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because it would not allow the animal to release the stress hormones by performing the behaviour and that cribbing may be beneficial in reducing stress. One method involves the horse wearing a collar-like device that stops a horse from arching and swelling its neck to suck in air. However, one of the only studies of the equipment showed that although wearing such a collar for 24 hours reduced cribbing in six of eight horses, once the collar was removed, cribbing returned to greater levels than before. The authors concluded cribbing has a function and that preventing this by using anti-cribbing collars may compromise the horse's welfare.
192:. In a 2015 study, after ACTH injection, cribbers had higher cortisol levels than non-cribbers. Furthermore, cribbers which did not perform the stereotypy during the 3-hrs of testing had higher cortisol levels than non-cribbers, whereas those performing the stereotypy did not. The researchers concluded that cribbing is a coping mechanism to stressful situations and that because of this, it should not be prevented.
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Thoroughbred and part-Thoroughbred horses fed concentrated food after weaning are four times more likely to become cribbers than foals not fed concentrate. In several studies, Thoroughbreds consistently have the greatest prevalence of cribbing compared to other breeds. It was found that 11.03% of racehorses performed one or more abnormal stereotypical behaviour that lead back to animal welfare and husbandry systems.
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has proved successful in preventing some cribbers from exhibiting the behavior, although this was less successful in horses which had been cribbers for more than three years prior to the surgery. It has been found that this method was successful in 84.4% of cases. For those that the surgery was not found to be effective, relapse time occurred within six months to two years after the surgery had taken place.
20:
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than any other breed, supporting that this may be a genetic component. Another study suggesting that cribbing may be genetic found that
Warmbloods were also more likely to perform this behaviour when compared to other breeds. It was also found that the descendants of a crib-biter were more likely to perform the behaviour due to a genetic component.
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behaviour that it wants to partake in would influence cribbing. Since the animal is unable to easily digest large quantities of starch, it was found that a high-grain, low forage diet could cause cribbing. A low-forage, high-grain diet was found to increase the risk of the stereotypy because the behaviour aided with relieving stomach acidity.
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function", therefore, if cribbing and wind-sucking have one of the above possible functions, it may be inappropriate to label them as a stereotypy. However, as the causes and resulting reinforcement for these behaviors are probably multifactorial and they remain abnormal behaviors, this indicates that
69:
Cribbing, or crib biting, involves a horse grasping a solid object such as the stall door or fence rail with its incisor teeth, arching its neck, and contracting the lower neck muscles to retract the larynx caudally. This movement is coincided with an in-rush of air through the crico-pharynx into the
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Stress is induced when environmental demands produce a physiological response, if that response has a long duration period, it exceeds the normal, natural regulatory ability of the organism. Stress has been found to be a major contributing factor to horses developing this oral stereotypic behaviour.
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One surgical technique is the modified
Forssell's procedure in which muscles and nerves in the ventral neck region are cut as well as some muscle tissue being removed. This makes it more difficult for a horse to contract the larynx and exhibit cribbing. An adaptation of this technique using a laser
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There are a number of traditional devices used to minimize or prevent cribbing and wind-sucking. However, the effectiveness of these methods is arguable since they do not address the underlying causal factors. If the behaviour is stress related, the use of a cribbing collar may be counterproductive
207:
A study suggested was that ghrelin levels were higher in a crib-biting horse than in those who did not perform the behaviour. Cribbing also increased salivary secretion. However, a different study found that there was no relation between salivary secretion and reducing gastric acidity. Meaning that
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One study investigated the effects of providing a feeder that delivered small amounts of concentrate feed when activated by the animal. The feeder increased the feeding time of both cribbers and non-cribbers, however, although the feeder decreased cribbing, it increased again once the feeder was
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It has been anecdotally claimed that horses can learn to copy these behaviors from other horses, although this has not been substantiated by scientific study. A study in 2009 found that 48.8% of US horse owners believed that cribbing could be learned by observation, but research demonstrated that
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than in those that were pasture-weaned. In the same study, feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a fourfold increase in the rate of development of cribbing. The most popular cases of crib-biting come from racetracks, and it is believed to have derived from husbandry systems at the
150:
Boredom, stress, habit, and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study that the link between intestinal conditions such as gastric inflammation or colic and abnormal oral behavior was attributable to environmental factors. There is evidence that
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in the horse's brain. It has also been suggested that the increase in saliva produced during wind-sucking could be a mechanism for neutralizing stomach conditions in stable-kept, grain-fed horses. Stereotypies have been defined as "repetitive, invariant behaviour patterns with no obvious goal or
171:
Gastrointestinal environment and feeding routines were also a crucial topic, hinting that perhaps grain concentrations, grain ratios and forages were the main cause of ulcers, causing the animal to perform the oral stereotypy as a method of comfort. Horses that were unable to partake in a feeding
167:
Because
Thoroughbreds are so consistently the most prevalent cribbers, this suggests there may be a genetic component, however, this may be confounded by different uses and management of different horse breeds. It was found that Thoroughbreds are three times more likely to develop this stereotypy
158:
Researchers now generally agree that cribbing and wind-sucking occur most often in stabled horses, although once established in an individual horse, the horse may exhibit these behaviors in other places. Recent studies indicate cribbing occurs more frequently in horses that were stable-weaned as
100:
It is reported that 2.4–8.3% of horses in Europe and Canada are cribbers and that cribbing can occupy 15-65% of an individual horse's daily time budget. A postal survey in 2009 found that an average of 4.4% horses in the US are cribbers, but 13.3% of
Thoroughbreds perform the behavior. Young
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or the subsequent development of colic. A study found that horses would perform the cribbing behaviour in attempt to decrease the cortisol levels that can be brought on by stressful situations. According to this study, the long-term release of stress hormones can be harmful and can cause
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Wind-sucking is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe but does so without grasping an object. Wind-sucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior.
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Other methods to prevent cribbing have included surgery, acupuncture, use of pharmaceuticals, operant feeding, and environmental enrichment. However, a study found that the use of pharmaceuticals was expensive, less popular and less effective.
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oesophagus producing the characteristic cribbing sound or grunt. Usually, air is not swallowed but returns to the pharynx. It is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior or stereotypy, and often labelled as a stable vice.
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have argued that prevention of the behavior without addressing the causes is not a cure and may result in cribbing being expressed in a modified form, or may interfere with an animal's attempt to adapt to its environment.
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Malamed, R.; Berger, J.; Bain, M. J.; Kass, P.; Spier, S. J. (2010). "Retrospective evaluation of crib-biting and windsucking behaviours and owner-perceived behavioural traits as risk factors for colic in horses".
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diet can significantly reduce the frequency of the behavior. Current research indicates that the prevention of cribbing and related behavior is based upon management conditions which allow daily free movement and
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Waters, A. J.; Nicol, C. J.; French, N. P. (2002). "Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study".
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Hemmann, Karin; Raekallio, Marja; Kanerva, Kira; Hänninen, Laura; Pastell, Matti; Palviainen, Mari; Vainio, Outi (2012). "Circadian variation in ghrelin and certain stress hormones in crib-biting horses".
359:
Lebelt, D., Zanella, A.J. and
Unshelm, J. (1998). "Physiological correlates associated with cribbing behaviour in horses: changes in thermal threshold, heart rate, plasma β-endorphin and serotonin".
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that provide higher amounts of roughage and limited amounts of concentrates. A growing body of work suggests that fat and fiber-based diets may also result in calmer patterns of behavior.
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Archer, D. C.; Pinchbeck, G. L.; French, N. P.; Proudman, C. J. (2008). "Risk factors for epiploic foramen entrapment colic in a UK horse population: A prospective case-control study".
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Bachmann, I.; Bernasconi, P.; Herrmann, R.; Weishaupt, M.A.; Stauffacher, M. (2003). "Behavioural and physiological responses to an acute stressor in crib-biting and control horses".
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Cooper, J.J.; Mason G.J. (1998). "The identification of abnormal behaviour and behavioural problems in stabled horses and their relationship to horse welfare: a comparative review".
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Tadich, Tamara; Weber, Constanza; Nicol, Christine J. (2013). "Prevalence and
Factors Associated with Abnormal Behaviors in Chilean Racehorses: A Direct Observational Study".
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racetracks. The issue with these systems is that the social tendencies of the herd animal have been disrupted. Therefore, they are lacking social interaction and stimulation.
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A study suggested that the animal uses cribbing as a coping method when it cannot escape a fearful or stressful situation, or when it has been socially isolated or confined.
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Stereotypies are sometimes considered to be a coping mechanism for animals experiencing stress. A physiological stress response can be induced by injecting an animal with
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and found no evidence that cribbing generally impairs the health of affected horses, but later studies reported that cribbing and wind-sucking were related to a history of
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92:), is another undesirable behavior sometimes observed in horses. The horse gnaws on wood rails or boards as if they were food, but it does not involve sucking in air.
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Nicol, C. J.; Davidson, H. P. D.; Harris, P. A.; Waters, A. J.; Wilson, A. D. (2002). "Study of crib-biting and gastric inflammation and ulceration in young horses".
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Bachmann, I.; Audigé, L.; Stauffacher, M. (2003). "Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib-biting, weaving and box-walking in Swiss horses".
61:, is another undesirable habit observed in horses, but it does not involve sucking in air; the horse simply gnaws on wood rails or boards as if they were food.
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or a commercial "chew stop" product may reduce chewing-related damage to surfaces, though this does not prevent edges from being gripped by the teeth.
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Wind-sucking occurs in 3.8% of non-racing horses in the US. One study shows that stereotypes in general, including cribbing, are more prevalent in
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There is evidence that stomach ulcers may lead to a horse becoming a cribber, and that cribbing may be a coping mechanism in response to stress.
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Baia, P., Burba, D.J., Riggs, L.M. and
Beaufrere, H. (2015). "Long term outcome after laser assisted modified Forssell's in cribbing horses".
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Galizzi
Vecchiotti, Giuliana; Galanti, Roberto (1986). "Evidence of heredity of cribbing, weaving and stall-walking in thoroughbred horses".
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504:
Litva, A.; Robinson, C. S.; Archer, D. C. (2010). "Exploring lay perceptions of the causes of crib-biting/windsucking behaviour in horses".
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McGreevy, P.D.; Nicol, C.J. (1998). "The effect of short term prevention on the subsequent rate of crib-biting in
Thoroughbred horses".
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van den Berg, M., Brown, W.Y., Lee, C. and Hinch, G.N. (2015). "Browse-related behaviors of pastured horses in
Australia: A survey".
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Cribbing was mentioned in the literature as early as 1578 and occurs in 2.4–8.3% of horses depending on breed and management.
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36:
686:
729:
Wickens, C.L.; Houpt, K.A. (2015). "Chapter 37: Stereotypic and behavior disorders". In Martin Furr and Stephen Reed (ed.).
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A horse cribbing on a wooden fence, note anti-cribbing collar intended to reduce this behavior and tension in neck muscles
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47:. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability.
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Houpt, Katherine A. (2012). "A preliminary answer to the question of whether cribbing causes salivary secretion".
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Hothersall, B.; Nicol, C.J. (2009). "Role of diet and feeding in normal and stereotypic behaviors in horses".
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Several methods have been devised to prevent cribbing once the behavior has started. However, some
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Mazzola, S., Palestrini, C., Cannas, S., Fè, E., Bagnato, G. L., Vigo, D. and Minero, M. (2016).
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983:"The physiological consequences of crib-biting in horses in response to an ACTH challenge test"
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Covering exposed edges with metal or wire or painting surfaces with bitter substances such as
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Wickens, Carissa L.; Heleski, Camie R. (2010). "Crib-biting behavior in horses: A review".
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cribbing did not provide comfort for ulcers, rather that it stimulated/caused this issue.
8:
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and the animal's ability to cope with this stress can be monitored by measuring salivary
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only 1.0% of horses developed cribbing after being housed in sight of an affected horse.
40:
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Whisher, L., Raum, M., Pina, L., PĂ©rez, L., Erb, H., Houpt, C., & Houpt, K. (2011).
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Albright, J.D., Mohammed, H.O., Heleski, C.R., Wickens, C.L. and Houpt, K.A. (2009).
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656:"Crib-biting in US horses: breed predispositions and owner perceptions of aetiology"
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35:), otherwise known as wind sucking or crib-biting. Cribbing is considered to be an
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McGreevy, P. D.; Nicol, C. J. (1998). "Prevention of crib-biting: a review".
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1396:"Efficacy of a feed dispenser for horses in decreasing cribbing behaviour"
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Hausberger, M., Gautier, E., Biquand, V., Lunel, C. and Jego, P. (2009).
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Cribbing and wind-sucking may cause a sensation of pleasure by releasing
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changes are needed for animals that exhibit cribbing or wind-sucking.
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and the behavior has been reported as occurring in horses on pasture.
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788:"Could work be a source of behavioural disorders? A study in horses"
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Nixon, S. (2013). "Oral stereotypic behaviour in an adult horse".
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research
597:"Effects of environmental factors on cribbing activity by horses"
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stomach ulcers may be correlated to a horse becoming a cribber.
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Freymond, S.B., Bardou, D., Briefer, E.F.; et al. (2015).
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Proceedings Veterinary Behaviour Chapter: Science Week 2013
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cardiovascular diseases, depression and immunosuppression.
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Mason, G.J. (1991). "Stereotypies: a critical review".
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Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice
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229:It has been shown that feeding cribbing horses an
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88:A similar, but unrelated behavior, wood-chewing (
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733:(2 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 472–483.
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53:A similar but unrelated behavior,
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33:equine oral stereotypic behaviour
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1002:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.07.015
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1069:10.2746/042516408X312149
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96:Prevalence and incidence
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225:Dietary and management
27:Cribbing is a form of
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16:Stable vice in horses
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1214:(1): 167–81, viii.
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262:Surgical and others
41:compulsive behavior
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1063:(4): 405–10.
1062:
1058:
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1021:
1017:
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1007:
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798:(10): e7625.
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759:(2): 95–100.
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1470:(27): 35–8.
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1172:(1): 91–95.
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881:cite journal
867:(1): 48–53.
864:
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705:cite journal
694:. Retrieved
687:the original
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621:. Retrieved
617:the original
607:(1): 63–69.
604:
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72:
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55:wood-chewing
54:
52:
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32:
26:
996:: 121–128.
318:10138/35768
256:carbolineum
218:ethologists
90:lignophagia
65:Description
59:lignophagia
45:stable vice
1532:Categories
1264:10214/4622
1011:10023/9129
696:2016-11-07
623:2019-02-07
275:References
197:endorphins
135:endorphins
29:stereotypy
1311:1558-7878
1186:0301-6226
1151:0168-1591
773:0737-0806
486:0168-1591
327:1090-0233
242:removed.
212:Treatment
202:husbandry
180:Functions
116:stallions
1548:Ethology
1519:10485001
1484:10485002
1432:27818832
1381:12638792
1346:10484995
1273:53187334
1228:19303558
1116:12357996
1077:18487105
1020:26187578
953:22541165
945:12498408
907:: 92–95.
832:19862328
792:PLOS ONE
683:19642405
568:24433410
526:20525045
436:21039797
381:10484999
343:12023171
335:22040804
190:cortisol
112:Geldings
106:dressage
37:abnormal
1423:5081461
1406:: 1–6.
823:2763287
800:Bibcode
231:antacid
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146:Causes
1269:S2CID
1028:95773
1024:S2CID
986:(PDF)
949:S2CID
690:(PDF)
659:(PDF)
339:S2CID
161:foals
139:colic
120:mares
1515:PMID
1480:PMID
1446:link
1428:PMID
1404:2016
1377:PMID
1342:PMID
1307:ISSN
1224:PMID
1182:ISSN
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1073:PMID
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1016:PMID
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564:PMID
522:PMID
482:ISSN
432:PMID
395:link
377:PMID
331:PMID
323:ISSN
186:ACTH
114:and
1507:doi
1472:doi
1418:PMC
1408:doi
1369:doi
1334:doi
1299:doi
1259:hdl
1251:doi
1216:doi
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1139:doi
1104:doi
1065:doi
1006:hdl
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933:doi
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818:PMC
808:doi
761:doi
671:doi
609:doi
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514:doi
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313:hdl
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