 base pairs) for the design of primers and probes. In 2019, Goldsmith et al. demonstrated
2939:
RouzĂŠ, HĂŠloĂŻse; Galand, Pierre E.; Medina, MĂłnica; Bongaerts, Pim; Pichon, Michel; PĂŠrez-Rosales, Gonzalo; Torda, Gergely; Moya, Aurelie; Raina, Jean-Baptiste; HĂŠdouin, Laetitia (May 9, 2021).
6771:
1773:
1191:, and possibly chemical signalling. Other factors that affect the rhythmicity of organisms in marine habitats include salinity, mechanical forces, and pressure or magnetic field changes.
847:
stony and soft corals, the polyps can be retracted by contracting muscle fibres, with stony corals relying on their hard skeleton and cnidocytes for defense. Soft corals generally secrete
582:
474:; it is popularly but wrongly supposed that Aristotle created the term. Gyllius further noted, following Aristotle, how hard it was to define what was a plant and what was an animal. The
4086:
Cuif, J.P.; Dauphin, Y.; Freiwald, A.; Gautret, P.; Zibrowius, H. (1999). "Biochemical markers of zooxanthellae symbiosis in soluble matrices of skeleton of 24 Scleractinia species".
2149:
of coral species, gene flow cannot be counted on as a dependable source of adaptation as they are very stationary organisms. Also, coral longevity might factor into their adaptivity.
2123:
level limits their height. By analyzing the various growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low-resolution record of sea level change. Fossilized microatolls can also be dated using
1987:
Approximately 10% of the world's coral reefs are dead. About 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to human-related activities. The threat to reef health is particularly strong in
5805:
Peixoto, R.S., Rosado, P.M., Leite, D.C.D.A., Rosado, A.S. and Bourne, D.G. (2017) "Beneficial microorganisms for corals (BMC): proposed mechanisms for coral health and resilience".
2168:
zooxanthella is becoming more common where sea temperature is high. Symbionts able to tolerate warmer water seem to photosynthesise more slowly, implying an evolutionary trade-off.
3254:"Fine-Scale Biogeographical Boundary Delineation and Sub-population Resolution in the Symbiodinium thermophilum Coral Symbiont Group From the Persian/Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman"
7314:
854:
In most corals, the tentacles are retracted by day and spread out at night to catch plankton and other small organisms. Shallow-water species of both stony and soft corals can be
321:
near the base. Over many generations, the colony thus creates a skeleton characteristic of the species which can measure up to several meters in size. Individual colonies grow by
2798:
372:
and give the coral color. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 feet; 33 fathoms), but corals in the genus
7396:
McClanahan, T.; Ateweberhan, M.; Muhando, C.; Maina, J. & Mohammed, M. (2007). "Effects of
Climate and Seawater Temperature Variation on Coral Bleaching and Morality".
2527:(1644-1911) when it was almost exclusively reserved for the emperor's use either in the form of coral beads (often combined with pearls) for court jewelry or as decorative
489:(d.1048) classified sponges and corals as animals, arguing that they respond to touch. Nevertheless, people believed corals to be plants until the eighteenth century when
1223:, typically pink and elliptical in shape. A typical coral colony needs to release several thousand larvae per year to overcome the odds against formation of a new colony.
1215:
The spawning event can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes. Once released, gametes fertilize at the water's surface and form a microscopic
6062:
Thompson, J.R., Rivera, H.E., Closek, C.J. and Medina, M. (2015) "Microbes in the coral holobiont: partners through evolution, development, and ecological interactions".
1194:
Mass coral spawning often occurs at night on days following a full moon. A full moon is equivalent to four to six hours of continuous dim light exposure, which can cause
7111:
Hughes, T.; Baird, A.; Bellwood, D.; Card, M.; Connolly, S.; Folke, C.; Grosberg, R.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jackson, J.; Klepas, J.; Lough, J.; Marshall, P.; Nystrom, M.;
6097:
hompson, J.R., Rivera, H.E., Closek, C.J. and Medina, M. (2015) "Microbes in the coral holobiont: partners through evolution, development, and ecological interactions".
5455:
Anthony, K.R., Kline, D.I., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S. and Hoegh-Guldberg, O.(2008) "Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders".
6269:
2184:
location that will help them adjust to the disparity in the environment even if eventually the temperatures may rise more quickly there than in other locations. This
1440:(photosynthetic dinoflagellates), as well as its associated bacteria and viruses. Co-evolutionary patterns exist for coral microbial communities and coral phylogeny.
3949:
Cuif, J.P.; Dauphin, Y. (1998). "Microstructural and physico-chemical characterization of 'centers of calcification' in septa of some Recent scleractinian corals".
1064:, each of which can reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction also allows coral to settle in new areas. Reproduction is coordinated by chemical communication.
1888:
966:
Polyps feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic zooplankton to small fish. The polyp's tentacles immobilize or kill prey using stinging cells called
1310:
Asexual reproduction offers the benefits of high reproductive rate, delaying senescence, and replacement of dead modules, as well as geographical distribution.
3502:"Promoter Bashing, microRNAs, and Knox Genes. New Insights, Regulators, and Targets-of-Regulation in the Establishment of Lateral Organ Polarity in Arabidopsis"
3501:
1893:
1651:
At certain times in the geological past, corals were very abundant. Like modern corals, their ancestors built reefs, some of which ended as great structures in
2729:, is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration. Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring
1811:
5998:
Pollock, F. Joseph; McMinds, Ryan; Smith, Styles; Bourne, David G.; Willis, Bette L.; Medina, MĂłnica; Thurber, Rebecca Vega; Zaneveld, Jesse R. (2018-11-22).
5739:
Pollock, F. Joseph; McMinds, Ryan; Smith, Styles; Bourne, David G.; Willis, Bette L.; Medina, MĂłnica; Thurber, Rebecca Vega; Zaneveld, Jesse R. (2018-11-22).
838:
which serve both for tactile sense and for the capture of food. Polyps extend their tentacles, particularly at night, often containing coiled stinging cells (
8287:
Pomeroy, Robert S.; Parks, John E.; Balboa, Cristina M. (2006). "Farming the reef: Is aquaculture a solution for reducing fishing pressure on coral reefs?".
5935:
van de Water, Jeroen A. J. M.; Melkonian, RÊmy; Voolstra, Christian R.; Junca, Howard; Beraud, Eric; Allemand, Denis; Ferrier-Pagès, Christine (2017-02-01).
2704:, which is from open, brightly lit reef conditions and therefore much more demanding, while large polyp stony coral is a sort of compromise between the two.
4267:
2403:
species skeletal structure creates difficulty when physically sampled, which happens to be one of the only multidecadal living coral records used for coral
8252:
Horoszowski-Fridman YB, Izhaki I, Rinkevich B (2011). "Engineering of coral reef larval supply through transplantation of nursery-farmed gravid colonies".
8216:
2523:. In general, it is inadvisable to give coral as gifts since they are in decline from stressors like climate change, pollution, and unsustainable fishing.
2002:
In the
Caribbean and tropical Pacific, direct contact between ~40â70% of common seaweeds and coral causes bleaching and death to the coral via transfer of
7991:
Reddy PN, Lakshmana M, Udupa UV (December 2003). "Effect of Praval bhasma (Coral calx), a natural source of rich calcium on bone mineralization in rats".
974:
which they rapidly release in response to contact with another organism. A dormant nematocyst discharges in response to nearby prey touching the trigger (
714:
knowledge. Researchers have not found enough variability within the genus to confidently delineate similar species, due to a low rate in mutation of
1468:
7677:
5003:"Enhancing coral larval supply and seedling production using a special bundle collection system "coral larval cradle" for large-scale coral restoration"
1889:
3177:
RamĂrez-Portilla, Catalina; Baird, Andrew H; Cowman, Peter F; Quattrini, Andrea M; Harii, Saki; Sinniger, Frederic; Flot, Jean-François (2022-03-01).
2470:
Local economies near major coral reefs benefit from an abundance of fish and other marine creatures as a food source. Reefs also provide recreational
1515:
6615:
5518:
Bourne, D.G., Morrow, K.M. and
Webster, N.S. (2016) "Insights into the coral microbiome: underpinning the health and resilience of reef ecosystems".
1019:, which can form as much as 30% of the tissue of a polyp. Typically, each polyp harbors one species of alga, and coral species show a preference for
6778:
7701:
6167:
3910:
8323:
7645:
5543:
Neave, M.J., Apprill, A., Ferrier-Pagès, C. and Voolstra, C.R. (2016) "Diversity and function of prevalent symbiotic marine bacteria in the genus
3606:
9056:
458:
stated boldly that several sea creatures including sea nettles and sponges "are neither animals nor plants, but are possessed of a third nature (
2737:
or for income. It is also farmed by scientists for research, by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade and by private
6242:
4000:
Cuif, J.P.; Dauphin, Y.; Doucet, J.; SalomĂŠ, M.; Susini, J. (2003). "XANES mapping of organic sulfate in three scleractinian coral skeletons".
826:
The sac-like body built up in this way is attached to a hard surface, which in hard corals are cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as
6804:
8922:
6462:
Ries JB, Stanley SM, Hardie LA (July 2006). "Scleractinian corals produce calcite, and grow more slowly, in artificial Cretaceous seawater".
4609:
Häfker, N. SÜren; Andreatta, Gabriele; Manzotti, Alessandro; Falciatore, Angela; Raible, Florian; Tessmar-Raible, Kristin (16 January 2023).
1496:
8152:
700:
2680:
on which coral is allowed to grow and spread. These tanks are either kept in a natural-like state, with algae (sometimes in the form of an
1183:
Environmental cues that influence the release of gametes into the water vary from species to species. The cues involve temperature change,
1347:. OTUs from next-generation sequencing are displayed if the OTU contained more than two sequences in the unrarefied OTU table (3626 OTUs).
1256:
The time from spawning to larval settlement is usually two to three days but can occur immediately or up to two months. Broadcast-spawned
7678:
Walsworth, T.E.; Schindler, D.E.; Colton, M.A.; Webster, M.S.; Palumbi, S.R.; Mumby, P.J.; Essington, T.E.; Pinsky, M.L. (July 1, 2019).
4043:
Dauphin, Y.; Cuif, J.P.; Williams, C. T. (2008). "Soluble organic matrices of aragonitic skeletons of Merulinidae (Cnidaria, Anthozoa)".
683:
occur at the basal polyps, growth occurs mainly at the radial polyps. Growth at the site of the radial polyps encompasses two processes:
6658:
5937:"Comparative Assessment of Mediterranean Gorgonian-Associated Microbial Communities Reveals Conserved Core and Locally Variant Bacteria"
4510:
de O Santos et al., "Genomic and Proteomic Analyses of the Coral Pathogen Vibrio Coralliilyticus Reveal a Diverse Virulence Repertoire".
3761:
2624:(England), was once used as a building stone, and can be seen in some of the oldest buildings in that city including the Saxon tower of
8684:
1789:
1471:
with its host. This hints at an intricate set of relationships between the members of the coral holobiont that have been developing as
3881:
5625:
USGS scientists publish long-read microbiome sequences from temperate coral, providing community resource for probe and primer design
3551:
Stemmer, Kristina; Burghardt, Ingo; Mayer, Christoph; Reinicke, GÜtz B.; Wägele, Heike; Tollrian, Ralph; Leese, Florian (June 2013).
2462:
To eliminate destruction of corals in their indigenous regions, projects have been started to grow corals in non-tropical countries.
1738:
7527:"Oceanographic variability in the South Pacific Convergence Zone region over the last 210 years from multi-site coral Sr/Ca records"
2391:
coral provides a stable foundation for geochemical interpretations that is much simpler to physically extract data in comparison to
737:(falling pH levels in the oceans) is threatening the continued species growth and differentiation of corals. Mutation rates of
2119:, which are colonies whose top is dead and mostly above the water line, but whose perimeter is mostly submerged and alive. Average
6359:
Vinn, O.; MĂľtus, M.-A. (2012). "Diverse early endobiotic coral symbiont assemblage from the Katian (Late Ordovician) of Baltica".
3752:
6393:
5438:
Dubinsky, Z. and Jokiel, P.L. (1994) "Ratio of energy and nutrient fluxes regulates symbiosis between zooxanthellae and corals".
4521:
1033:
are also found in the coral's mucus and (in stony corals) the skeleton, with the latter showing the greatest microbial richness.
884:
Soft corals have no solid exoskeleton as such. However, their tissues are often reinforced by small supportive elements known as
7736:
4370:
2848:
9001:
6419:
313:
polyps. Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in height. A set of
4501:
Landsberg et al., "Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease in Florida Is Associated With Disruption of HostâZooxanthellae Physiology".
1266:
larvae metamorphose into a single polyp and eventually develops into a juvenile and then adult by asexual budding and growth.
626:
and delineation continues to occur in species of coral in order to combat the dangers posed by the climate crisis. Corals are
9153:
8601:
8582:
8561:
8529:
8510:
8491:
8472:
8453:
8434:
8057:
8026:
6754:
6284:
6210:
5372:
5345:
5067:
4853:
4688:
4531:
4335:
4133:
3933:
3715:
3455:
3100:
3066:
3034:
1926:
1754:
1424:, while also producing longer sequences useful to the research community for probe and primer design (see diagram on right).
378:
have been found as deep as 172 metres (564 feet; 94 fathoms). Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the
1763:(along with 85% of marine species), and there is a gap of tens of millions of years until new forms of coral evolved in the
8185:
7115:; Pandolfi, J.; Rosen, B.; and Roughgarden, J. (2003). "Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs".
6558:
6592:
5084:
4871:"Density of coral larvae can influence settlement, post-settlement colony abundance and coral cover in larval restoration"
337:. Fertilized eggs form planulae, a mobile early form of the coral polyp which, when mature, settles to form a new colony.
7717:
6805:"Coral crisis! Humans are killing off these bustling underwater cities. Can coral reefs be saved? (Life science: corals)"
6497:
4351:
1202:, proteins whose light-absorbing flavin structures are sensitive to different types of light. This allows corals such as
1151:âinto the water where they meet and fertilize to spread offspring. Corals often synchronize their time of spawning. This
3058:
The Coral Reef Era: From Discovery to Decline: A history of scientific investigation from 1600 to the Anthropocene Epoch
1523:
703:, which is the most accurate distinguisher between coral species. In the Acropora genus, colony differentiation through
430:
The classification of corals has been discussed for millennia, owing to having similarities to both plants and animals.
9076:
5483:
Apprill, A. (2017) "Marine animal microbiomes: toward understanding hostâmicrobiome interactions in a changing ocean".
2304:
The global moisture budget is primarily being influenced by tropical sea surface temperatures from the position of the
4301:
1968:
and access into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader threats are sea temperature rise,
1130:
9091:
8622:
8034:
8025:
Pedanius Dioscorides â Der Wiener Dioskurides, Codex medicus Graecus 1 der Ăsterreichischen Nationalbibliothek Graz:
4559:
3638:
Strauss, Chloe; Long, Hongan; Patterson, Caitlyn E.; Te, Ronald; Lynch, Michael (2017-09-06). Moran, Nancy A. (ed.).
3484:
3125:
2891:
2872:
1876:
1875:
1331:
608:
842:) which pierce, poison and firmly hold living prey paralyzing or killing them. Polyp prey includes plankton such as
9196:
9036:
8726:
8235:
4151:"Comparing the Effects of Symbiotic Algae (Symbiodinium) Clades C1 and D on Early Growth Stages of Acropora tenuis"
3150:
2764:
2209:
2046:
1864:
7827:
Lacey, Pippa, "The Coral Network: The trade of red coral to the Qing imperial court in the eighteenth century" in
2781:
2496:
9127:
6673:
4275:
2999:
2684:) and a deep sand bed providing filtration, or as "show tanks", with the rock kept largely bare of the algae and
1212:
period between day-light and night-light removes the suppressive effect of moonlight and enables coral to spawn.
704:
696:
406:
which can survive as deep as 3,300 metres (10,800 feet; 1,800 fathoms). Some have been found as far north as the
8213:
7592:
7567:
6711:
Tun, K.; Chou, L.M.; Cabanban, A.; Tuan, V.S.; Philreefs, S.; Yeemin, T.; Suharsono; Sour, K.; Lane, D. (2004).
2360:
2317:
2285:
1044:
because the algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as
534:
and species of Octocorallia have polyps with an eightfold symmetry, each polyp having eight tentacles and eight
6881:
2321:
2313:
2305:
2281:
1910:
5713:
Knowlton, N. and Rohwer, F. (2003) "Multispecies microbial mutualisms on coral reefs: the host as a habitat".
2482:
that encourage dive and snorkel centres to follow a Code of Conduct have been proven to mitigate these risks.
1890:
1884:
830:. At the center of the upper end of the sac lies the only opening called the mouth, surrounded by a circle of
9051:
8379:
Ferse, Sebastian C.A. (2010). "Poor Performance of Corals Transplanted onto Substrates of Short Durability".
2816:
2452:
2252:
The comparison of coral strontium/calcium minimums with sea surface temperature maximums, data recorded from
2181:
2092:), may be among the first signs of the effects of ocean acidification on marine life. The growth rings allow
1891:
1502:
1443:
397:
Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live globally in much deeper water, such as the cold-water
198:
7790:
7071:
Smithers, Scott G.; Woodroffe, Colin D. (2000). "Microatolls as sea-level indicators on a mid-ocean atoll".
2836:
1882:
1870:
1869:
1679:. Coral fossils are not restricted to reef remnants, and many solitary fossils are found elsewhere, such as
870:
pattern. The mouth may be level with the surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped.
394:
events where polyps expel the zooxanthellae in response to stress such as high water temperature or toxins.
8976:
7441:
Kilbourne, K. Halimeda; Quinn, Terrence M.; Taylor, Frederick W.; Delcroix, Thierry; Gouriou, Yves (2004).
7008:"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration â New Deep-Sea Coral Discovered on NOAA-Supported Mission"
3778:"Gastrovascular Circulation in an Octocoral: Evidence of Significant Transport of Coral and Symbiont Cells"
2751:
2273:
2153:
1749:
alongside rugose corals. Tabulate coral numbers began to decline during the middle of the Silurian period.
1404:
to study microbial community interactions associated with symbiotic state. However, the ability to develop
1097:
6623:
6445:
788:, the living tissue that connects them. The polyps sit in cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as
9081:
9041:
7525:
Wu, Henry C.; Linsley, Braddock K.; DassiĂŠ, Emilie P.; Schiraldi, Benedetto; deMenocal, Peter B. (2013).
6665:
6173:
4704:
Hatta, M.; Fukami, H.; Wang, W.; Omori, M.; Shimoike, K.; Hayashibara, T.; Ina, Y.; Sugiyama, T. (1999).
2625:
1885:
1357:
Corals are one of the more common examples of an animal host whose symbiosis with microalgae can turn to
1226:
Studies suggest that light pollution desynchronizes spawning in some coral species. In areas such as the
888:
made of calcium carbonate. The polyps of soft corals have eight-fold symmetry, which is reflected in the
6659:"Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A guide for Future Research"
5289:"Chemical effects of macroalgae on larval settlement of the broadcast spawning coral Acropora millepora"
1866:
1491:. For example, interactions between bacterial and eukaryotic coral phylogeny influence the abundance of
8678:
8362:
7653:
6961:
Hoegh-Guldberg O. (1999). "Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs".
5390:"Season, but not symbiont state, drives microbiome structure in the temperate coral Astrangia poculata"
3614:
3506:
1850:. Their fossils are found in small numbers in rocks from the Triassic period, and become common in the
1421:
1405:
1344:
1336:
721:
Environmental factors, such as the rise of temperatures and acid levels in our oceans account for some
652:
482:
describes it as "a type of tree (××× ×˘×Ľ) that grows underwater that goes by the (French) name "coral."
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3443:
1887:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1868:
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1865:
1640:
Artist's depiction of life on the ocean floor as it may have appeared prior to the evolution of corals
1574:, meaning that they are involved in building reefs. Most such corals obtain some of their energy from
1396:, widely documented along the eastern coast of the United States. The coral can live with and without
9168:
8933:
7443:"El NiĂąo-Southern Oscillation-related salinity variations recorded in the skeletal geochemistry of a
3833:"A problematic cnidarian (Cambroctoconus; Octocorallia?) from the Cambrian (Series 2â3) of Laurentia"
2827:
1195:
1045:
858:, the corals supplementing their plankton diet with the products of photosynthesis produced by these
151:
7285:
6246:
2535:
in Chinese. The "early-modern 'coral network' the Mediterranean Sea to Qing China via the English
2204:
Corals are shallow, colonial organisms that integrate oxygen and trace elements into their skeletal
2137:
Though coral have large sexually-reproducing populations, their evolution can be slowed by abundant
639:
produced by corals, and is one of the main identifying characteristics for a species of coral.
9178:
9031:
8996:
8183:
Aquarium Corals: Collection and Aquarium Husbandry of Northeast Pacific Non-Photosynthetic Cnidaria
7418:
6225:
5651:
b. Goldsmith, Dawn; a. Pratte, Zoe; a. Kellogg, Christina; e. Snader, Sara; h. Sharp, Koty (2019).
3882:"existing and potential value of coral ecosystems with respect to income and other economic values"
3142:
1981:
1878:
1877:
590:
586:
570:
446:, in his book on stones, implying it was a mineral, but he described it as a deep-sea plant in his
6644:
2515:. Intensely red coral is prized as a gemstone. Sometimes called fire coral, it is not the same as
2296:
9021:
8642:
8159:
7610:
Lukas, Roger; Lindstrom, Eric (1991). "The mixed layer of the western equatorial Pacific Ocean".
2941:"Symbiotic associations of the deepest recorded photosynthetic scleractinian coral (172 m depth)"
2755:
2364:
2348:
2237:
2067:
1863:
1644:
5882:"Evidence for host specificity among dominant bacterial symbionts in temperate gorgonian corals"
5388:
Sharp, Koty H.; Pratte, Zoe A.; Kerwin, Allison H.; Rotjan, Randi D.; Stewart, Frank J. (2017).
4706:"Reproductive and genetic evidence for a reticulate evolutionary theory of mass spawning corals"
2264:
variations, a perceptible association to annual coral growth rings confirms the age conversion.
2156:
has been demonstrated in many cases, which is usually due to a shift in coral and zooxanthellae
2045:
distributed and had not formed structurally complex reefs such as those that compose the nearby
9163:
9016:
7413:
7280:
7007:
5833:"Distinguishing between Microbial Habitats Unravels Ecological Complexity in Coral Microbiomes"
1152:
450:, where he also mentions large stony plants that reveal bright flowers when under water in the
31:
17:
6746:
6202:
3553:"Morphological and genetic analyses of xeniid soft coral diversity (Octocorallia; Alcyonacea)"
2029:
changes can kill some species of coral. Under such environmental stresses, corals expel their
1412:
to more specifically target key microbial groups has been hindered by the lack of full-length
9158:
9122:
9086:
8928:
8916:
8894:
8572:
8047:
7695:
7182:
6989:
6677:
5362:
3024:
2734:
2416:
2164:
have progressed toward more tolerant types of zooxanthellae. Scientists found that a certain
1999:
may be destroyed by 2030; as a result, most nations protect them through environmental laws.
928:
656:
8688:
8669:
8049:
Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800â1900
7258:"Global assessment of coral bleaching and required rates of adaptation under climate change"
6738:
6719:. Townsville, Queensland, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Science. pp. 235â76
5161:
Webster, Nicole S.; Smith, Luke D.; Heyward, Andrew J.; Watts, Joy E. M.; Webb, Richard I.;
3745:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
3056:
2352:
2312:
has a unique meteorological feature positioned in the southwestern Pacific Basin called the
2253:
2241:
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9268:
9206:
9011:
8719:
8503:
Coral Reef Animals of the Indo-Pacific, Animals Life from Africa to Hawai'i (invertebrates)
8388:
8338:
8296:
8261:
8108:
8095:
Ferrario, F.; Beck, M.W.; Storlazzi, C.D.; Micheli, F.; Shepard, C.C.; Airoldi, L. (2014).
7841:
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1300:
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Budding involves splitting a smaller polyp from an adult. As the new polyp grows, it forms
1289:
1204:
769:
692:
684:
647:
in their branch tips and bases that arose through developmental signaling pathways such as
636:
631:
493:
used a microscope to establish that coral had the characteristic thin cell membranes of an
322:
273:
6937:
6657:
Kleypas, J.A.; Feely, R.A.; Fabry, V.J.; Langdon, C.; Sabine, C.L.; Robbins, L.L. (2006).
4722:
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2041:
8:
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1977:
1945:
1284:
showing multiplication by budding (small central plate) and division (large double plate)
1280:
1081:
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535:
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7084:
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6528:
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6323:
6308:"The earliest endosymbiotic mineralized tubeworms from the Silurian of Podolia, Ukraine"
6136:
6015:
5952:
5897:
5756:
5531:
5304:
5288:
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5182:
5131:
5115:
5018:
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4626:
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4225:
4166:
4013:
3962:
3848:
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1741:
at the end of the Ordovician. Corals reappeared some millions of years later during the
478:
refers to coral among a list of types of trees, and the 11th-century French commentator
9132:
9117:
9066:
9006:
8404:
8324:"Management of coral reefs: We have gone wrong when neglecting active reef restoration"
8129:
8096:
7973:
7932:
7905:
7881:
7854:
7378:
7306:
7235:
7169:
Parmesan, C. (2006). "Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change".
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6148:
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3639:
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2536:
2422:
2347:
Geochemical analysis of skeletal coral can be linked to sea surface salinity (SSS) and
2337:
2124:
2097:
1992:
1940:
A healthy coral reef has a striking level of biodiversity in many forms of marine life.
1611:
1388:
979:
730:
415:
383:
352:
on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from
146:
138:
8004:
7511:
7092:
6397:
5230:
Ricardo, Gerard F.; Jones, Ross J.; Nordborg, Mikaela; Negri, Andrew P. (2017-12-31).
5207:
5166:
5114:
Morse, Daniel E.; Hooker, Neal; Morse, Aileen N. C.; Jensen, Rebecca A. (1988-05-24).
4099:
4088:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology
4021:
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8030:
8008:
7937:
7886:
7733:
7370:
7298:
7294:
7227:
7140:
7045:
6884:(1999). "Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs".
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6750:
6739:
6713:"Status of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Monitoring and Management in Southeast Asia, 2004"
6712:
6339:
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Climate research on live coral species is limited to a few studied species. Studying
2193:
2033:; without them, coral tissues reveal the white of their skeletons, an event known as
1984:. In 1998, 16% of the world's reefs died as a result of increased water temperature.
1652:
1591:
depths to which light cannot penetrate, form reefs but do not harbour the symbionts.
1417:
1352:
811:. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed
781:
715:
475:
303:
8943:
8408:
8350:
8073:
7977:
7775:
7310:
7239:
7057:
6423:
6152:
5984:
5921:
5256:
5231:
5190:
3817:
3592:
3000:"Deep sea corals collected by the Lamont Geological Observatory. 1. Atlantic corals"
1160:
are present. Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral
895:
Soft corals vary considerably in form, and most are colonial. A few soft corals are
9298:
9273:
8889:
8846:
8770:
8396:
8346:
8304:
8269:
8124:
8116:
8097:"The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation"
8000:
7965:
7927:
7917:
7876:
7866:
7771:
7680:"Management for network diversity speeds evolutionary adaptation to climate change"
7627:
7587:
7546:
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7362:
7290:
7217:
7178:
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4748:
Lin, Che-Hung; Takahashi, Shunichi; Mulla, Aziz J.; Nozawa, Yoko (24 August 2021).
4717:
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species. After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle.
1172:
1085:
784:
to strengthen and protect the organism. This is deposited by the polyps and by the
773:
627:
490:
439:
419:
291:
7256:
Donner, S.; Skirving, W.; Little, C.; Oppenheimer, M.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2005).
4523:
Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality
4045:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
2070:
in tropical regions (~1 °C (1.8 °F)) the last century have caused major
1420:
was capable of reproducing the biologically relevant diversity detected by deeper
9293:
9263:
9112:
8966:
8911:
8712:
8308:
8220:
8189:
7906:"Marine Invertebrate Natural Products for Anti-Inflammatory and Chronic Diseases"
7740:
7721:
7395:
7112:
6570:
6376:
4234:
4175:
3252:
Hume, Benjamin C. C.; D'Angelo, Cecilia; Burt, John A.; Wiedenmann, JĂśrg (2018).
2505:
2325:
2260:
variations. To confirm the accuracy of the annual relationship between Sr/Ca and
2071:
2034:
1838:
1549:
1409:
1340:
1262:
1061:
1041:
835:
777:
749:
523:
509:
455:
391:
326:
295:
277:
8273:
8182:
8094:
6915:
5672:
5232:"Settlement patterns of the coral Acropora millepora on sediment-laden surfaces"
4816:
4750:"Moonrise timing is key for synchronized spawning in coral Dipsastraea speciosa"
4683:(3rd ed.). Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Sciences and CRR Qld.
3777:
1274:
710:
Systematic studies of soft coral species have faced challenges due to a lack of
9278:
9046:
8991:
8795:
7255:
6916:"Submarine springs offer preview of ocean acidification effects on coral reefs"
6828:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6597:
6085:
6023:
5765:
5701:
5638:
5506:
5162:
5116:"Control of larval metamorphosis and recruitment in sympatric agariciid corals"
4894:
4449:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4056:
3226:
3081:
Babylonian Talmud, Rosh Hashana 23a, and commentary of Rashi (24th narrow line)
2965:
2681:
2520:
2491:
2433:
2189:
2172:
1988:
1969:
1598:
1587:
1479:
1463:
1401:
1379:
1093:
1037:
1003:
863:
820:
800:
688:
680:
644:
578:
500:
Presently, corals are classified as species of animals within the sub-classes
463:
359:
353:
8232:
7714:
6505:
5960:
5905:
5848:
5560:
5406:
4961:
4936:
4572:
3576:
3472:
3346:
2478:
tourism. These activities can damage coral but international projects such as
1495:, a highly abundant bacterium in the coral holobiont. However, host-microbial
9318:
9231:
8951:
8901:
8790:
8765:
8239:
6194:
6110:
6075:
6031:
5968:
5913:
5818:
5774:
5496:
5322:
5265:
5198:
5147:
5100:
5036:
4970:
4902:
4783:
4644:
4107:
4064:
4029:
3978:
3880:
Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric.
3756:
3746:
3669:
3584:
3355:
3289:
3270:
3253:
3204:
3195:
3178:
2673:
2659:
2629:
2612:
Coral reefs in places such as the East African coast are used as a source of
2501:
2341:
2316:, which contains a perennial position within the Southern Hemisphere. During
2265:
2176:
1961:
1780:
1575:
1553:
1508:
Top-down and bottom-up control of microbiota structure in the coral holobiont
1437:
1397:
1367:
1199:
1144:
1089:
1029:, for the coral skeleton, and waste removal. In addition to the soft tissue,
1026:
1010:
942:
407:
369:
87:
7136:
7041:
6988:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
6848:
5936:
5881:
5468:
4774:
4469:
4352:"Corals and their microbiomes evolved together | Penn State University"
3640:"Genome-Wide Mutation Rate Response to pH Change in the Coral Reef Pathogen
3390:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
2672:
The saltwater fishkeeping hobby has expanded, over recent years, to include
1944:
Coral reefs are under stress around the world. In particular, coral mining,
1635:
1036:
The zooxanthellae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's
660:
9244:
9061:
8836:
8828:
8780:
8747:
8571:
Sheppard, Charles R.C.; Davy, Simon K.; Pilling, Graham M. (25 June 2009).
8358:
8138:
8012:
7969:
7941:
7890:
7374:
7302:
7231:
7144:
7049:
6867:
6772:"Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral Reef"
6049:
5976:
5866:
5792:
5690:
5425:
5361:
Sheppard, Charles R.C.; Davy, Simon K.; Pilling, Graham M. (25 June 2009).
5273:
5216:
4978:
4920:
4801:
4731:
4652:
4488:
4410:
4305:
4253:
4194:
4072:
3809:
3687:
3537:
3373:
3212:
2984:
2804:
2471:
2404:
2165:
2146:
2109:
2105:
2085:
2030:
1949:
1834:
1745:
period, and tabulate corals often form low cushions or branching masses of
1676:
1567:
1021:
1015:
918:
912:
879:
855:
816:
726:
539:
505:
501:
435:
364:
241:
236:
231:
219:
214:
129:
7922:
7871:
6824:"Chemically rich seaweeds poison corals when not controlled by herbivores"
5167:"Metamorphosis of a Scleractinian Coral in Response to Microbial Biofilms"
4445:"pH regulation in symbiotic anemones and corals: A delicate balancing act"
4210:"Establishment of CoralâAlgal Symbiosis Requires Attraction and Selection"
3660:
3519:
3448:
Guide to the Shallow-Water (0-200m) Octocorals of the South Atlantic Bight
2539:". There were strict rules regarding its use in a code established by the
2363:
phenomenon can be related to variations in sea surface salinity (SSS) and
1655:. Fossils of fellow reef-dwellers algae, sponges, and the remains of many
9237:
9026:
8961:
8775:
8760:
8755:
8704:
7853:
Copper, Edwin; Hirabayashi, K.; Strychar, K. B.; Sammarco, P. W. (2014).
7831:, ed. by Anne Gerritsen and Giorgio Aiello, London: Rutledge, 2016, p. 81
7551:
7526:
7471:
7442:
7340:"Symbiont diversity may help coral reefs survive moderate climate change"
3328:
Hemond, Elizabeth M; Kaluziak, Stefan T; Vollmer, Steven V (2014-12-17).
3234:
2822:
2701:
2601:
2560:
2551:
2426:
2280:
ratio from local salinity variations associated with the position of the
2171:
In the Gulf of Mexico, where sea temperatures are rising, cold-sensitive
1957:
1393:
1184:
1167:
1057:
995:
967:
815:, secreted by the cell layers of the body wall. The mesoglea can contain
543:
356:
318:
62:
6701:
Save Our Seas, 1997 Summer Newsletter, Cindy Hunter and Alan Friedlander
5650:
5612:
3857:
3832:
3391:
3280:
2025:
Water temperature changes of more than 1â2 °C (1.8â3.6 °F) or
9303:
9288:
9211:
9201:
9191:
8906:
8884:
8866:
8851:
8841:
8739:
8120:
7110:
6201:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and UNEP/WCMC. pp.
6144:
4402:
3970:
3801:
3765:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 37.
3330:"The genetics of colony form and function in Caribbean Acropora corals"
2855:
2730:
2692:
2685:
2581:
2516:
2479:
2475:
2185:
2116:
2075:
2019:
2007:
1996:
1901:
1819:
1711:
1684:
1660:
1656:
1624:
1558:
1543:
1457:
1362:
1242:
1188:
1161:
1117:
1072:
1030:
953:
923:
808:
804:
722:
623:
531:
527:
411:
379:
374:
299:
224:
107:
72:
7631:
7427:
7366:
7028:
Schrag, D.P.; Linsley, B.K. (2002). "Corals, chemistry, and climate".
6123:
Schuhmacher, Helmut; Zibrowius, Helmut (1985). "What is hermatypic?".
6000:"Coral-associated bacteria demonstrate phylosymbiosis and cophylogeny"
5741:"Coral-associated bacteria demonstrate phylosymbiosis and cophylogeny"
5586:
5313:
5027:
5002:
4328:
Sea-level research: a manual for the collection and evaluation of data
3775:
2664:
2228:
Time can be attributed to coral geochemistry anomalies by correlating
9283:
6483:
6331:
3230:
2677:
2399:
2393:
2229:
2205:
2142:
2131:
2093:
2015:
2011:
1953:
1847:
1758:
1730:
1723:
1701:
1672:
1668:
1616:
1583:
1529:
1488:
1472:
1433:
1358:
1320:
999:
885:
859:
848:
839:
827:
812:
789:
785:
486:
431:
387:
349:
334:
163:
112:
56:
7222:
7197:
6974:
6897:
6736:
6122:
4703:
4394:
3793:
3176:
2688:
that would normally populate it, in order to appear neat and clean.
2668:
This dragon-eye zoanthid is a popular source of color in reef tanks.
1900:
Timeline of the major coral fossil record and developments from 650
1296:(gemmation) or by dividing, whether longitudinally or transversely.
862:. The polyps interconnect by a complex and well-developed system of
472:
On the French and Latin Names of the Fishes of the Marseilles Region
8971:
8819:
8809:
8785:
5726:
2898:
2879:
2738:
2696:
2589:
2585:
2576:
2451:
Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate
2324:
reverses orientation extending from the equator down south through
2291:
2157:
2128:
2082:
2026:
1851:
1802:
1797:
1764:
1742:
1719:
1696:
1620:
1619:
hosting over 4,000 species of fish, massive numbers of cnidarians,
1449:
1413:
991:
975:
900:
843:
831:
745:
711:
648:
589:
external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into
519:
512:
402:
341:
314:
287:
280:
257:
193:
183:
102:
97:
82:
77:
67:
8251:
6938:"Health and Disease Signatures of the Coral Microbiome ⢠iBiology"
5934:
5657:
microbiome is reflected across different sequencing methodologies"
1139:
About 75% of all hermatypic corals "broadcast spawn" by releasing
796:
795:
The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a
643:
feather-like tentacles. These two classifications arose from
9071:
8856:
8500:
7855:"Corals and their Potential Applications to Integrative Medicine"
7852:
6446:"Extinction patterns of Late Permian (Lopingian) corals in China"
6268:
Pratt, B.R.; Spincer, B.R.; Wood, R.A.; Zhuravlev, A.Yu. (2001).
6084:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
5700:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
5637:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
5505:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
5287:
Birrell, CL; McCook, LJ; Willis, BL; Harrington, L (2008-06-30).
5085:"Reproduction, dispersal and recruitment of scleractinian corals"
4608:
4274:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from
2528:
2512:
2387:
2329:
2276:
is directly related to climate fluctuations that influence coral
2233:
2213:
1843:
1746:
1737:
of the Ordovician period, with a gap in the fossil record due to
1664:
1499:
appears to influence only a subset of coral-associated bacteria.
1293:
1257:
1227:
1220:
1157:
866:
canals, allowing significant sharing of nutrients and symbionts.
699:
between both branch tips and bases. These processes lead to
451:
310:
117:
92:
7954:
5880:
La Rivière, Marie; Garrabou, Joaquim; Bally, Marc (2015-12-01).
2569:. The facing page states that coral can be used to treat ulcers.
2375:
2356:
2277:
2268:
is established by the blending of Sr/Ca data, growth rings, and
2261:
2257:
2217:
1467:, a commonly highly abundant bacterium in corals, has exhibited
1288:
Within a coral head, the genetically identical polyps reproduce
9096:
8803:
7337:
5089:
Reproduction, Dispersal and Recruitment of Scleractinian Corals
4937:"Coral Gametogenesis Collapse under Artificial Light Pollution"
4560:"How lunar cycles guide the spawning of corals, worms and more"
4368:
3706:
Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004).
2863:
2771:
2621:
1715:
1707:
1675:
appear along with coral fossils. This makes some corals useful
1140:
896:
739:
676:
522:. Hexacorallia includes the stony corals and these groups have
516:
494:
330:
284:
249:
173:
38:
8651:
8074:"Strategic Stone Study: A Building Stone Atlas of Oxfordshire"
7566:
Kiladis, George N.; von Storch, Hans; van Loon, Harry (1989).
6770:
Bryant, Dirk; Burke, Lauretta; McManus, John; Spalding, Mark.
6527:
Waggoner, Ben M. (2000). Smith, David; Collins, Allen (eds.).
3251:
2370:
1862:
760:
8874:
8660:
8192:. Advancedaquarist.com (2011-01-14). Retrieved on 2016-06-13.
6737:
Burke, Lauretta; Reytar, K.; Spalding, M.; Perry, A. (2011).
6080:
5696:
5633:
5501:
5286:
4933:
3550:
3419:"Soft Corals: They Look Like Plants But Are Actually Animals"
3392:"NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) - Coral Facts"
2859:
2597:
2580:
are being researched for their potential near-future use for
2003:
1965:
1734:
1216:
1148:
1006:
971:
526:
that generally have a 6-fold symmetry. Octocorallia includes
479:
398:
382:
that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the
7440:
6585:
5062:. New York, US: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 205â45.
3500:
Eric M, Engstrom; Izhaki, Anat; Bowman, John L (July 2004).
1594:
1208:
to detect and respond to changes in sunlight and moonlight.
368:
that live within their tissues. These are commonly known as
8674:
8665:
8656:
8647:
7593:
10.1175/1520-0442(1989)002<1185:OOTSPC>2.0.CO;2
6669:
6566:
6536:
4999:
2902:
2883:
2511:
Corals' many colors give it appeal for necklaces and other
2333:
2120:
1936:
1518:
AMP = antimicrobial peptides, ROS = reactive oxygen species
345:
8547:
7488:
6645:
Losing Our Coral Reefs â Eco Matters â State of the Planet
6195:
Spalding, Mark; Ravilious, Corinna; Green, Edmund (2001).
5831:
Apprill, Amy; Weber, Laura G.; Santoro, Alyson E. (2016).
4302:"Field Excursion to Milne Bay Province â Papua New Guinea"
4085:
2938:
2616:. Ancient (fossil) coral limestone, notably including the
8879:
7565:
7027:
6267:
5997:
5738:
5229:
2531:(decorative miniature mineral trees). Coral was known as
1436:
that include the coral itself together with its symbiont
622:
utmost of importance in efforts to curb extinction.
317:
surround a central mouth opening. Each polyp excretes an
7524:
6656:
5160:
4848:(3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 117â41.
4379:
following Experimental and Disease-Associated Bleaching"
2256:, time can be correlated to coral strontium/calcium and
1779:
Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone limestone (Lower
7752:
5879:
5387:
4869:
Cameron, Kerry A.; Harrison, Peter L. (26 March 2020).
4747:
4371:"Repopulation of Zooxanthellae in the Caribbean Corals
3999:
1973:
691:, and skeleton deposition of the calcium carbonate via
8158:. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. Archived from
8029:
1998 fol. 391 verso (Band 2), Kommentar S. 47 und 52.
6769:
6556:
6086:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
5702:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
5639:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
5507:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
5113:
3637:
2344:
affecting geochemistry of corals in tropical regions.
1726:
corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts.
1131:" Out of Tune - Breakdown of Coral Spawning Synchrony"
8462:
7910:
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
7859:
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
6987:
6745:. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. p.
5057:
3776:
D. Gateno; A. Israel; Y. Barki; B. Rinkevich (1998).
3389:
3327:
1846:, modern stony corals form skeletons composed of the
1605:) is an important hermatypic coral from the Caribbean
8424:
8245:
7171:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
6358:
6305:
3479:(6th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
2040:
Submarine springs found along the coast of Mexico's
254:
246:
8570:
8153:"Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004 Volume 1"
7990:
7903:
7818:. Tokyo, Rutland and Singapore: Tuttle, 2008, p. 61
6710:
5830:
5360:
5340:. Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Publishing. p. 10.
4042:
1714:period, 100 million years later, when Heliolitida,
957:
Discharge mechanism of a stinging cell (nematocyst)
8552:A Reef Comes to Life. Creating an Undersea Exhibit
8549:
8286:
8254:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
8223:. Saltaquarium.about.com. Retrieved on 2016-06-13.
8202:Reefkeeping 101 â Various Nutrient Control Methods
7605:
7603:
7389:
6880:
6650:
5120:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
3499:
3179:"Solving the Coral Species Delimitation Conundrum"
2223:
2145:is variable among coral species. According to the
2096:to construct year-by-year chronologies, a form of
1823:) in three views; Ordovician, southeastern Indiana
1783:) near Hiwasse, Arkansas, scale bar is 2.0 cm
302:builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete
7816:Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery
7338:Baskett, M.; Gaines, S. & Nisbet, R. (2009).
7251:
7249:
7106:
7104:
7102:
7070:
6960:
6647:. Blogs.ei.columbia.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.
6461:
6361:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2584:in humans. Coral Calx, known as Praval Bhasma in
2367:that can help model tropical climate activities.
2100:, which underlie high-resolution records of past
1448:Relationships between corals and their microbial
1247:and reproduces asexually to form a colony (7, 8).
799:, the wall of which is composed of two layers of
573:may not follow Knowledge's policies or guidelines
9316:
8481:
8214:Aquarium Substrate & Live Rock Clean Up Tips
7484:
7482:
6526:
6099:Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology
6064:Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology
5354:
3705:
2596:, was recommended for calming stomach ulcers by
2292:Sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity
2081:Annual growth bands in some corals, such as the
834:which resemble glove fingers. The tentacles are
7743:. Koraalwetenschap.nl. Retrieved on 2011-11-29.
7600:
7331:
6954:
5457:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5082:
4868:
4754:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4325:
4299:
2220:(δO), for example, is a proxy for temperature.
2010:. Seaweed and algae proliferate given adequate
1478:A study published in 2018 revealed evidence of
8519:
8501:Gosliner, T.; D. Behrens; G. Williams (1996).
8443:
7904:Senthilkumar, Kalimuthu; Se-Kwon, Kim (2013).
7609:
7568:"Origin of the South Pacific Convergence Zone"
7246:
7099:
5479:
5477:
3441:
3140:
3095:. University of California Press. p. 24.
1361:, and is visibly detected as bleaching. Coral
1088:(reef-building stony corals) form single-sex (
803:. The outer layer is known technically as the
8923:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
8720:
8591:
7479:
7198:"Corals' adaptive response to climate change"
6990:"How does climate change affect coral reefs?"
6352:
6299:
6270:"12: Ecology and Evolution of Cambrian Reefs"
5644:
4678:
4553:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4543:
3442:DeVictor, Susan T.; Morton, Steve L. (2010).
3118:Corals: Secrets of Their Reef-Making Colonies
2997:
2444:can protect reefs from anthropogenic damage.
1096:. It is estimated more than 67% of coral are
697:differentially expressed (DE) signaling genes
8687:. Stanford microdocs project. Archived from
8610:
8541:Corals of the World: Biology and Field Guide
8039:
7700:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7168:
7164:
7162:
6909:
6907:
5707:
4843:
4369:W. W. Toller; R. Rowan; N. Knowlton (2001).
3909:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3225:
8538:
8321:
8204:. Reefkeeping.com. Retrieved on 2016-06-13.
6444:Xiang-Dong Wang and Xiao-Juan Wang (2007).
6388:
6386:
6165:
6116:
5474:
4839:
4837:
4295:
4293:
3948:
3050:
3048:
3046:
2676:, fish tanks that include large amounts of
2371:Limited climate research on current species
2192:to shrink greatly in comparison to the old
1198:in protein. Corals contain light-sensitive
390:. These corals are increasingly at risk of
8734:
8727:
8713:
8315:
8052:. Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
6796:
6279:. Columbia University Press. p. 259.
4557:
4540:
3879:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3026:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
2588:, is widely used in traditional system of
1392:, the northern star coral, is a temperate
985:
128:
27:Marine invertebrates of the class Anthozoa
8242:. Marinebio.org. Retrieved on 2016-06-13.
8128:
8088:
7958:Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik
7931:
7921:
7880:
7870:
7788:
7591:
7550:
7470:
7417:
7284:
7221:
7195:
7159:
7064:
6904:
6857:
6847:
6821:
6802:
6039:
5856:
5782:
5764:
5680:
5537:
5415:
5405:
5312:
5255:
5206:
5026:
4960:
4910:
4791:
4773:
4721:
4634:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4571:
4526:. Columbia University Press. p. 83.
4478:
4468:
4243:
4233:
4207:
4184:
4174:
3856:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3677:
3659:
3527:
3363:
3345:
3279:
3269:
3194:
2974:
2964:
2247:
2061:
1562:Locations of coral reefs around the world
1335:Phylogenetic tree representing bacterial
609:Learn how and when to remove this message
333:simultaneously overnight, often around a
325:of polyps. Corals also breed sexually by
309:A coral "group" is a colony of very many
8594:Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific
8280:
7183:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110100
6913:
6717:Status of Coral Reefs of the world: 2004
6610:
6608:
6383:
6188:
4834:
4674:
4672:
4670:
4611:"Rhythms and Clocks in Marine Organisms"
4442:
4290:
4119:
4117:
3043:
2663:
2550:
2495:
2374:
2295:
2115:Certain species form communities called
1935:
1860:
1634:
1593:
1557:
1522:
1501:
1442:
1330:
1273:
1241:
1166:
1076:Life cycles of broadcasters and brooders
1071:
952:
922:
759:
546:are also in the sub-class Hexacorallia.
414:, Scotland, and others off the coast of
8045:
7021:
5083:HARRISON, P. L; WALLACE, C. C. (1990).
4862:
4330:. Norwich, UK: Geo Books. p. 196.
3750:
3694:
3470:
3090:
2691:The most popular kind of coral kept is
2635:
2127:. Such methods can help to reconstruct
1833:The currently ubiquitous stony corals,
340:Although some corals are able to catch
14:
9317:
9002:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
8522:Marine Biology, An Ecological Approach
8372:
7948:
7724:. Ecodeco.nl. Retrieved on 2011-11-29.
7673:
7671:
7189:
6874:
5549:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
5171:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
4993:
4927:
4743:
4741:
4595:
4558:Markandeya, Virat (22 February 2023).
4362:
4148:
4123:
3923:
3917:
3769:
3724:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3084:
2991:
2632:, and the medieval walls of the city.
2455:, helps ensure the greatest chance of
1432:Reef-building corals are well-studied
1400:(algal symbionts), making it an ideal
470:for this third group in his 1535 book
298:. Coral species include the important
9154:Environmental issues with coral reefs
8708:
8548:Segaloff, Nat; Paul Erickson (1991).
8378:
8027:Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt
6918:. University of California Santa Cruz
6605:
6261:
5335:
5051:
4723:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026073
4697:
4667:
4519:
4114:
3710:. Cengage Learning. pp. 132â48.
3633:
3631:
3413:
3411:
3385:
3383:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3115:
3093:Roots of Ecology: Antiquity to Hackel
3054:
3019:
2465:
2355:data, of tropical oceans to seawater
2314:South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)
2282:South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ)
1927:Environmental issues with coral reefs
329:: polyps of the same species release
7789:Magsaysay, Melissa (June 21, 2009).
7531:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
6455:
4814:
4808:
4636:10.1146/annurev-marine-030422-113038
3928:. Ricordea Publishing. p. 145.
3830:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3166:
2519:. Red coral is very rare because of
2300:Global sea surface temperature (SST)
1326:
553:
8427:Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide
8046:Pouwels, Randall L. (6 June 2002).
7668:
7447:coral from Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu"
5532:10.1146/annurev-micro-102215-095440
4844:Barnes, R. and; Hughes, R. (1999).
4738:
3557:Organisms Diversity & Evolution
2274:El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
645:differentiation in gene expressions
466:copied Pliny, introducing the term
24:
6914:Stephens, Tim (28 November 2011).
5060:Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs
4126:Coral Reefs: Cities Under The Seas
3628:
3408:
3380:
3296:
2644:
1313:
768:For most of their life corals are
729:. Various coral species have
25:
9341:
8632:
8484:The Evolution of Reef Communities
6277:Ecology of the Cambrian Radiation
6245:. About education. Archived from
6240:
5165:; Negri, Andrew P. (2004-02-01).
4846:An Introduction to Marine Ecology
3708:Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition
3163:
2058:coral was collected and studied.
1755:PermianâTriassic extinction event
1528:Trophic connections of the coral
1179:, releasing sperm into the water.
945:and non-zooxanthellae specimens.
705:up-regulation and down-regulation
9197:International Coral Reef Society
9037:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
8818:
8668:Office for Coastal Management -
8463:Colin, P.L.; C. Arneson (1995).
8401:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00682.x
8226:
8207:
8195:
8176:
8145:
8066:
8019:
7984:
7897:
7846:
7834:
7821:
7808:
7782:
7746:
7727:
7708:
7638:
7559:
7518:
7434:
7295:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01073.x
7000:
6981:
6930:
6815:
6763:
6730:
6704:
6079:
5695:
5632:
5500:
5236:Science of the Total Environment
5058:Jones, O.A.; Endean, R. (1973).
3751:Minchin, Edward Alfred (1911). "
3738:
3450:. Auckland, NZ: Magnolia Press.
3151:World Register of Marine Species
2890:
2871:
2847:
2835:
2815:
2797:
2780:
2763:
2650:more than $ 3.4 billion a year.
2397:species where the complexity of
2240:maximums to data collected from
2047:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
1828:
1810:
1788:
1772:
1125:
1116:
558:
150:
60:
9128:Stony coral tissue loss disease
8652:Coral Reef Conservation Program
8425:Allen, G.R.; R. Steene (1994).
8351:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.08.014
7776:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.03.004
7612:Journal of Geophysical Research
7492:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
6695:
6674:United States Geological Survey
6638:
6557:Oliver, William A. Jr. (2003).
6550:
6520:
6490:
6438:
6422:. UCMP Berkeley. Archived from
6412:
6396:. UCMP Berkeley. Archived from
6306:Vinn, O.; MĂľtus, M.-A. (2008).
6234:
6219:
6159:
6091:
6056:
5991:
5928:
5873:
5824:
5799:
5732:
5629:United States Geological Survey
5618:
5592:
5566:
5512:
5449:
5432:
5381:
5329:
5280:
5257:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.153
5223:
5191:10.1128/AEM.70.2.1213-1221.2004
5154:
5107:
5076:
4710:Molecular Biology and Evolution
4615:Annual Review of Marine Science
4513:
4504:
4495:
4436:
4344:
4326:van de Plaasche, Orson (1986).
4319:
4260:
4201:
4142:
4079:
4036:
4002:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
3993:
3942:
3926:Corals: A quick reference guide
3873:
3824:
3599:
3544:
3493:
3464:
3435:
3245:
3219:
3120:. Capstone Global Library Ltd.
2607:
2224:Strontium/calcium ratio anomaly
2218:ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16
2199:
2180:in current shadows represent a
2052:
1690:
1103:
1092:) colonies, while the rest are
1080:Corals predominantly reproduce
1051:
906:
8596:. University of Hawaii Press.
8465:Tropical Pacific Invertebrates
8448:. Reading Trees Publications.
8076:. English Heritage. March 2011
7756:Ocean & Coastal Management
7652:. January 2011. Archived from
6963:Marine and Freshwater Research
6886:Marine and Freshwater Research
6822:Rasher DB, Hay ME (May 2010).
6593:"Coral reefs around the world"
6394:"Introduction to the Tabulata"
5653:"Stability of temperate coral
5367:. OUP Oxford. pp. 78â81.
5293:Marine Ecology Progress Series
4815:Jabr, Ferris (June 13, 2017).
4268:"Zooxanthellae...What's That?"
3134:
3109:
3075:
3013:
2932:
2707:
2504:(Native American), ca. 1920s,
2306:Intertropical Convergence Zone
2188:by climatic barriers causes a
1964:, disease, and the digging of
1133:, Tom Shlesinger, Sep 5, 2019.
990:Many corals, as well as other
932:polyps with tentacles extended
873:
851:toxins to ward off predators.
764:Anatomy of a stony coral polyp
549:
290:. They typically form compact
13:
1:
9057:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
8524:. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
8005:10.1016/S1043-6618(03)00224-X
7512:10.1016/S0016-7037(02)00917-1
7093:10.1016/S0025-3227(00)00043-8
6803:Norlander (8 December 2003).
5520:Annual Review of Microbiology
4520:Avise, John C. (2011-03-18).
4100:10.1016/s1095-6433(99)00059-8
4022:10.1016/s0016-7037(02)01041-4
2926:
2410:
2365:sea surface temperature (SST)
2359:ratio anomalies from corals.
2238:sea surface temperature (SST)
1710:are extremely rare until the
1695:Corals first appeared in the
1456:It is known that the coral's
1427:
1374:marine animal symbiosis. The
1002:relationship with a class of
294:of many identical individual
8309:10.1016/j.marpol.2004.09.001
7715:EcoDeco EcologicalTechnology
7650:National Geographic Magazine
6420:"Introduction to the Rugosa"
6377:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.028
5140:10.1016/0022-0981(88)90027-5
4272:NOAA Ocean Service Education
4235:10.1371/journal.pone.0097003
4176:10.1371/journal.pone.0098999
3951:Paläontologische Zeitschrift
2752:commons:Category:Coral reefs
2154:adaptation to climate change
1683:, which occurs in England's
1630:
1487:were found to reflect coral
1370:and physiology of the host.
903:or of a calcified material.
819:elements derived from cells
666:Scientists typically select
7:
9082:Southeast Asian coral reefs
8274:10.1016/j.jembe.2011.01.005
6666:National Science Foundation
6226:Smithsonian National Museum
5673:10.3934/microbiol.2019.1.62
5485:Frontiers in Marine Science
5338:Hawaiian Coral Reef Ecology
4208:Yamashita, Hiroshi (2014).
4124:Murphy, Richard C. (2002).
3258:Frontiers in Marine Science
3029:. Bloomsbury. p. 271.
2909:
2626:St Michael at the Northgate
2546:
1532:in the planktonic food web
1337:operational taxonomic units
1251:
1233:
1098:simultaneous hermaphrodites
425:
10:
9346:
9042:New Caledonia barrier reef
8677:Ocean Service Education â
8574:The Biology of Coral Reefs
8429:. Tropical Reef Research.
8418:
7829:The Global Lives of Things
7814:Welch, Patricia Bjaaland,
6715:. In Wilkinson, C. (ed.).
6198:World Atlas of Coral Reefs
6024:10.1038/s41467-018-07275-x
5766:10.1038/s41467-018-07275-x
5364:The Biology of Coral Reefs
4895:10.1038/s41598-020-62366-4
4681:Corals of the World. Vol 3
4300:Madl, P.; Yip, M. (2000).
4057:10.1016/j.cbpb.2008.01.002
3116:Swett, C. (5 March 2020).
3091:Egerton, Frank N. (2012).
3061:. Springer. pp. 5â7.
2966:10.1038/s41396-020-00857-y
2842:Brain coral releasing eggs
2744:
2711:
2657:
2653:
2555:Depiction of coral in the
2489:
2485:
2414:
1995:. Over 50% of the world's
1931:
1924:
1722:corals became widespread.
1627:, and many other animals.
1547:
1541:
1422:next-generation sequencing
1350:
1345:next-generation sequencing
1278:Basal plates (calices) of
1269:
1046:green fluorescent proteins
961:
948:
916:
910:
877:
755:
689:mitotic cell proliferation
628:colonial modular organisms
36:
29:
9256:
9224:
9177:
9146:
9105:
8942:
8934:Spur and groove formation
8865:
8827:
8816:
8746:
8482:Fagerstrom, J.A. (1987).
8446:Book of Coral Propagation
8331:Marine Pollution Bulletin
6529:"Anthozoa: Fossil Record"
5961:10.1007/s00248-016-0858-x
5906:10.1007/s00338-015-1334-7
5849:10.1128/mSystems.00143-16
5807:Frontiers in Microbiology
5561:10.1007/s00253-016-7777-0
5407:10.1186/s40168-017-0329-8
4962:10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.039
4573:10.1146/knowable-022223-2
3577:10.1007/s13127-012-0119-x
3540:– via ResearchGate.
3471:Gilbert, Scott F (2000).
3347:10.1186/1471-2164-15-1133
3007:American Museum Novitates
2828:Diploria labyrinthiformis
2186:separation of populations
1991:, where 80% of reefs are
1956:(organic and inorganic),
1920:
1729:Tabulate corals occur in
1566:Many corals in the order
1475:of these members occurs.
1196:light-dependent reactions
1124:
1115:
1110:
1067:
807:, the inner layer as the
776:of genetically identical
725:of corals in the form of
695:(EMC) proteins acting as
538:. The group of corals is
306:to form a hard skeleton.
211:
206:
147:Scientific classification
145:
136:
127:
48:
8997:East African coral coast
8670:Fast Facts - Coral Reefs
8641:The Ocean Portal by the
8614:Coral Reefs of the World
7993:Pharmacological Research
6616:"Threats to Coral Reefs"
6111:10.3389/fcimb.2014.00176
6076:10.3389/fcimb.2014.00176
5819:10.3389/fmicb.2017.00341
5497:10.3389/fmars.2017.00222
4443:Brownlee, Colin (2009).
3271:10.3389/fmars.2018.00138
2628:, St. George's Tower of
2559:, a 6th-century copy of
2421:Marine Protected Areas,
2068:sea surface temperatures
1982:greenhouse gas emissions
1537:
37:Not to be confused with
8643:Smithsonian Institution
8520:Nybakken, J.W. (2004).
8444:Calfo, Anthony (2007).
7347:Ecological Applications
7137:10.1126/science.1085046
7042:10.1126/science.1071561
7010:. www.noaanews.noaa.gov
6849:10.1073/pnas.0912095107
6741:Reefs at risk revisited
6312:Journal of Paleontology
5715:The American Naturalist
5469:10.1073/pnas.0804478105
4775:10.1073/pnas.2101985118
4470:10.1073/pnas.0909140106
4383:The Biological Bulletin
3924:Sprung, Julian (1999).
3837:Journal of Paleontology
3782:The Biological Bulletin
3762:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
3473:"Embryonic Development"
3141:Hoeksema, Bert (2015).
2756:commons:Category:Corals
2349:sea surface temperature
2340:; and due east towards
2336:and towards the French
2014:and limited grazing by
1817:Solitary rugose coral (
1761: million years ago
1704: million years ago
1645:Smithsonian Institution
986:Intracellular symbionts
137:A coral outcrop on the
9164:Coral reef restoration
8592:Veron, J.E.N. (1993).
7970:10.1002/mawe.200600036
7791:"Coral makes a splash"
6777:. NOAA. Archived from
6622:. 2010. Archived from
6498:"Evolutionary history"
4679:Veron, J.E.N. (2000).
4149:Yuyama, Ikuko (2014).
3831:Peel, John S. (2017).
3444:"Octocoral Morphology"
3196:10.1093/sysbio/syab077
2998:Squires, D.F. (1959).
2809:Dendrogyra cylindricus
2669:
2570:
2508:
2382:
2301:
2248:Oxygen isotope anomaly
2062:Climate change impacts
1980:, all associated with
1941:
1648:
1606:
1563:
1534:
1520:
1453:
1348:
1285:
1248:
1180:
1153:reproductive synchrony
1077:
958:
933:
765:
701:colony differentiation
32:Coral (disambiguation)
9159:Coral reef protection
9123:Skeletal eroding band
8929:Catlin Seaview Survey
8917:Census of Coral Reefs
8895:mesophotic coral reef
8611:Wells, Susan (1988).
8101:Nature Communications
7398:Ecological Monographs
7265:Global Change Biology
6994:oceanservice.noaa.gov
6004:Nature Communications
5745:Nature Communications
5336:Gulko, David (1998).
4373:Montastraea annularis
3661:10.1128/mBio.01021-17
3520:10.1104/pp.104.040394
3477:Developmental Biology
3055:Bowen, James (2015).
2667:
2554:
2499:
2417:Coral reef protection
2378:
2299:
1939:
1638:
1597:
1561:
1526:
1505:
1446:
1334:
1277:
1245:
1177:Montastraea cavernosa
1170:
1075:
956:
929:Montastraea cavernosa
926:
763:
693:extra cellular matrix
485:The Persian polymath
311:genetically identical
9269:Aquaculture of coral
9052:Non-tropical regions
8467:. Coral Reef Press.
8322:Rinkevich B (2008).
7842:Juliana Anicia Codex
7656:on December 18, 2010
7552:10.1029/2012GC004293
7472:10.1029/2004PA001033
6166:MSN Encarta (2006).
4128:. The Darwin Press.
2714:Aquaculture of coral
2636:Shoreline protection
2620:of the hills around
2557:Juliana Anicia Codex
2448:remain a challenge.
2284:and can be used for
2139:asexual reproduction
1603:Acropora cervicornis
1376:gammaproteobacterium
1205:Dipsastraea speciosa
970:. These cells carry
685:asexual reproduction
579:improve this article
323:asexual reproduction
274:marine invertebrates
30:For other uses, see
9187:Coral Reef Alliance
9077:Solomon Archipelago
8982:Belize Barrier Reef
8957:African coral reefs
8505:. Sea Challengers.
8393:2010ResEc..18..399F
8381:Restoration Ecology
8343:2008MarPB..56.1821R
8301:2006MarPo..30..111P
8266:2011JEMBE.399..162H
8113:2014NatCo...5.3794F
7923:10.1155/2013/572859
7872:10.1155/2014/184959
7768:2013OCM....78...35H
7624:1991JGR....96.3343L
7584:1989JCli....2.1185K
7543:2013GGG....14.1435W
7504:2003GeCoA..67.1609R
7463:2004PalOc..19.4002K
7410:2007EcoM...77..503M
7359:2009EcoAp..19....3B
7277:2005GCBio..11.2251D
7214:2004Natur.430..741B
7129:2003Sci...301..929H
7085:2000MGeol.168...61S
6840:2010PNAS..107.9683R
6620:Coral Reef Alliance
6601:. 2 September 2009.
6476:2006Geo....34..525R
6369:2012PPP...321..137V
6363:. 321â322: 137â41.
6324:2008JPal...82..409V
6176:on October 28, 2009
6137:1985CorRe...4....1S
6016:2018NatCo...9.4921P
5953:2017MicEc..73..466V
5898:2015CorRe..34.1087L
5757:2018NatCo...9.4921P
5613:10.1038/nature21707
5463:(45): 17442â17446.
5305:2008MEPS..362..129B
5248:2017ScTEn.609..277R
5183:2004ApEnM..70.1213W
5132:1988JEMBE.116..193M
5019:2020ResEc..28.1172S
5007:Restoration Ecology
4953:2021CBio...31E.413A
4887:2020NatSR..10.5488C
4766:2021PNAS..11801985L
4760:(34): e2101985118.
4627:2023ARMS...15..509H
4461:2009PNAS..10616541B
4455:(39): 16541â16542.
4226:2014PLoSO...997003Y
4167:2014PLoSO...998999Y
4014:2003GeCoA..67...75C
3963:1998PalZ...72..257C
3858:10.1017/jpa.2017.49
3849:2017JPal...91..871P
3569:2013ODivE..13..135S
3021:Leroi, Armand Marie
2957:2021ISMEJ..15.1564R
2921:Ringstead Coral Bed
2897:Corals, Tis Beach,
2878:Corals, Tis Beach,
2790:Eusmilia fastigiata
2618:Coral Rag Formation
2500:6-strand necklace,
2310:Southern Hemisphere
1978:ocean acidification
1281:Orbicella annularis
1156:even when multiple
1056:Corals can be both
823:from the ectoderm.
735:Ocean acidification
731:heat shock proteins
591:footnote references
448:Enquiries on Plants
9133:White band disease
9118:Black band disease
9087:Tuvalu Archipelago
9067:Raja Ampat Islands
9007:Great Barrier Reef
8685:"What is a coral?"
8661:Coral Reef Biology
8219:2016-08-06 at the
8188:2017-06-06 at the
8121:10.1038/ncomms4794
7739:2012-04-26 at the
7734:KoralenKAS project
7720:2011-03-07 at the
7572:Journal of Climate
7196:Baker, A. (2004).
6882:Hoegh-Guldberg, O.
6626:on 1 December 2011
6508:on 13 October 2018
6249:on 1 December 2016
6169:Great Barrier Reef
6145:10.1007/BF00302198
5655:Astrangia poculata
5575:Scientific Reports
5163:Blackall, Linda L.
4875:Scientific Reports
4566:. Annual Reviews.
3971:10.1007/bf02988357
3886:coralreef.noaa.gov
3396:coralreef.noaa.gov
3183:Systematic Biology
2670:
2571:
2537:East India Company
2509:
2466:Relation to humans
2442:habitat protection
2438:fishery management
2431:national monuments
2423:Biosphere reserves
2383:
2338:Polynesian Islands
2320:warm periods, the
2302:
2160:. These shifts in
2125:radiocarbon dating
2098:incremental dating
1942:
1837:, appeared in the
1649:
1612:Great Barrier Reef
1607:
1564:
1535:
1521:
1454:
1389:Astrangia poculata
1349:
1286:
1249:
1181:
1078:
959:
934:
766:
384:Great Barrier Reef
139:Great Barrier Reef
9312:
9311:
9220:
9219:
9138:White pox disease
8987:Coral Sea Islands
8603:978-0-8248-1504-2
8584:978-0-19-105734-2
8563:978-0-531-10994-6
8539:Redhill, Surrey.
8531:978-0-8053-4582-7
8512:978-0-930118-21-1
8493:978-0-471-81528-0
8474:978-0-9645625-0-9
8455:978-0-9802365-0-7
8436:978-981-00-5687-2
8059:978-0-521-52309-7
7795:Los Angeles Times
7632:10.1029/90JC01951
7428:10.1890/06-1182.1
7367:10.1890/08-0139.1
6756:978-1-56973-762-0
6573:on 9 January 2009
6559:"Corals: Table 1"
6286:978-0-231-10613-9
6212:978-0-520-23255-6
5941:Microbial Ecology
5661:AIMS Microbiology
5607:(7645): 373â377.
5587:10.1038/srep40579
5555:(19): 8315â8324.
5374:978-0-19-105734-2
5347:978-1-56647-221-0
5314:10.3354/meps07524
5069:978-0-12-389602-5
5028:10.1111/rec.13178
4947:(2): 413â419.e3.
4855:978-0-86542-834-8
4690:978-0-642-32236-4
4564:Knowable Magazine
4533:978-0-231-52715-6
4337:978-94-010-8370-6
4135:978-0-87850-138-0
3935:978-1-883693-09-1
3717:978-81-315-0104-7
3457:978-1-86977-584-1
3239:Our World in Data
3102:978-0-520-95363-5
3068:978-3-319-07479-5
3036:978-1-4088-3622-4
2858:off the coast of
2719:Coral aquaculture
2614:building material
2594:calcium carbonate
2566:De Materia Medica
2457:genetic diversity
2194:fundamental niche
2042:YucatĂĄn Peninsula
1918:
1917:
1913:
1739:extinction events
1653:sedimentary rocks
1519:
1469:codiversification
1418:Sanger sequencing
1353:Marine microbiome
1327:Coral microbiomes
1137:
1136:
1086:hermatypic corals
892:in Octocorallia.
782:calcium carbonate
716:mitochondrial DNA
619:
618:
611:
476:Babylonian Talmud
386:off the coast of
304:calcium carbonate
267:
266:
202:
16:(Redirected from
9337:
9299:Deep-water coral
9274:Coral dermatitis
9175:
9174:
8890:Deep-water coral
8822:
8729:
8722:
8715:
8706:
8705:
8699:
8697:
8696:
8628:
8607:
8588:
8567:
8555:
8544:
8535:
8516:
8497:
8478:
8459:
8440:
8413:
8412:
8376:
8370:
8369:
8367:
8361:. Archived from
8328:
8319:
8313:
8312:
8284:
8278:
8277:
8249:
8243:
8230:
8224:
8211:
8205:
8199:
8193:
8180:
8174:
8173:
8171:
8170:
8164:
8157:
8149:
8143:
8142:
8132:
8092:
8086:
8085:
8083:
8081:
8070:
8064:
8063:
8043:
8037:
8023:
8017:
8016:
7988:
7982:
7981:
7952:
7946:
7945:
7935:
7925:
7901:
7895:
7894:
7884:
7874:
7850:
7844:
7838:
7832:
7825:
7819:
7812:
7806:
7805:
7803:
7801:
7786:
7780:
7779:
7750:
7744:
7731:
7725:
7712:
7706:
7705:
7699:
7691:
7675:
7666:
7665:
7663:
7661:
7646:"Phoenix Rising"
7642:
7636:
7635:
7607:
7598:
7597:
7595:
7563:
7557:
7556:
7554:
7522:
7516:
7515:
7486:
7477:
7476:
7474:
7451:Paleoceanography
7438:
7432:
7431:
7421:
7393:
7387:
7386:
7344:
7335:
7329:
7328:
7326:
7325:
7319:
7313:. Archived from
7288:
7262:
7253:
7244:
7243:
7225:
7193:
7187:
7186:
7166:
7157:
7156:
7123:(5635): 929â33.
7108:
7097:
7096:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7025:
7019:
7018:
7016:
7015:
7004:
6998:
6997:
6985:
6979:
6978:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6949:
6948:
6934:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6923:
6911:
6902:
6901:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6861:
6851:
6819:
6813:
6812:
6800:
6794:
6793:
6791:
6789:
6783:
6776:
6767:
6761:
6760:
6744:
6734:
6728:
6727:
6725:
6724:
6708:
6702:
6699:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6688:
6683:on July 20, 2011
6682:
6676:. Archived from
6663:
6654:
6648:
6642:
6636:
6635:
6633:
6631:
6612:
6603:
6602:
6589:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6578:
6569:. Archived from
6554:
6548:
6547:
6545:
6543:
6524:
6518:
6517:
6515:
6513:
6504:. Archived from
6494:
6488:
6487:
6484:10.1130/G22600.1
6459:
6453:
6450:Palaeoworld, 16,
6442:
6436:
6435:
6433:
6431:
6426:on 19 April 2015
6416:
6410:
6409:
6407:
6405:
6400:on 19 April 2015
6390:
6381:
6380:
6356:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6346:
6332:10.1666/07-056.1
6303:
6297:
6296:
6294:
6293:
6274:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6256:
6254:
6238:
6232:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6192:
6186:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6172:. Archived from
6163:
6157:
6156:
6120:
6114:
6095:
6089:
6083:
6060:
6054:
6053:
6043:
5995:
5989:
5988:
5932:
5926:
5925:
5892:(4): 1087â1098.
5877:
5871:
5870:
5860:
5843:(5): e00143â16.
5828:
5822:
5803:
5797:
5796:
5786:
5768:
5736:
5730:
5711:
5705:
5699:
5694:
5684:
5648:
5642:
5636:
5631:, 6 March 2019.
5622:
5616:
5596:
5590:
5570:
5564:
5541:
5535:
5516:
5510:
5504:
5481:
5472:
5453:
5447:
5436:
5430:
5429:
5419:
5409:
5385:
5379:
5378:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5316:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5259:
5227:
5221:
5220:
5210:
5177:(2): 1213â1221.
5158:
5152:
5151:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5080:
5074:
5073:
5055:
5049:
5048:
5030:
5013:(5): 1172â1182.
4997:
4991:
4990:
4964:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4914:
4866:
4860:
4859:
4841:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4827:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4795:
4777:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4725:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4676:
4665:
4664:
4638:
4606:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4575:
4555:
4538:
4537:
4517:
4511:
4508:
4502:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4482:
4472:
4440:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4430:
4421:. Archived from
4366:
4360:
4359:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4323:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4304:. Archived from
4297:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4278:on 13 April 2020
4264:
4258:
4257:
4247:
4237:
4205:
4199:
4198:
4188:
4178:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4121:
4112:
4111:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4040:
4034:
4033:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3957:(3â4): 257â269.
3946:
3940:
3939:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3908:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3888:. Archived from
3877:
3871:
3870:
3860:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3735:
3722:
3721:
3703:
3692:
3691:
3681:
3663:
3654:(4): e01021â17.
3635:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3622:
3613:. Archived from
3603:
3597:
3596:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3531:
3507:Plant Physiology
3497:
3491:
3490:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3415:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3387:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3349:
3325:
3294:
3293:
3283:
3273:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3223:
3217:
3216:
3198:
3174:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3052:
3041:
3040:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3004:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2978:
2968:
2951:(5): 1564â1568.
2945:The ISME Journal
2936:
2916:Keystone species
2894:
2875:
2851:
2839:
2819:
2801:
2784:
2767:
2750:Further images:
2721:, also known as
2541:Qianlong Emperor
2353:El Nino 3.4 SSTA
2162:allele frequency
1909:
1858:
1857:
1814:
1792:
1776:
1762:
1705:
1517:
1516:
1173:great star coral
1129:
1128:
1120:
1108:
1107:
1060:(unisexual) and
748:responsible for
677:gamete synthesis
614:
607:
603:
600:
594:
562:
561:
554:
491:William Herschel
420:Aleutian Islands
416:Washington state
256:
248:
197:
155:
154:
132:
122:
59:
52:Temporal range:
46:
45:
21:
9345:
9344:
9340:
9339:
9338:
9336:
9335:
9334:
9315:
9314:
9313:
9308:
9294:Coralline algae
9264:Artificial reef
9252:
9225:Symbiotic algae
9216:
9173:
9169:Reef resilience
9142:
9113:Coral bleaching
9101:
8967:Andros, Bahamas
8938:
8912:Coral reef fish
8861:
8823:
8814:
8742:
8733:
8694:
8692:
8683:
8635:
8625:
8604:
8585:
8564:
8532:
8513:
8494:
8475:
8456:
8437:
8421:
8416:
8377:
8373:
8365:
8337:(11): 1821â24.
8326:
8320:
8316:
8285:
8281:
8250:
8246:
8231:
8227:
8221:Wayback Machine
8212:
8208:
8200:
8196:
8190:Wayback Machine
8181:
8177:
8168:
8166:
8162:
8155:
8151:
8150:
8146:
8093:
8089:
8079:
8077:
8072:
8071:
8067:
8060:
8044:
8040:
8024:
8020:
7989:
7985:
7953:
7949:
7902:
7898:
7851:
7847:
7839:
7835:
7826:
7822:
7813:
7809:
7799:
7797:
7787:
7783:
7751:
7747:
7741:Wayback Machine
7732:
7728:
7722:Wayback Machine
7713:
7709:
7693:
7692:
7684:Nature Research
7676:
7669:
7659:
7657:
7644:
7643:
7639:
7618:(S1): 3343â58.
7608:
7601:
7578:(10): 1185â95.
7564:
7560:
7523:
7519:
7487:
7480:
7439:
7435:
7394:
7390:
7342:
7336:
7332:
7323:
7321:
7317:
7286:10.1.1.323.8134
7271:(12): 2251â65.
7260:
7254:
7247:
7223:10.1038/430741a
7194:
7190:
7167:
7160:
7109:
7100:
7069:
7065:
7026:
7022:
7013:
7011:
7006:
7005:
7001:
6986:
6982:
6975:10.1071/mf99078
6959:
6955:
6946:
6944:
6936:
6935:
6931:
6921:
6919:
6912:
6905:
6898:10.1071/MF99078
6879:
6875:
6834:(21): 9683â88.
6820:
6816:
6801:
6797:
6787:
6785:
6781:
6774:
6768:
6764:
6757:
6735:
6731:
6722:
6720:
6709:
6705:
6700:
6696:
6686:
6684:
6680:
6661:
6655:
6651:
6643:
6639:
6629:
6627:
6614:
6613:
6606:
6591:
6590:
6586:
6576:
6574:
6555:
6551:
6541:
6539:
6525:
6521:
6511:
6509:
6496:
6495:
6491:
6460:
6456:
6443:
6439:
6429:
6427:
6418:
6417:
6413:
6403:
6401:
6392:
6391:
6384:
6357:
6353:
6344:
6342:
6304:
6300:
6291:
6289:
6287:
6272:
6266:
6262:
6252:
6250:
6243:"Index Fossils"
6241:Alden, Andrew.
6239:
6235:
6224:
6220:
6213:
6193:
6189:
6179:
6177:
6164:
6160:
6121:
6117:
6096:
6092:
6061:
6057:
5996:
5992:
5933:
5929:
5878:
5874:
5829:
5825:
5804:
5800:
5737:
5733:
5721:(S4): S51-S62.
5712:
5708:
5649:
5645:
5623:
5619:
5597:
5593:
5571:
5567:
5542:
5538:
5517:
5513:
5482:
5475:
5454:
5450:
5440:Pacific Science
5437:
5433:
5386:
5382:
5375:
5359:
5355:
5348:
5334:
5330:
5285:
5281:
5228:
5224:
5159:
5155:
5112:
5108:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5056:
5052:
4998:
4994:
4941:Current Biology
4932:
4928:
4867:
4863:
4856:
4842:
4835:
4825:
4823:
4817:"The Lunar Sea"
4813:
4809:
4746:
4739:
4716:(11): 1607â13.
4702:
4698:
4691:
4677:
4668:
4607:
4596:
4586:
4584:
4556:
4541:
4534:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4496:
4441:
4437:
4428:
4426:
4395:10.2307/1543614
4367:
4363:
4350:
4349:
4345:
4338:
4324:
4320:
4311:
4309:
4298:
4291:
4281:
4279:
4266:
4265:
4261:
4206:
4202:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4122:
4115:
4084:
4080:
4041:
4037:
3998:
3994:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3922:
3918:
3902:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3878:
3874:
3829:
3825:
3794:10.2307/1543048
3774:
3770:
3739:
3737:
3736:
3725:
3718:
3704:
3695:
3642:Vibrio shilonii
3636:
3629:
3620:
3618:
3605:
3604:
3600:
3549:
3545:
3498:
3494:
3487:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3440:
3436:
3427:
3425:
3417:
3416:
3409:
3400:
3398:
3388:
3381:
3326:
3297:
3250:
3246:
3227:Ritchie, Hannah
3224:
3220:
3175:
3164:
3155:
3153:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3089:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3053:
3044:
3037:
3018:
3014:
3002:
2996:
2992:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2912:
2905:
2895:
2886:
2876:
2867:
2852:
2843:
2840:
2831:
2820:
2811:
2802:
2793:
2785:
2776:
2768:
2747:
2727:coral gardening
2716:
2710:
2662:
2656:
2647:
2645:Local economies
2638:
2610:
2590:Indian medicine
2549:
2506:Brooklyn Museum
2494:
2488:
2468:
2419:
2413:
2373:
2326:Solomon Islands
2294:
2250:
2226:
2202:
2072:coral bleaching
2064:
2055:
2035:coral bleaching
1934:
1929:
1923:
1914:
1894:
1892:
1839:Middle Triassic
1831:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1795:Tabulate coral
1793:
1784:
1777:
1757:
1733:and calcareous
1700:
1693:
1647:
1641:
1633:
1588:dinoflagellates
1586:photosynthetic
1556:
1550:Coral reef fish
1546:
1540:
1533:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1452:
1430:
1355:
1341:clone libraries
1329:
1316:
1314:Colony division
1272:
1263:coralline algae
1254:
1236:
1126:
1111:External videos
1106:
1084:. About 25% of
1070:
1054:
1042:coral bleaching
994:groups such as
988:
964:
951:
921:
915:
909:
882:
876:
758:
750:coral bleaching
615:
604:
598:
595:
576:
567:This section's
563:
559:
552:
456:Pliny the Elder
428:
410:, northwest of
360:dinoflagellates
196:
149:
123:
121:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
54:
53:
50:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9343:
9333:
9332:
9327:
9310:
9309:
9307:
9306:
9301:
9296:
9291:
9286:
9281:
9279:Precious coral
9276:
9271:
9266:
9260:
9258:
9254:
9253:
9251:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9241:
9228:
9226:
9222:
9221:
9218:
9217:
9215:
9214:
9209:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9183:
9181:
9172:
9171:
9166:
9161:
9156:
9150:
9148:
9144:
9143:
9141:
9140:
9135:
9130:
9125:
9120:
9115:
9109:
9107:
9106:Coral diseases
9103:
9102:
9100:
9099:
9094:
9092:Virgin Islands
9089:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9059:
9054:
9049:
9044:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9024:
9019:
9014:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8994:
8992:Coral Triangle
8989:
8984:
8979:
8974:
8969:
8964:
8959:
8954:
8948:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8937:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8919:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8899:
8898:
8897:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8871:
8869:
8863:
8862:
8860:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8839:
8833:
8831:
8825:
8824:
8817:
8815:
8813:
8812:
8806:
8800:
8799:
8798:
8793:
8783:
8778:
8773:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8752:
8750:
8744:
8743:
8732:
8731:
8724:
8717:
8709:
8701:
8700:
8681:
8672:
8663:
8654:
8645:
8634:
8633:External links
8631:
8630:
8629:
8623:
8617:. IUCN, UNEP.
8608:
8602:
8589:
8583:
8577:. OUP Oxford.
8568:
8562:
8545:
8536:
8530:
8517:
8511:
8498:
8492:
8479:
8473:
8460:
8454:
8441:
8435:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8414:
8387:(4): 399â407.
8371:
8368:on 2013-05-23.
8314:
8279:
8244:
8238:2013-06-25 at
8225:
8206:
8194:
8175:
8144:
8107:(3794): 3794.
8087:
8065:
8058:
8038:
8018:
7983:
7947:
7896:
7845:
7833:
7820:
7807:
7781:
7745:
7726:
7707:
7667:
7637:
7599:
7558:
7537:(5): 1435â53.
7517:
7498:(9): 1609â21.
7478:
7433:
7419:10.1.1.538.970
7388:
7330:
7245:
7188:
7158:
7098:
7079:(1â4): 61â78.
7073:Marine Geology
7063:
7020:
6999:
6980:
6953:
6929:
6903:
6873:
6814:
6795:
6762:
6755:
6729:
6703:
6694:
6649:
6637:
6604:
6598:Guardian.co.uk
6584:
6549:
6519:
6489:
6454:
6452:No. 1â3, 31-38
6437:
6411:
6382:
6351:
6298:
6285:
6260:
6233:
6218:
6211:
6187:
6158:
6115:
6090:
6055:
5990:
5947:(2): 466â478.
5927:
5872:
5823:
5798:
5731:
5727:10.1086/378684
5706:
5643:
5617:
5591:
5565:
5545:Endozoicomonas
5536:
5511:
5473:
5448:
5431:
5380:
5373:
5353:
5346:
5328:
5279:
5222:
5153:
5126:(3): 193â217.
5106:
5075:
5068:
5050:
4992:
4926:
4861:
4854:
4833:
4821:Hakai Magazine
4807:
4737:
4696:
4689:
4666:
4621:(1): 509â538.
4594:
4539:
4532:
4512:
4503:
4494:
4435:
4361:
4343:
4336:
4318:
4289:
4259:
4200:
4141:
4134:
4113:
4094:(3): 269â278.
4078:
4035:
3992:
3941:
3934:
3916:
3872:
3843:(5): 871â882.
3823:
3768:
3757:Chisholm, Hugh
3723:
3716:
3693:
3627:
3598:
3563:(2): 135â150.
3543:
3514:(2): 685â694.
3492:
3485:
3463:
3456:
3434:
3407:
3379:
3295:
3244:
3235:"Biodiversity"
3233:(2021-04-15).
3218:
3189:(2): 461â475.
3162:
3133:
3126:
3108:
3101:
3083:
3074:
3067:
3042:
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3012:
2990:
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2870:
2868:
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2844:
2841:
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2821:
2814:
2812:
2803:
2796:
2794:
2786:
2779:
2777:
2769:
2762:
2746:
2743:
2712:Main article:
2709:
2706:
2682:algae scrubber
2658:Main article:
2655:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2609:
2606:
2548:
2545:
2521:overharvesting
2492:Precious coral
2490:Main article:
2487:
2484:
2467:
2464:
2434:world heritage
2415:Main article:
2412:
2409:
2372:
2369:
2293:
2290:
2270:stable isotope
2249:
2246:
2236:minimums with
2225:
2222:
2201:
2198:
2190:realized niche
2108:changes using
2063:
2060:
2054:
2051:
1989:Southeast Asia
1970:sea level rise
1933:
1930:
1925:Main article:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1908:
1906:
1896:
1895:
1861:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1816:
1809:
1807:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1778:
1771:
1692:
1689:
1642:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1599:Staghorn coral
1542:Main article:
1539:
1536:
1527:
1506:
1493:Endozoicomonas
1480:phylosymbiosis
1464:Endozoicomonas
1447:
1429:
1426:
1402:model organism
1380:Endozoicomonas
1328:
1325:
1315:
1312:
1301:its body parts
1271:
1268:
1253:
1250:
1235:
1232:
1135:
1134:
1122:
1121:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1102:
1094:hermaphroditic
1069:
1066:
1062:hermaphroditic
1053:
1050:
1038:carbon dioxide
1004:dinoflagellate
987:
984:
963:
960:
950:
947:
911:Main article:
908:
905:
875:
872:
864:gastrovascular
856:zooxanthellate
757:
754:
681:photosynthesis
617:
616:
571:external links
566:
564:
557:
551:
548:
464:Petrus Gyllius
452:Gulf of Heroes
438:described the
427:
424:
354:photosynthetic
350:stinging cells
265:
264:
263:
262:
261:
260:
252:
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26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
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9261:
9259:
9255:
9247:
9246:
9242:
9240:
9239:
9235:
9234:
9233:
9232:Zooxanthellae
9230:
9229:
9227:
9223:
9213:
9210:
9208:
9205:
9203:
9202:Project AWARE
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9184:
9182:
9180:
9179:Organizations
9176:
9170:
9167:
9165:
9162:
9160:
9157:
9155:
9152:
9151:
9149:
9145:
9139:
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9121:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9111:
9110:
9108:
9104:
9098:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9060:
9058:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9048:
9047:Ningaloo Reef
9045:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9018:
9015:
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9005:
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9000:
8998:
8995:
8993:
8990:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8978:
8975:
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8952:List of reefs
8950:
8949:
8947:
8945:
8944:Coral regions
8941:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8924:
8920:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8903:
8900:
8896:
8893:
8892:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8872:
8870:
8868:
8864:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8834:
8832:
8830:
8826:
8821:
8811:
8807:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8788:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8753:
8751:
8749:
8745:
8741:
8737:
8730:
8725:
8723:
8718:
8716:
8711:
8710:
8707:
8703:
8691:on 2014-01-06
8690:
8686:
8682:
8680:
8676:
8673:
8671:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8658:
8655:
8653:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8640:
8637:
8636:
8626:
8624:9782880329440
8620:
8616:
8615:
8609:
8605:
8599:
8595:
8590:
8586:
8580:
8576:
8575:
8569:
8565:
8559:
8554:
8553:
8546:
8542:
8537:
8533:
8527:
8523:
8518:
8514:
8508:
8504:
8499:
8495:
8489:
8485:
8480:
8476:
8470:
8466:
8461:
8457:
8451:
8447:
8442:
8438:
8432:
8428:
8423:
8422:
8410:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8390:
8386:
8382:
8375:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8352:
8348:
8344:
8340:
8336:
8332:
8325:
8318:
8310:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8295:(2): 111â30.
8294:
8290:
8289:Marine Policy
8283:
8275:
8271:
8267:
8263:
8260:(2): 162â66.
8259:
8255:
8248:
8241:
8240:archive.today
8237:
8234:
8229:
8222:
8218:
8215:
8210:
8203:
8198:
8191:
8187:
8184:
8179:
8165:on 2019-06-17
8161:
8154:
8148:
8140:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8102:
8098:
8091:
8075:
8069:
8061:
8055:
8051:
8050:
8042:
8036:
8035:3-201-01725-6
8032:
8028:
8022:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7999:(6): 593â99.
7998:
7994:
7987:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7967:
7964:(6): 552â57.
7963:
7959:
7951:
7943:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7900:
7892:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7856:
7849:
7843:
7837:
7830:
7824:
7817:
7811:
7796:
7792:
7785:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7749:
7742:
7738:
7735:
7730:
7723:
7719:
7716:
7711:
7703:
7697:
7689:
7685:
7681:
7674:
7672:
7655:
7651:
7647:
7641:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7606:
7604:
7594:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7562:
7553:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7521:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7485:
7483:
7473:
7468:
7464:
7460:
7457:(4): PA4002.
7456:
7452:
7448:
7446:
7437:
7429:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7404:(4): 503â25.
7403:
7399:
7392:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7341:
7334:
7320:on 2017-08-14
7316:
7312:
7308:
7304:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7252:
7250:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7208:(7001): 741.
7207:
7203:
7199:
7192:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7165:
7163:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7107:
7105:
7103:
7094:
7090:
7086:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7067:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7036:(8): 277â78.
7035:
7031:
7024:
7009:
7003:
6995:
6991:
6984:
6976:
6972:
6969:(8): 839â99.
6968:
6964:
6957:
6943:
6939:
6933:
6917:
6910:
6908:
6899:
6895:
6892:(8): 839â66.
6891:
6887:
6883:
6877:
6869:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6818:
6810:
6809:Science World
6806:
6799:
6784:on 2013-02-18
6780:
6773:
6766:
6758:
6752:
6748:
6743:
6742:
6733:
6718:
6714:
6707:
6698:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6667:
6660:
6653:
6646:
6641:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6611:
6609:
6600:
6599:
6594:
6588:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6563:Fossil Groups
6560:
6553:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6523:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6493:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6470:(7): 525â28.
6469:
6465:
6458:
6451:
6447:
6441:
6425:
6421:
6415:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6387:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6355:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6318:(2): 409â14.
6317:
6313:
6309:
6302:
6288:
6282:
6278:
6271:
6264:
6248:
6244:
6237:
6230:
6227:
6222:
6214:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6199:
6191:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6162:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6119:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6094:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6059:
6051:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5994:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5931:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5876:
5868:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5827:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5802:
5794:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5735:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5710:
5703:
5698:
5692:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5656:
5647:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5626:
5621:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5569:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5540:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5515:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5478:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5452:
5446:(3): 313â324.
5445:
5441:
5435:
5427:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5384:
5376:
5370:
5366:
5365:
5357:
5349:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5324:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5226:
5218:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5157:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5079:
5071:
5065:
5061:
5054:
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5029:
5024:
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5016:
5012:
5008:
5004:
4996:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4963:
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4954:
4950:
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4942:
4938:
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4922:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4865:
4857:
4851:
4847:
4840:
4838:
4822:
4818:
4811:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4744:
4742:
4733:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4700:
4692:
4686:
4682:
4675:
4673:
4671:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4583:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4544:
4535:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4516:
4507:
4498:
4490:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4439:
4425:on 2006-02-25
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4389:(3): 360â73.
4388:
4384:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4365:
4357:
4353:
4347:
4339:
4333:
4329:
4322:
4308:on 2020-05-11
4307:
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4296:
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4277:
4273:
4269:
4263:
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4220:(5): e97003.
4219:
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4204:
4196:
4192:
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4182:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4161:(6): e98999.
4160:
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4007:
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3996:
3988:
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3980:
3976:
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3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3937:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3906:
3892:on 2018-02-05
3891:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3827:
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3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3788:(2): 178â86.
3787:
3783:
3779:
3772:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3747:public domain
3734:
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3719:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3689:
3685:
3680:
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3671:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3643:
3634:
3632:
3617:on 2022-04-27
3616:
3612:
3608:
3607:"Coral Reefs"
3602:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3547:
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3509:
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3503:
3496:
3488:
3486:0-87893-243-7
3482:
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3308:
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3267:
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3259:
3255:
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3206:
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3197:
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3169:
3167:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3129:
3127:9781474771009
3123:
3119:
3112:
3104:
3098:
3094:
3087:
3078:
3070:
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3038:
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3028:
3027:
3022:
3016:
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2857:
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2806:
2800:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2766:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2723:coral farming
2720:
2715:
2705:
2703:
2698:
2695:, especially
2694:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2666:
2661:
2660:Reef aquarium
2651:
2642:
2633:
2631:
2630:Oxford Castle
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2582:bone grafting
2579:
2578:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2380:Porites lutea
2377:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2342:South America
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2298:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2266:Geochronology
2263:
2259:
2255:
2254:NINO 3.4 SSTA
2245:
2243:
2242:NINO 3.4 SSTA
2239:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2177:elkhorn coral
2174:
2169:
2167:
2166:scleractinian
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2106:environmental
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2086:bamboo corals
2084:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2050:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1976:changes from
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:blast fishing
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1938:
1928:
1912:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1829:Modern corals
1822:
1821:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1781:Carboniferous
1775:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1760:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:index fossils
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1646:
1637:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:in the genus
1577:
1576:zooxanthellae
1573:
1569:
1560:
1555:
1554:List of reefs
1551:
1545:
1531:
1525:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1439:
1438:zooxanthellae
1435:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1398:zooxanthellae
1395:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1369:
1368:calcification
1364:
1360:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1282:
1276:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1244:
1240:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1200:cryptochromes
1197:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1090:gonochoristic
1087:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1058:gonochoristic
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1027:calcification
1024:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1013:of the genus
1012:
1011:zooxanthellae
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
983:
981:
977:
973:
969:
955:
946:
944:
943:zooxanthellae
938:
931:
930:
925:
920:
914:
904:
902:
898:
893:
891:
887:
881:
871:
867:
865:
861:
857:
852:
850:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
762:
753:
751:
747:
743:
741:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
717:
713:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
640:
638:
633:
629:
625:
613:
610:
602:
592:
588:
587:inappropriate
584:
580:
574:
572:
565:
556:
555:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
518:
514:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
460:tertia natura
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:Darwin Mounds
405:
404:
400:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
376:
371:
370:zooxanthellae
367:
366:
362:of the genus
361:
358:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
286:
282:
279:
275:
272:are colonial
271:
259:
253:
251:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
234:
233:
230:
226:
223:
221:
218:
217:
216:
213:
212:
210:
207:Subdivisions
205:
200:
195:
192:
189:
188:
185:
182:
179:
178:
175:
172:
169:
168:
165:
162:
159:
158:
153:
148:
144:
140:
135:
131:
126:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
58:
47:
44:
40:
33:
19:
9245:Symbiodinium
9243:
9236:
9147:Conservation
9062:Pulley Ridge
8921:
8829:Octocorallia
8748:Hexacorallia
8735:
8702:
8693:. Retrieved
8689:the original
8613:
8593:
8573:
8556:. F. Watts.
8551:
8540:
8521:
8502:
8483:
8464:
8445:
8426:
8384:
8380:
8374:
8363:the original
8334:
8330:
8317:
8292:
8288:
8282:
8257:
8253:
8247:
8228:
8209:
8197:
8178:
8167:. Retrieved
8160:the original
8147:
8104:
8100:
8090:
8078:. Retrieved
8068:
8048:
8041:
8021:
7996:
7992:
7986:
7961:
7957:
7950:
7913:
7909:
7899:
7862:
7858:
7848:
7836:
7828:
7823:
7815:
7810:
7798:. Retrieved
7794:
7784:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7729:
7710:
7696:cite journal
7687:
7683:
7658:. Retrieved
7654:the original
7649:
7640:
7615:
7611:
7575:
7571:
7561:
7534:
7530:
7520:
7495:
7491:
7454:
7450:
7444:
7436:
7401:
7397:
7391:
7350:
7346:
7333:
7322:. Retrieved
7315:the original
7268:
7264:
7205:
7201:
7191:
7174:
7170:
7120:
7116:
7076:
7072:
7066:
7033:
7029:
7023:
7012:. Retrieved
7002:
6993:
6983:
6966:
6962:
6956:
6945:. Retrieved
6941:
6932:
6920:. Retrieved
6889:
6885:
6876:
6831:
6827:
6817:
6808:
6798:
6786:. Retrieved
6779:the original
6765:
6740:
6732:
6721:. Retrieved
6716:
6706:
6697:
6685:. Retrieved
6678:the original
6652:
6640:
6628:. Retrieved
6624:the original
6596:
6587:
6575:. Retrieved
6571:the original
6562:
6552:
6540:. Retrieved
6532:
6522:
6510:. Retrieved
6506:the original
6501:
6492:
6467:
6463:
6457:
6449:
6440:
6428:. Retrieved
6424:the original
6414:
6402:. Retrieved
6398:the original
6360:
6354:
6343:. Retrieved
6315:
6311:
6301:
6290:. Retrieved
6276:
6263:
6251:. Retrieved
6247:the original
6236:
6228:
6221:
6197:
6190:
6178:. Retrieved
6174:the original
6168:
6161:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6102:
6098:
6093:
6067:
6063:
6058:
6007:
6003:
5993:
5944:
5940:
5930:
5889:
5885:
5875:
5840:
5836:
5826:
5810:
5806:
5801:
5748:
5744:
5734:
5718:
5714:
5709:
5667:(1): 62â76.
5664:
5660:
5654:
5646:
5628:
5620:
5604:
5600:
5594:
5578:
5574:
5568:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5539:
5523:
5519:
5514:
5488:
5484:
5460:
5456:
5451:
5443:
5439:
5434:
5397:
5393:
5383:
5363:
5356:
5337:
5331:
5296:
5292:
5282:
5239:
5235:
5225:
5174:
5170:
5156:
5123:
5119:
5109:
5092:
5088:
5078:
5059:
5053:
5010:
5006:
4995:
4944:
4940:
4929:
4878:
4874:
4864:
4845:
4824:. Retrieved
4820:
4810:
4757:
4753:
4713:
4709:
4699:
4680:
4618:
4614:
4585:. Retrieved
4563:
4522:
4515:
4506:
4497:
4452:
4448:
4438:
4427:. Retrieved
4423:the original
4386:
4382:
4377:M. faveolata
4376:
4372:
4364:
4355:
4346:
4327:
4321:
4310:. Retrieved
4306:the original
4280:. Retrieved
4276:the original
4271:
4262:
4217:
4213:
4203:
4158:
4154:
4144:
4125:
4091:
4087:
4081:
4051:(1): 10â22.
4048:
4044:
4038:
4008:(1): 75â83.
4005:
4001:
3995:
3954:
3950:
3944:
3925:
3919:
3894:. Retrieved
3890:the original
3885:
3875:
3840:
3836:
3826:
3785:
3781:
3771:
3760:
3707:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3619:. Retrieved
3615:the original
3610:
3601:
3560:
3556:
3546:
3511:
3505:
3495:
3476:
3466:
3447:
3437:
3426:. Retrieved
3422:
3399:. Retrieved
3395:
3337:
3334:BMC Genomics
3333:
3281:10754/627647
3261:
3257:
3247:
3238:
3221:
3186:
3182:
3154:. Retrieved
3146:
3136:
3117:
3111:
3092:
3086:
3077:
3057:
3025:
3015:
3006:
2993:
2948:
2944:
2934:
2826:
2808:
2805:Pillar coral
2788:
2775:sp. skeleton
2770:
2749:
2748:
2735:conservation
2726:
2722:
2717:
2690:
2671:
2648:
2639:
2611:
2608:Construction
2575:
2572:
2564:
2532:
2525:
2510:
2472:scuba diving
2469:
2461:
2450:
2446:
2427:marine parks
2420:
2405:paleoclimate
2398:
2392:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2351:(SST), from
2346:
2308:(ITCZ). The
2303:
2251:
2227:
2203:
2200:Geochemistry
2170:
2151:
2147:biogeography
2136:
2114:
2112:techniques.
2089:
2080:
2065:
2056:
2053:Coral health
2039:
2031:Symbiodinium
2024:
2001:
1986:
1950:urban runoff
1946:agricultural
1943:
1904:to present.
1899:
1835:Scleractinia
1832:
1818:
1796:
1751:
1728:
1694:
1691:Early corals
1681:Cyclocyathus
1680:
1650:
1608:
1602:
1582:. These are
1580:Symbiodinium
1579:
1568:Scleractinia
1565:
1507:
1492:
1477:
1462:
1455:
1431:
1387:
1386:
1378:
1372:
1356:
1339:(OTUs) from
1317:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1292:, either by
1287:
1279:
1255:
1237:
1225:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1193:
1182:
1176:
1138:
1104:Broadcasters
1079:
1055:
1052:Reproduction
1035:
1022:Symbiodinium
1020:
1016:Symbiodinium
1014:
996:sea anemones
989:
965:
939:
937:appearance.
935:
927:
919:Hexacorallia
913:Scleractinia
907:Stony corals
894:
889:
883:
880:Octocorallia
868:
853:
825:
794:
767:
738:
727:species lost
720:
709:
672:
667:
665:
641:
637:morphologies
620:
605:
596:
581:by removing
568:
544:sea anemones
542:because the
540:paraphyletic
506:Octocorallia
502:Hexacorallia
499:
484:
471:
467:
459:
447:
443:
436:Theophrastus
429:
401:
396:
373:
365:Symbiodinium
363:
339:
308:
269:
268:
242:Antipatharia
237:Scleractinia
232:Hexacorallia
220:Helioporacea
215:Octocorallia
141:, Australia
43:
9330:Coral reefs
9238:Amphidinium
9027:Lakshadweep
8962:Amazon Reef
8867:Coral reefs
8740:coral reefs
8639:Coral Reefs
8233:Coral Reefs
7840:Folio 391,
7800:January 12,
7353:(1): 3â17.
7113:Palumbi, S.
6125:Coral Reefs
6010:(1): 4921.
5886:Coral Reefs
5751:(1): 4921.
5526:: 317â340.
5299:: 129â137.
5242:: 277â288.
5095:: 133â207.
4881:(1): 5488.
4356:www.psu.edu
3009:(1965): 23.
2823:Brain coral
2741:hobbyists.
2731:coral reefs
2708:Aquaculture
2702:stony coral
2602:Dioscorides
2561:Dioscorides
2117:microatolls
2110:geochemical
2076:coral reefs
2066:Increasing
2008:metabolites
1997:coral reefs
1958:overfishing
1687:formation.
1661:brachiopods
1625:crustaceans
1497:cophylogeny
1394:stony coral
1363:microbiomes
1185:lunar cycle
1031:microbiomes
978:). A flap (
968:nematocysts
874:Soft corals
772:animals of
744:, the reef
599:August 2023
550:Systematics
536:mesenteries
532:soft corals
380:coral reefs
357:unicellular
319:exoskeleton
276:within the
190:Subphylum:
55:535â0
9319:Categories
9304:Fire coral
9289:Coral sand
9212:Reef Check
9192:Green Fins
8907:Microatoll
8847:Organ pipe
8771:Hermatypic
8695:2017-02-04
8169:2019-01-14
7916:: 572859.
7690:: 632â636.
7324:2017-10-25
7177:: 637â69.
7014:2009-05-11
6947:2020-05-14
6723:2019-04-23
6630:5 December
6345:2014-06-11
6292:2007-04-06
6131:(1): 1â9.
5400:(1): 120.
5394:Microbiome
4429:2006-03-30
4312:2006-03-31
4282:1 December
3896:2018-02-04
3621:2022-04-27
3428:2022-04-26
3401:2022-04-26
3231:Roser, Max
3156:2015-04-24
3143:"Anthozoa"
2927:References
2856:coral reef
2787:Polyps of
2693:soft coral
2686:microfauna
2674:reef tanks
2517:fire coral
2480:Green Fins
2476:snorkeling
2411:Protection
2407:modeling.
2288:modeling.
2132:sea levels
2094:geologists
2020:parrotfish
2016:herbivores
1993:endangered
1820:Grewingkia
1731:limestones
1712:Ordovician
1685:Gault clay
1673:trilobites
1669:gastropods
1617:ecosystems
1572:hermatypic
1548:See also:
1544:Coral reef
1458:microbiome
1434:holobionts
1428:Holobionts
1351:See also:
1189:day length
1162:speciation
917:See also:
878:See also:
840:cnidocytes
828:corallites
790:corallites
723:speciation
630:formed by
624:Adaptation
528:blue coral
412:Cape Wrath
375:Leptoseris
344:and small
225:Alcyonacea
9284:Coral rag
9207:Reef Ball
8977:Baa Atoll
8486:. Wiley.
7762:: 35â44.
7660:April 30,
7414:CiteSeerX
7281:CiteSeerX
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6180:April 25,
6032:2041-1723
5969:1432-184X
5914:1432-0975
5775:2041-1723
5581:: 40579.
5323:0171-8630
5266:0048-9697
5199:0099-2240
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4971:0960-9822
4903:2045-2322
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4661:251865474
4645:1941-1405
4582:257126558
4108:1095-6433
4065:1096-4959
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3987:129021387
3979:0031-0220
3867:134826884
3670:2161-2129
3585:1439-6092
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3205:1063-5157
2854:Fringing
2697:zoanthids
2678:live rock
2543:in 1759.
2400:Platygyra
2394:Platygyra
2230:strontium
2210:polymorph
2206:aragonite
2158:genotypes
2152:However,
2143:Gene flow
2012:nutrients
2006:-soluble
1954:pollution
1848:aragonite
1801:from the
1724:Paleozoic
1657:echinoids
1631:Evolution
1584:symbiotic
1530:holobiont
1489:phylogeny
1473:evolution
1450:symbionts
1359:dysbiosis
1321:Fungiidae
1290:asexually
1219:called a
1000:symbiotic
992:cnidarian
980:operculum
897:stolonate
886:sclerites
860:symbionts
849:terpenoid
832:tentacles
786:coenosarc
712:taxonomic
632:asexually
583:excessive
487:Al-Biruni
444:korallion
440:red coral
434:'s pupil
432:Aristotle
392:bleaching
388:Australia
335:full moon
315:tentacles
199:Ehrenberg
170:Kingdom:
164:Eukaryota
9325:Anthozoa
9032:Maldives
9022:Kiribati
8972:Apo Reef
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8857:Sea pens
8852:Sea fans
8810:Tabulate
8796:Staghorn
8766:Elegance
8659:CoRIS â
8409:83723761
8359:18829052
8236:Archived
8217:Archived
8186:Archived
8139:24825660
8080:23 April
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7978:97972721
7942:24489586
7891:24757491
7737:Archived
7718:Archived
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7311:84890014
7303:34991281
7240:32092741
7232:15306799
7145:12920289
7058:82449130
7050:11951026
6942:iBiology
6922:25 April
6868:20457927
6788:25 April
6687:April 7,
6533:Anthozoa
6512:25 April
6430:25 April
6404:25 April
6253:25 April
6153:34909110
6050:30467310
5985:22336906
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5867:27822559
5837:mSystems
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3213:34542634
3023:(2014).
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2910:See also
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2880:Chabahar
2739:aquarium
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2577:Isididae
2547:Medicine
2436:status,
2182:refugium
2173:staghorn
2129:Holocene
2102:climatic
2090:Isididae
2083:deep sea
2027:salinity
2018:such as
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1803:Devonian
1798:Aulopora
1765:Triassic
1743:Silurian
1720:tabulate
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1665:bivalves
1621:molluscs
1485:richness
1414:16S rRNA
1252:Planulae
1234:Brooders
1082:sexually
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468:zoophyta
426:Taxonomy
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342:plankton
327:spawning
292:colonies
288:Cnidaria
281:Anthozoa
258:Tabulata
194:Anthozoa
184:Cnidaria
180:Phylum:
174:Animalia
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2234:calcium
2214:calcite
1932:Threats
1844:calcite
1747:calcite
1708:Fossils
1406:primers
1294:budding
1270:Asexual
1258:planula
1228:Red Sea
1221:planula
1171:A male
1158:species
1141:gametes
998:form a
962:Feeding
949:Ecology
770:sessile
756:Anatomy
675:genus,
577:Please
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515:in the
508:of the
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283:of the
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2272:data.
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1921:Status
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1805:period
1735:shales
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1716:rugose
1699:about
1671:, and
1410:probes
1068:Sexual
836:organs
778:polyps
740:Vibrio
524:polyps
517:phylum
495:animal
348:using
296:polyps
285:phylum
270:Corals
250:Rugosa
201:, 1834
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18:Corals
9257:Other
9012:India
8885:Coral
8875:Atoll
8786:Table
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