1302:
1094:
1321:
rehabilitated. Many modern prisons offer schooling or job training to prisoners as a chance to learn a vocation and thereby earn a legitimate living when they are returned to society. Religious institutions also have a presence in many prisons, with the goal of teaching ethics and instilling a sense of morality in the prisoners. If a prisoner is released before his time is served, he is released as a parole. This means that they are released, but the restrictions are greater than that of someone on probation.
1238:
1792:
3759:
43:
4014:
967:
3723:
1722:, police began to professionalize, adopt new technologies, and place emphasis on training and professional qualifications of new hires. Despite such reforms, police agencies were led by highly autocratic leaders, and there remained a lack of respect between police and the community. Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring, and many police agencies adopted
1461:
at four-year institutions typically include coursework in statistics, methods of research, criminal justice, policing, U.S. court systems, criminal courts, corrections, community corrections, criminal procedure, criminal law, victimology, juvenile justice, and a variety of special topics. A number of universities offer, bachelor's, academic minors, graduate certificates, master's, and doctoral degrees in
Criminal Justice; Criminology, Law and Society;
3748:
1522:
118:
1164:
jury trial in appropriate cases. It is the defense attorney's duty to represent the interests of the client, raise procedural and evidentiary issues, and hold the prosecution to its burden of proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Defense counsel may challenge evidence presented by the prosecution or present exculpatory evidence and argue on behalf of their client. At trial, the defense attorney may attempt to offer a
3735:
1226:. This is a particular problem when the lawyer performs in a substandard manner. The jury process is another area of frequent criticism, as there are few mechanisms to guard against poor judgment or incompetence on the part of the layman jurors. Judges themselves are very subject to bias subject to things as ordinary as the length of time since their last break.
1115:
The courts serve as the venue where disputes are settled and justice is then administered. With regard to criminal justice, there are a number of critical people in any court setting. These critical people are referred to as the courtroom work group and include both professional and non professional
1460:
Criminal justice degrees are offered at both the two-year community college and four-year university level. Community college criminal justice programs include the
Associate of Arts (AA), Associate of Science (AS), and the Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degrees. Criminal justice degree programs
1320:
Punishment (in the form of prison time) may serve a variety of purposes. First, and most obviously, the incarceration of criminals removes them from the general population and inhibits their ability to perpetrate further crimes. A new goal of prison punishments is to offer criminals a chance to be
1221:
on the part of the lawyers, the judge, or jury members threatens to destroy the court's credibility. Some people argue that the often
Byzantine rules governing courtroom conduct and processes restrict a layman's ability to participate, essentially reducing the legal process to a battle between the
1205:
or not guilty, and may accept a diversion program or reduced punishment, where the prosecution's case is weak or in exchange for the cooperation of the accused against other people. This reduced sentence is sometimes a reward for sparing the state the expense of a formal trial. Many nations do not
1163:
A defense attorney counsels the accused on the a legal process, likely outcomes for the accused and suggests strategies. The accused, not the lawyer, has the right to make final decisions regarding a number of fundamental points, including whether to testify, and to accept a plea offer or demand a
1344:
is still used around the world. Its use is one of the most heavily debated aspects of the criminal justice system. Some societies are willing to use executions as a form of political control, or for relatively minor misdeeds. Other societies reserve execution for only the most sinister and brutal
1171:
In the U.S., accused people are entitled to a government-paid defense attorney if the individual is in jeopardy of losing life and/or liberty. Those who cannot afford a private attorney may be provided one by the state. Historically, however, the right to a defense attorney has not always been
1336:
are also sanctions which seek to limit a person's mobility and his or her opportunities to commit crimes without actually placing them in a prison setting. Furthermore, many jurisdictions may require some form of public or community service as a form of reparations for lesser offenses. In
1337:
Corrections, the department ensures court-ordered, pre-sentence chemical dependency assessments, related Drug
Offender Sentencing Alternative specific examinations and treatment will occur for offenders sentenced to Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative in compliance with RCW 9.94A.660.
1159:
or plaintiff's counsel. Although both serve the function of bringing a complaint before the court, the prosecutor is a servant of the state who makes accusations on behalf of the state in criminal proceedings, while the plaintiff is the complaining party in civil proceedings.
1294:. Prisons may serve as detention centers for prisoners after trial. For containment of the accused, jails are used. Early prisons were used primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living conditions within their walls. In America, the
1143:
their case before the court (sometimes before a judge or panel of judges, sometimes before a jury). The case should be decided in favor of the party who offers the most sound and compelling arguments based on the law as applied to the facts of the case.
1196:
Some cases can be disposed of without the need for a trial. In fact, the vast majority are. If the accused confesses his or her guilt, a shorter process may be employed and a judgment may be rendered more quickly. Some nations, such as
America, allow
1078:
and the provision of services. During modern times, such endeavors contribute toward fulfilling a shared mission among law enforcement organizations with respect to the traditional policing mission of deterring crime and maintaining societal order.
1192:
is required. In
America, this process depends on the state, level of court, and even agreements between the prosecuting and defending parties. Some nations do not use juries at all, or rely on theological or military authorities to issue verdicts.
1206:
permit the use of plea bargaining, believing that it coerces innocent people to plead guilty in an attempt to avoid a harsh punishment. The courts nowadays are seeking alternative measures as opposed to throwing someone into prison right away.
1457:, among others, to provide a more comprehensive view of the criminal justice system and the root causes of crime. Criminal justice studies now combine the practical and technical policing skills with a study of social deviance as a whole.
1187:
panel composed of unbiased citizens. This process varies depending on the laws of the specific jurisdiction. In some places the panel (be it judges or a jury) is required to issue a unanimous decision, while in others only a majority
1420:), issued a series of rulings which redefined citizen's rights and substantially altered the powers and responsibilities of police and the courts. The Civil Rights Era offered significant legal and ethical challenges to the
1074:" in the United States; this, however, has constituted only a small portion of overall policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different contexts, but the predominant ones are concerned with
1404:
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, crime rates soared and social issues took center stage in the public eye. A number of new laws and studies focused federal resources on researching new approaches to crime control. The
1128:. The judge, or magistrate, is a person, elected or appointed, who is knowledgeable in the law, and whose function is to objectively administer the legal proceedings and offer a final decision to dispose of a case.
1741:
patterns and trends, and holding police accountable for dealing with crime problems. CompStat has since been replicated in police departments across the United States and around the world, with
1298:
movement is commonly credited with establishing the idea that prisons should be used to reform criminals. This can be seen as a critical moment in the debate regarding the purpose of punishment.
1401:. As of 1950, criminal justice students were estimated to number less than 1,000. Until the 1960s, the primary focus of criminal justice in the United States was on policing and police science.
1267:
Offenders are then turned over to the correctional authorities, from the court system after the accused has been found guilty. Like all other aspects of criminal justice, the administration of
1441:
for criminology research, focusing on social aspects of crime. By the 1970s, there were 729 academic programs in criminology and criminal justice in the United States. Largely thanks to the
1180:
were not permitted to offer arguments in their defense. In many jurisdictions, there is no right to an appointed attorney, if the accused is not in jeopardy of losing his or her liberty.
1183:
The final determination of guilt or innocence is typically made by a third party, who is supposed to be disinterested. This function may be performed by a judge, a panel of judges, or a
1229:
Manipulations of the court system by defense and prosecution attorneys, law enforcement as well as the defendants have occurred and there have been cases where justice was denied.
1357:, which involves the study of crime as a social phenomenon, causes of crime, criminal behavior, and other aspects of crime; although in most cases today, criminal justice as a
1345:
offenses. Others still have discontinued the practice entirely, accepting the use of execution to be excessively cruel and/or irreversible in case of an erroneous conviction.
2055:
1579:, was another common punishment, including for violent crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of
2434:
Bailey, William C., J. David Martin, and Louis N. Gray. "Crime and deterrence: A correlation analysis." Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency 11.2 (1974): 124-143.
1301:
2142:
McElreath, David; Doss, Daniel; Jensen, Carl; Wigginton, Michael; Kennedy, Ralph; Winter, Kenneth; Mongue, Robert; Bounds, Janice; Estis-Sumerel, J. Michelle (2013).
1003:
is called in. When warranted, law enforcement agencies or police officers are empowered to use force and other forms of legal coercion and means to effect public and
2181:"We find that the percentage of favorable rulings drops gradually from ≈65% to nearly zero within each decision session and returns abruptly to ≈65% after a break."
1151:
who brings charges against a person, persons or corporate entity. It is the prosecutor's duty to explain to the court what crime was committed and to detail what
1649:
The development of a modern criminal justice system was contemporary to the formation of the concept of a nation-state, later defined by German sociologist
2303:
2764:
2330:
Savelsberg, Joachim J; Cleveland, Lara L.; King, Ryan D. (June 2004). "Institutional
Environments and Scholarly Work: American Criminology, 1951–1993".
1434:
847:
1271:
has taken many different forms throughout history. Early on, when civilizations lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain prisons,
1012:
53:
1328:
are one of the oldest forms of punishment still used today. These fines may be paid to the state or to the victims as a form of reparation.
2386:
2520:
Max Weber in Weber's
Rationalism and Modern Society, translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. Palgrave Books 2015, p. 136
1638:, these reforms were revived in Pennsylvania toward the end of the 18th century, and led to a marked drop in Pennsylvania's crime rate.
3797:
883:
of offenders, preventing other crimes, and moral support for victims. The primary institutions of the criminal justice system are the
3102:
1430:
2444:
Monahan, John. "Preface: Recidivism Risk
Assessment in the 21st Century." Handbook of Recidivism Risk/Needs Assessment Tools (2017).
464:
2455:
2063:
1222:
lawyers. In this case, the criticism is that the decision is based less on sound justice and more on the lawyer's eloquence and
1135:
or innocence (although in the U.S. a jury can never find a defendant "innocent" but rather "not guilty") is decided through the
1324:
There are numerous other forms of punishment which are commonly used in conjunction with or in place of prison terms. Monetary
840:
1882:. When it sits as a court of appeal, the Court of Assizes is composed of three judges and nine jurors, or seven judges alone.
3001:
2937:
2888:
2858:
2269:
2111:
2086:
1913:
1999:
1908:
1246:
187:
1777:
are responsible for the investigation of criminal offenses and identification of perpetrators. This is in contrast to the
3041:
Hanes, Richard C. and Sharon M. Hanes. Crime and Punishment in America. Volume 1. 2005. Thomas Gale. Farmington Hills, MI
2646:
2619:
2151:
1414:
1410:
1374:
814:
668:
2025:
1634:
replacing corporal punishment. These reforms were reverted, upon Penn's death in 1718. Under pressure from a group of
2774:
1782:
833:
87:
31:
3054:
Walker, Samuel Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice. 1980. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York
2243:
1445:, criminal justice students numbered over 100,000 by 1975. Over time, scholars of criminal justice began to include
3739:
1386:
955:
In the criminal justice system, these distinct agencies operate together as the principal means of maintaining the
17:
3675:
1918:
1778:
1067:
711:
408:
3763:
3790:
3632:
3286:
3127:
648:
628:
192:
3239:
3095:
809:
804:
658:
2293:(ACJS) 1963 Justice Sciences 25 April 2015. 2015-05-07 ACJS History 243–252 Criminal Justice. 4: 243-2546790
1614:
was not widely used until the 19th century. Correctional reform in the United States was first initiated by
3580:
3490:
1466:
459:
250:
3132:
2313:
1976:
1892:
1516:
1036:("city"). The first police force comparable to the present-day police was established in 1667 under King
716:
3069:
2244:"When Worlds Collide: Criminal Investigative Analysis, Forensic Psychology And the Timothy Masters Case"
4004:
1734:
623:
348:
299:
172:
2511:, translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palgrave Books, 2015, pp. 129–198.
2493:
Garland, David (2002). "Of Crimes and Criminals". In Maguire, Mike; Rod Morgan; Robert Reiner (eds.).
1070:
began as an entity which could investigate and enforce specific federal laws as an investigative and "
4034:
3783:
3394:
3122:
2844:
1746:
1742:
1504:
1500:
1462:
1394:
1390:
880:
761:
643:
547:
513:
498:
304:
207:
1093:
1015:
of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. The word comes from the
3727:
3575:
3565:
3362:
3088:
1875:
1871:
1774:
1763:
1398:
1209:
The entire trial process, whatever the country, is fraught with problems and subject to criticism.
766:
162:
69:
3824:
3049:
The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation
1781:, whose goal is to ensure the maintenance of public order and to prevent crime. Article 14 of the
1478:
3758:
3537:
3425:
3320:
2710:
1903:
1898:
1879:
1442:
1378:
1309:
937:
892:
653:
488:
294:
217:
3044:
Friedman, Lawrence M. Crime and Punishment in American History. 1993. Basic Books. New York, NY.
1952:
1862:
and is normally composed of three judges and six jurors, and has jurisdiction over more serious
1767:
3965:
3854:
3647:
3367:
3195:
1799:
Courts involved in adjudicating questions of French criminal law are organized in three tiers.
1071:
1049:
1040:
in France, although modern police usually trace their origins to the 1800 establishment of the
1023:
1000:
819:
581:
202:
2987:
2907:
2848:
2394:
1646:
and others led significant reforms during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
3905:
3895:
3839:
3570:
3560:
3522:
3495:
3457:
3430:
3340:
3249:
3168:
3158:
2927:
2878:
2609:
1859:
1807:
771:
721:
618:
571:
493:
454:
428:
375:
197:
142:
137:
65:
2636:
1155:
has been found which incriminates the accused. The prosecutor should not be confused with a
3925:
3829:
3517:
3357:
3330:
3325:
3222:
2196:
1711:
1654:
1366:
1056:
1053:
741:
736:
726:
678:
638:
633:
596:
540:
449:
343:
260:
167:
61:
8:
3935:
3930:
3869:
3864:
3697:
3691:
3617:
3532:
3477:
3352:
3217:
3163:
1672:
1580:
1492:
1488:
1358:
1041:
786:
663:
586:
576:
380:
147:
2200:
3859:
3642:
3207:
2685:
2590:
2582:
2551:
2475:
2347:
2219:
2184:
1928:
1837:
1811:
1723:
1684:
1567:, political ideals, and economic conditions. In ancient times through the Middle Ages,
1496:
1341:
1136:
985:
The first contact a defendant has with the criminal justice system is usually with the
781:
756:
413:
363:
319:
212:
3900:
3612:
3607:
3595:
3590:
3462:
3452:
3372:
3315:
3259:
2997:
2973:
2965:
2943:
2933:
2913:
2894:
2884:
2864:
2854:
2642:
2615:
2594:
2531:
2351:
2224:
2147:
2107:
2082:
1855:
1816:
1704:
1688:
1639:
1382:
1250:
673:
591:
444:
314:
2664:"High Policing and Low Policing: Remarks about the Policing of Political Activities"
2555:
240:
3986:
3940:
3915:
3627:
3472:
3447:
3254:
3244:
3234:
2677:
2574:
2543:
2467:
2339:
2214:
2204:
1362:
1125:
439:
385:
1895:– structured list of topics related to criminal justice, organized by subject area
3950:
3910:
3885:
3849:
3834:
3637:
3404:
3399:
3212:
3077:, a well-respected academic research centre focusing on crime and justice issues.
3031:
2668:
2308:
2003:
1695:
and disorder. In the United States, police departments were first established in
1242:
1202:
1198:
991:
980:
920:
776:
418:
358:
353:
338:
270:
265:
255:
177:
157:
3070:
The International Center for Transitional Justice's (ICTJ) Criminal Justice Page
966:
3991:
3970:
3945:
3920:
3844:
3752:
3600:
3512:
3507:
3264:
3185:
3180:
3111:
2189:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2182:
1803:
1715:
1643:
1603:
1588:
1370:
1325:
1214:
1008:
535:
152:
2947:
4028:
3960:
3703:
3659:
3622:
3552:
3527:
3437:
3335:
3281:
3276:
2977:
2969:
2956:
République française; Secrétariat général du gouvernement (19 October 2022).
2917:
2898:
2868:
2433:
2062:(in French). La Préfecture de Police au service des Parisiens. Archived from
1923:
1738:
1700:
1611:
1438:
1237:
691:
523:
433:
331:
2547:
2209:
1836:(minor infractions like parking tickets). The Criminal court (also known as
3955:
3502:
3442:
3190:
3148:
2228:
2033:
1791:
1619:
1615:
1526:
1406:
1333:
1173:
1075:
1063:
1004:
686:
245:
2343:
1971:
1139:. In this system, two parties will both offer their version of events and
3654:
3542:
3467:
3384:
3303:
3296:
3153:
1719:
1680:
1572:
1484:
1446:
1417:
1354:
1262:
1132:
956:
731:
518:
423:
370:
222:
182:
105:
2417:
1066:
based on their particular mission and jurisdiction. Formed in 1908, the
999:, but if the suspect is dangerous to the whole nation, a national level
4018:
3816:
3708:
3547:
3389:
3347:
3291:
2909:
Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 8
2586:
2479:
1933:
1584:
1548:
1454:
1422:
1313:
1268:
1121:
1098:
933:
888:
876:
751:
746:
552:
2689:
2663:
1290:
The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the
3482:
3379:
3308:
3202:
3175:
2183:
Shai Danzigera; Jonathan Levav; Liora Avnaim-Pessoa (11 April 2011).
2104:
A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism
1650:
1596:
1450:
1329:
1305:
1276:
1218:
1156:
1037:
1031:
948:
390:
326:
4013:
2578:
2471:
2060:
La Préfecture de Police fête ses 200 ans Juillet 1800 – Juillet 2000
1521:
1365:. It emerged as an academic discipline in the 1920s, beginning with
1062:
Police are primarily concerned with keeping the peace and enforcing
1007:. The term is most commonly associated with police departments of a
3775:
2993:
2681:
1730:
1657:", which was exercised in the criminal justice case by the police.
1607:
1592:
1560:
1556:
1530:
1353:
The functional study of criminal justice is at times distinct from
1223:
1165:
1152:
1140:
530:
477:
117:
109:
3747:
3080:
2929:
Municipal Policing in the European Union: Comparative Perspectives
2569:
Olson, Mancur (1993). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development".
1785:
provides the legal basis for the authority of the Judicial police.
1703:
in 1844. Early on, police were not respected by the community, as
3807:
3229:
2957:
1953:"U.S. Criminal Justice System Overview - CorrectionalOfficer.org"
1635:
1623:
1576:
1564:
1544:
1177:
960:
864:
561:
2365:
2824:
2822:
2418:"Victim-Centered Restorative Justice: An Essential Distinction"
2270:"The Last Frontier: Myths & The Female Psychopathic Killer"
1696:
1676:
1666:
1631:
1552:
1295:
1291:
1254:
1148:
1102:
1045:
996:
986:
944:
924:
900:
884:
508:
132:
1749:, and other information-led policing strategies also adopted.
970:
This image shows the procedure in the criminal justice system.
3051:. 1997. Kluwer Law International. The Hague, The Netherlands.
1692:
1568:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1117:
1088:
1016:
929:
896:
868:
503:
284:
2877:
Bermann, George A.; Picard, Etienne, eds. (1 January 2008).
2819:
2141:
2129:
Fabricating Social Order: A Critical History of Police Power
1433:(LEAA) and associated policy changes that resulted with the
2960:[The public service for dissemination of the law].
1627:
1575:, payment to the victim (or the victim's family), known as
1210:
1189:
1184:
3038:
Lexinexis editor, 7th edition, September 2011, 1584 pages.
2792:
2146:(1 ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 87.
1385:. Other programs were established in the United States at
1217:
form an ever-present threat to an objective decision. Any
943:
Agencies for detaining and supervising offenders, such as
916:
The criminal justice system consists of three main parts:
3271:
3074:
2809:
2807:
1671:
The first modern police force is commonly said to be the
1381:, who led efforts to professionalize policing and reduce
995:) who investigates the suspected wrongdoing and makes an
3064:
1022:("civil administration"), which itself derives from the
2964:. Direction de l'information légale et administrative.
2958:"Légifrance Le service public de la diffusion du droit"
2752:
2329:
1377:
in 1916. Vollmer's work was carried on by his student,
2912:. W. & R. Chambers, Limited. 1896. pp. 286–.
2804:
2780:
2740:
2730:
2728:
4002:
1543:
The modern criminal justice system has evolved since
2611:
World Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey
1563:
reforms. These developments have reflected changing
2725:
1618:, towards the end of the 17th century. For a time,
1279:were the primary forms of punishment. Historically
2847:; Sophie Boyron; Simon Whittaker (27 March 2008).
2366:"Punishment | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
2268:Perri, Frank S.; Lichtenwald, Terrance G. (2010).
2242:Perri, Frank S.; Lichtenwald, Terrance G. (2009).
1435:Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
1373:who established a criminal justice program at the
1429:In the late 1960s, with the establishment of the
1232:
4026:
3019:Criminal Justice in the United States, 1789–1939
2453:
2267:
2241:
1737:as an information-based system for tracking and
1655:monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force
1131:In the U.S. and in a growing number of nations,
2529:
2495:The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition
2106:. Lexington, MT: Lexington Books. p. 143.
1479:Justice § Instrumental theories of justice
1472:
3075:Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research
3026:Criminal Justice: Mainstream and Crosscurrents
2641:(8 ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 6–8.
2492:
2456:"Crime and Punishment in Renaissance Florence"
1854:, less serious felonies and misdemeanors. The
3791:
3096:
2876:
2828:
2325:
2323:
1361:is used as a synonym for criminology and the
879:agencies and institutions. Goals include the
867:to those who have been accused of committing
841:
50:The examples and perspective in this article
3028:2005. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
2634:
2131:. London: Pluto Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN.
1863:
1848:
1841:
1830:
1822:
1571:was a common form of punishment. During the
2614:(revised ed.). Routledge. p. 32.
1147:The prosecutor, or district attorney, is a
3798:
3784:
3103:
3089:
2635:Dempsey, John S.; Forst, Linda S. (2015).
2320:
2185:"Extraneous factors in judicial decisions"
1795:Courts involved in French criminal justice
1626:and other forms of cruel punishment, with
1606:, existed as early as the 14th century in
906:
848:
834:
27:Justice to those who have committed crimes
2218:
2208:
2126:
1431:Law Enforcement Assistance Administration
1287:have also been used as forms of censure.
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
3021:(Cambridge University Press, 2011)184 pp
2989:World Criminal Justice Systems: A Survey
2925:
2906:
2758:
2746:
2530:Bates, R.; Greif, A.; Singh, S. (2002).
2079:THE FBI: A Centennial History, 1908–2008
1790:
1520:
1300:
1236:
1092:
965:
2985:
2813:
2798:
2786:
2661:
2607:
2460:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
1997:
1691:role of police as a deterrent to urban
1622:'s criminal code was revised to forbid
14:
4027:
2955:
2770:
2509:Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society
2497:. Oxford University Press. p. 20.
2101:
2081:. Washington, D.C.: FBI. p. 138.
1348:
1257:, a component of a corrections system.
3779:
3084:
2568:
2032:. Metropolitan Police. Archived from
1914:Criminal responsibility in French law
1483:Theories of criminal justice include
3805:
3734:
3065:Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences
2926:Donnelly, Daniel (21 January 2013).
2843:
2734:
2166:
1909:Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences
1247:Texas Department of Criminal Justice
1201:in which the accused pleads guilty,
1011:that are authorized to exercise the
36:
3110:
2703:
2076:
2056:"La Lieutenance Générale de Police"
24:
3011:
2415:
2312:. 18 February 1966. Archived from
1969:
1375:University of California, Berkeley
974:
25:
4046:
3058:
3036:Criminal procedural law in France
2713:. UK Government. 10 December 2012
2571:American Political Science Review
2002:. The Scotia News. Archived from
1998:Dinsmor, Alastair (Winter 2003).
1783:French Code of Criminal Procedure
1768:French criminal law § Courts
1443:Law Enforcement Education Program
1168:to the prosecutor's accusations.
32:Criminal justice (disambiguation)
4012:
3757:
3746:
3733:
3722:
3721:
1660:
193:Risk & actuarial criminology
116:
41:
3676:List of social science journals
2655:
2628:
2601:
2573:. September 1993 (3): 567–576.
2562:
2523:
2514:
2501:
2486:
2447:
2438:
2427:
2409:
2379:
2358:
2296:
2287:
2261:
2235:
2175:
2160:
2144:Introduction to Law Enforcement
1919:American Society of Criminology
1308:education for offenders at the
1116:individuals. These include the
1068:Federal Bureau of Investigation
3633:Science and technology studies
2837:
2536:Journal of Conflict Resolution
2135:
2120:
2095:
2070:
2048:
2018:
1991:
1963:
1945:
1233:Corrections and rehabilitation
13:
1:
1939:
1752:
1679:, established in 1829 by Sir
1534:
1176:England criminals accused of
1106:
911:
2986:Terrill, Richard J. (2009).
2608:Terrill, Richard J. (2015).
1473:Theories of criminal justice
1467:Bachelor of Criminal Justice
1465:; or a specially designated
1032:
7:
2775:Criminal procedure code, 14
2662:Brodeur, Jean-Paul (1983).
2638:An Introduction to Policing
2391:California State University
1977:Online Etymology Dictionary
1957:www.correctionalofficer.org
1893:Outline of criminal justice
1886:
1517:History of criminal justice
1172:universal. For example, in
64:, discuss the issue on the
10:
4051:
2932:. Springer. pp. 37–.
2880:Introduction to French Law
2853:(2 ed.). OUP Oxford.
1761:
1735:New York Police Department
1664:
1514:
1510:
1476:
1260:
1086:
1027:
978:
173:Expressive function of law
29:
3979:
3878:
3814:
3717:
3684:
3668:
3415:
3141:
3118:
2829:Bermann & Picard 2008
2454:Wolfgang, Marvin (1990).
2000:"Glasgow Police Pioneers"
1775:judicial police in France
1757:
1747:intelligence-led policing
1743:problem-oriented policing
1547:times, with new forms of
1463:Administration of Justice
1395:San Jose State University
1391:Michigan State University
1082:
2850:Principles of French Law
2127:Neocleous, Mark (2004).
1764:Judicial police (France)
1495:. They can work through
1399:University of Washington
163:Differential association
3321:international relations
3024:Fuller, John Randolph.
2548:10.1177/002200202236166
2210:10.1073/pnas.1018033108
2102:Walker, Samuel (1977).
1904:Criminal justice reform
1899:Criminal justice ethics
1880:Appeal court of assizes
1310:Central Jail Faisalabad
907:Criminal justice system
873:criminal justice system
218:Symbolic interactionism
3648:Quantum social science
2304:"Finest of the Finest"
1864:
1849:
1843:tribunal correctionnel
1842:
1831:
1823:
1796:
1540:
1317:
1258:
1112:
1072:law enforcement agency
1001:law enforcement agency
971:
923:agencies, usually the
3685:Other categorizations
3538:International studies
3523:History of technology
3458:Communication studies
3341:public administration
3034:and Jacques Buisson.
2711:"Policing by consent"
2532:"Organizing Violence"
2344:10.1353/sof.2004.0093
2167:Rios, Victor (2011).
1860:departments of France
1794:
1779:administrative police
1762:Further information:
1733:was developed by the
1710:In the 1920s, led by
1524:
1304:
1240:
1096:
969:
722:Biosocial criminology
429:Uniform Crime Reports
138:Biosocial criminology
3518:Historical sociology
2066:on 22 November 2001.
1858:sits in each of the
1820:. The Police court (
1712:Berkeley, California
1437:. The LEAA provided
597:Solitary confinement
261:Alexandre Lacassagne
70:create a new article
62:improve this article
52:may not represent a
30:For other uses, see
3698:Geisteswissenschaft
3692:Behavioral sciences
3618:Political sociology
3533:Information science
3478:Development studies
2801:, pp. 157–158.
2316:on 14 October 2008.
2201:2011PNAS..108.6889D
2030:Marine Support Unit
1673:Metropolitan Police
1653:as establishing a "
1581:corporal punishment
1493:restorative justice
1489:retributive justice
1485:utilitarian justice
1349:Academic discipline
1042:Thames River Police
863:is the delivery of
787:Radical criminology
148:Collective efficacy
3753:Society portal
3240:auxiliary sciences
1929:Public criminology
1838:Correctional court
1824:tribunal de police
1812:correctional court
1797:
1724:community policing
1687:, it promoted the
1685:Peelian principles
1541:
1387:Indiana University
1342:capital punishment
1318:
1259:
1137:adversarial system
1113:
972:
4000:
3999:
3773:
3772:
3613:Political economy
3608:Political ecology
3463:Community studies
3453:Cognitive science
3416:Interdisciplinary
3316:Political science
3017:Dale, Elizabeth.
3003:978-1-59345-612-2
2939:978-1-137-29061-8
2890:978-90-411-2466-1
2860:978-0-19-101889-3
2277:Forensic Examiner
2251:Forensic Examiner
2113:978-0-669-01292-7
2088:978-0-16-080954-5
1970:Harper, Douglas.
1640:Patrick Colquhoun
1602:Though a prison,
1583:. These included
1559:and victims, and
1251:Huntsville, Texas
1076:order maintenance
932:and accompanying
858:
857:
604:
603:
541:Prisoners' rights
445:Positivist school
98:
97:
90:
72:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
4042:
4035:Criminal justice
4017:
4016:
4008:
3800:
3793:
3786:
3777:
3776:
3761:
3751:
3750:
3737:
3736:
3725:
3724:
3628:Regional science
3473:Cultural studies
3448:Business studies
3105:
3098:
3091:
3082:
3081:
3007:
2981:
2951:
2921:
2902:
2872:
2832:
2826:
2817:
2811:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2732:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2397:on 13 April 2021
2393:. Archived from
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2338:(4): 1275–1302.
2327:
2318:
2317:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2274:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2248:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2212:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1949:
1867:
1856:Court of Assizes
1852:
1845:
1834:
1826:
1806:, there are the
1714:, police chief,
1539:
1536:
1363:sociology of law
1283:punishments and
1126:defense attorney
1111:
1108:
1035:
1029:
861:Criminal justice
850:
843:
836:
483:
482:
440:Crime statistics
366:
120:
102:
101:
93:
86:
82:
79:
73:
45:
44:
37:
21:
18:Criminal Justice
4050:
4049:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4011:
4003:
4001:
3996:
3975:
3874:
3810:
3804:
3774:
3769:
3745:
3713:
3680:
3664:
3638:Science studies
3422:Administration
3411:
3137:
3114:
3112:Social sciences
3109:
3061:
3047:Sunga, Lyal S.
3032:Serge Guinchard
3014:
3012:Further reading
3004:
2982:
2952:
2940:
2922:
2903:
2891:
2873:
2861:
2840:
2835:
2827:
2820:
2812:
2805:
2797:
2793:
2785:
2781:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2733:
2726:
2716:
2714:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2694:
2692:
2669:Social Problems
2660:
2656:
2649:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2606:
2602:
2579:10.2307/2938736
2567:
2563:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2506:
2502:
2491:
2487:
2472:10.2307/1143848
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2328:
2321:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2272:
2266:
2262:
2246:
2240:
2236:
2195:(17): 6889–92.
2180:
2176:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2140:
2136:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2075:
2071:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2037:
2036:on 16 July 2007
2024:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2007:
2006:on 16 July 2009
1996:
1992:
1982:
1980:
1968:
1964:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1889:
1884:
1883:
1876:Court of appeal
1872:second instance
1787:
1786:
1770:
1760:
1755:
1683:. Based on the
1669:
1663:
1537:
1525:Prisoners at a
1519:
1513:
1481:
1475:
1351:
1265:
1243:Huntsville Unit
1235:
1203:nolo contendere
1199:plea bargaining
1109:
1097:A trial at the
1091:
1085:
1057:police of Paris
992:law enforcement
983:
981:Law enforcement
977:
975:Law enforcement
921:Law enforcement
914:
909:
875:is a series of
854:
825:
824:
800:
792:
791:
717:Anthropological
707:
699:
698:
614:
606:
605:
480:
470:
469:
419:Critical theory
404:
396:
395:
376:State-corporate
364:
287:
276:
275:
271:Archibald Reiss
266:Cesare Lombroso
256:Michel Foucault
236:
235:Major theorists
228:
227:
203:Social learning
188:Rational choice
178:Labeling theory
158:Criminalization
128:
94:
83:
77:
74:
59:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4048:
4038:
4037:
4022:
4021:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3983:
3981:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3966:Transformative
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3855:Organizational
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3821:
3819:
3812:
3811:
3803:
3802:
3795:
3788:
3780:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3755:
3743:
3731:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3694:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3581:social science
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3513:Global studies
3510:
3508:Gender studies
3505:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3491:social science
3487:Environmental
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3186:macroeconomics
3183:
3181:microeconomics
3173:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3108:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3072:
3067:
3060:
3059:External links
3057:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3029:
3022:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2992:(7 ed.).
2983:
2953:
2938:
2923:
2904:
2889:
2883:. Kluwer Law.
2874:
2859:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2831:, p. 128.
2818:
2816:, p. 157.
2803:
2791:
2789:, p. 158.
2779:
2763:
2761:, p. 286.
2751:
2739:
2737:, p. 129.
2724:
2702:
2682:10.2307/800268
2676:(5): 507–520.
2654:
2648:978-1305544680
2647:
2627:
2621:978-1317228820
2620:
2600:
2561:
2542:(5): 599–628.
2522:
2513:
2500:
2485:
2446:
2437:
2426:
2408:
2378:
2357:
2319:
2295:
2286:
2260:
2234:
2174:
2171:. p. 108.
2159:
2153:978-1466556232
2152:
2134:
2119:
2112:
2094:
2087:
2069:
2047:
2017:
1990:
1962:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1888:
1885:
1832:contraventions
1817:Cour d'assises
1804:first instance
1789:
1788:
1772:
1771:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1729:In the 1990s,
1716:August Vollmer
1665:Main article:
1662:
1659:
1644:Henry Fielding
1515:Main article:
1512:
1509:
1505:incapacitation
1501:rehabilitation
1477:Main article:
1474:
1471:
1371:August Vollmer
1359:field of study
1350:
1347:
1261:Main article:
1234:
1231:
1215:discrimination
1087:Main article:
1084:
1081:
1050:Glasgow Police
979:Main article:
976:
973:
953:
952:
941:
927:
913:
910:
908:
905:
881:rehabilitation
856:
855:
853:
852:
845:
838:
830:
827:
826:
823:
822:
817:
812:
807:
801:
798:
797:
794:
793:
790:
789:
784:
779:
774:
772:Organizational
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
708:
705:
704:
701:
700:
697:
696:
695:
694:
689:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
615:
612:
611:
608:
607:
602:
601:
600:
599:
594:
589:
584:
582:Transformative
579:
574:
566:
565:
558:
557:
556:
555:
550:
548:Rehabilitation
545:
544:
543:
538:
536:Prisoner abuse
528:
527:
526:
521:
516:
506:
501:
499:Incapacitation
496:
491:
481:
476:
475:
472:
471:
468:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
405:
402:
401:
398:
397:
394:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
335:
334:
324:
323:
322:
317:
309:
308:
307:
302:
297:
288:
282:
281:
278:
277:
274:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
241:Émile Durkheim
237:
234:
233:
230:
229:
226:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
198:Social control
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
153:Crime analysis
150:
145:
143:Broken windows
140:
135:
129:
126:
125:
122:
121:
113:
112:
96:
95:
56:of the subject
54:worldwide view
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4047:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4009:
4006:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3896:Environmental
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3877:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3840:Interactional
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3801:
3796:
3794:
3789:
3787:
3782:
3781:
3778:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3720:
3719:
3716:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Human science
3702:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3661:
3660:Vegan studies
3658:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3623:Public health
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3557:Philosophies
3556:
3554:
3553:Media studies
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3528:Human ecology
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3438:Anthrozoology
3436:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3363:developmental
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3336:public policy
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3287:legal systems
3285:
3283:
3282:legal history
3280:
3278:
3277:jurisprudence
3275:
3274:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3101:
3099:
3094:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3083:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2931:
2930:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2830:
2825:
2823:
2815:
2810:
2808:
2800:
2795:
2788:
2783:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2760:
2759:Chambers 1896
2755:
2749:, p. 37.
2748:
2747:Donnelly 2013
2743:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2712:
2706:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2526:
2517:
2510:
2504:
2496:
2489:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2466:(3): 567–84.
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2441:
2435:
2430:
2419:
2416:Wilson, Jon.
2412:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2367:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2332:Social Forces
2326:
2324:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2290:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2178:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2130:
2123:
2115:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2090:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1924:Prison reform
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1833:
1827:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1793:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1765:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1739:mapping crime
1736:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1707:was rampant.
1706:
1702:
1701:New York City
1699:in 1838, and
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1661:Modern police
1658:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1612:incarceration
1609:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1595:, as well as
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1416:
1415:Chief Justice
1412:
1411:Supreme Court
1408:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:police chief
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1343:
1340:Execution or
1338:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1167:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1025:
1024:Ancient Greek
1021:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
993:
988:
982:
968:
964:
962:
958:
950:
946:
942:
939:
935:
931:
928:
926:
922:
919:
918:
917:
904:
902:
898:
895:lawyers, the
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
851:
846:
844:
839:
837:
832:
831:
829:
828:
821:
818:
816:
815:Organizations
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
796:
795:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
762:Environmental
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
709:
703:
702:
693:
690:
688:
685:
684:
682:
680:
679:Postmodernist
677:
675:
672:
670:
669:Neo-classical
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
644:Environmental
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
610:
609:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
572:Participatory
570:
569:
568:
567:
563:
560:
559:
554:
551:
549:
546:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
532:
529:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
486:
485:
484:
479:
474:
473:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
435:
434:Crime mapping
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
406:
400:
399:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
381:Transnational
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
349:International
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
333:
330:
329:
328:
325:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
310:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
292:
290:
289:
286:
280:
279:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
238:
232:
231:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
130:
124:
123:
119:
115:
114:
111:
107:
104:
103:
100:
92:
89:
81:
78:December 2010
71:
67:
63:
57:
55:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3926:Reproductive
3890:
3830:Distributive
3762:
3738:
3726:
3696:
3503:Food studies
3443:Area studies
3196:mathematical
3191:econometrics
3149:Anthropology
3048:
3035:
3025:
3018:
2988:
2961:
2928:
2908:
2879:
2849:
2814:Terrill 2009
2799:Terrill 2009
2794:
2787:Terrill 2009
2782:
2766:
2754:
2742:
2715:. Retrieved
2705:
2693:. Retrieved
2673:
2667:
2657:
2637:
2630:
2610:
2603:
2570:
2564:
2539:
2535:
2525:
2516:
2508:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2440:
2429:
2411:
2399:. Retrieved
2395:the original
2390:
2387:"Punishment"
2381:
2369:. Retrieved
2360:
2335:
2331:
2314:the original
2307:
2298:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2263:
2257:(2): 226972.
2254:
2250:
2237:
2192:
2188:
2177:
2168:
2162:
2143:
2137:
2128:
2122:
2103:
2097:
2078:
2077:FBI (2009).
2072:
2064:the original
2059:
2050:
2038:. Retrieved
2034:the original
2029:
2020:
2008:. Retrieved
2004:the original
1993:
1981:. Retrieved
1975:
1965:
1956:
1947:
1874: : the
1847:
1829:
1821:
1815:
1808:police court
1801:
1798:
1728:
1726:strategies.
1709:
1670:
1648:
1620:Pennsylvania
1616:William Penn
1601:
1542:
1482:
1459:
1428:
1421:
1407:Warren Court
1403:
1352:
1339:
1334:house arrest
1323:
1319:
1289:
1266:
1228:
1208:
1195:
1182:
1170:
1162:
1146:
1130:
1114:
1064:criminal law
1061:
1019:
1013:police power
1005:social order
990:
984:
954:
915:
872:
860:
859:
767:Experimental
489:Denunciation
455:Quantitative
365:Public-order
320:White-collar
251:Enrico Ferri
246:Hans Eysenck
99:
84:
75:
51:
3971:Utilitarian
3936:Retributive
3931:Restorative
3870:Recognition
3825:Commutative
3764:Wikiversity
3655:Social work
3543:Linguistics
3468:Criminology
3385:criminology
3368:personality
3326:comparative
3304:Linguistics
3297:private law
3154:archaeology
2838:Works cited
2717:29 December
2507:Max Weber,
2283:(2): 50–67.
2040:10 February
1720:O.W. Wilson
1681:Robert Peel
1573:Middle Ages
1538: 1907
1447:criminology
1418:Earl Warren
1379:O.W. Wilson
1355:criminology
1263:Corrections
1110: 1808
957:rule of law
934:prosecution
889:prosecution
757:Development
732:Criminology
654:Integrative
592:Utilitarian
587:Retributive
577:Restorative
564:in penology
450:Qualitative
424:Ethnography
409:Comparative
315:Blue-collar
223:Victimology
183:Psychopathy
106:Criminology
3860:Procedural
3817:philosophy
3709:Humanities
3643:historical
3576:psychology
3548:Management
3390:demography
3348:Psychology
3331:philosophy
3292:public law
3223:integrated
2962:Légifrance
2948:1005811336
2771:Legifrance
2010:10 January
1983:8 February
1940:References
1934:Recidivism
1878:, and the
1814:, and the
1753:By country
1705:corruption
1689:preventive
1604:Le Stinche
1585:mutilation
1549:punishment
1529:post in a
1497:deterrence
1455:psychology
1423:status quo
1397:, and the
1383:corruption
1316:, Pakistan
1314:Faisalabad
1269:punishment
1124:, and the
1122:prosecutor
1099:Old Bailey
1054:Napoleonic
1052:, and the
912:Definition
877:government
752:Demography
674:Positivist
553:Recidivism
494:Deterrence
386:Victimless
213:Subculture
3806:Types of
3587:Planning
3566:economics
3483:Education
3380:Sociology
3358:cognitive
3309:semiotics
3260:political
3218:technical
3203:Geography
3176:Economics
2978:867599055
2970:2270-8987
2918:235817290
2899:219574344
2869:865331945
2845:John Bell
2735:Bell 2008
2695:20 August
2595:145312307
2401:12 August
2371:5 October
2352:145220713
2026:"History"
1651:Max Weber
1597:execution
1557:offenders
1451:sociology
1330:Probation
1277:execution
1219:prejudice
1157:plaintiff
1038:Louis XIV
951:agencies.
949:probation
777:Political
706:Subfields
629:Classical
619:Anarchist
514:abolition
414:Profiling
359:Political
354:Organized
339:Corporate
327:Cold case
283:Types of
66:talk page
4029:Category
3987:Frontier
3941:Resource
3916:Military
3906:Fairness
3901:Equality
3891:Criminal
3865:Victor's
3728:Category
3596:regional
3591:land use
3426:business
3395:internet
3353:abnormal
3255:military
3245:economic
3235:cultural
3208:physical
3169:physical
3159:cultural
2994:Elsevier
2556:14970734
2229:21482790
2169:Punished
1972:"police"
1887:See also
1846:) hears
1828:) hears
1731:CompStat
1608:Florence
1593:flogging
1589:branding
1561:policing
1551:, added
1533:prison,
1531:Delaware
1527:whipping
1469:degree.
1367:Berkeley
1306:Qur'anic
1224:charisma
1166:rebuttal
1153:evidence
903:system.
899:and the
810:Journals
737:Critical
727:Conflict
712:American
683:Realism
649:Feminist
639:Critical
634:Conflict
531:Prisoner
478:Penology
344:Juvenile
295:Humanity
291:Against
168:Deviance
110:penology
60:You may
3951:Spatial
3886:Climate
3850:Natural
3808:justice
3740:Commons
3571:history
3561:science
3496:studies
3230:History
3142:Primary
3128:History
3123:Outline
2587:2938736
2480:1143848
2220:3084045
2197:Bibcode
1870:In the
1802:In the
1636:Quakers
1632:prisons
1624:torture
1577:wergild
1565:customs
1545:ancient
1511:History
1253:, is a
1245:of the
1178:treason
1020:politia
961:society
959:within
945:prisons
940:lawyers
938:defence
901:prisons
893:defense
865:justice
742:Culture
664:Marxist
659:Italian
624:Chicago
613:Schools
562:Justice
403:Methods
332:Perfect
4005:Portal
3992:Poetic
3956:Speedy
3946:Social
3921:Racial
3911:Gender
3845:Global
3835:Divine
3431:public
3373:social
3265:social
3164:social
3000:
2976:
2968:
2946:
2936:
2916:
2897:
2887:
2867:
2857:
2690:800268
2688:
2645:
2618:
2593:
2585:
2554:
2478:
2350:
2227:
2217:
2150:
2110:
2085:
1865:crimes
1850:délits
1810:, the
1758:France
1697:Boston
1677:London
1667:Police
1591:, and
1553:rights
1453:, and
1439:grants
1413:under
1296:Quaker
1292:prison
1255:prison
1149:lawyer
1103:London
1083:Courts
1048:, the
1046:London
997:arrest
987:police
930:Courts
925:police
897:courts
885:police
871:. The
869:crimes
820:People
799:Browse
782:Public
524:reform
509:Prison
311:Class
300:Person
208:Strain
133:Anomie
127:Theory
3980:Other
3961:Trade
3879:Areas
3601:urban
3405:urban
3400:rural
3250:human
3213:human
3133:Index
2686:JSTOR
2591:S2CID
2583:JSTOR
2552:S2CID
2476:JSTOR
2421:(PDF)
2348:S2CID
2273:(PDF)
2247:(PDF)
1693:crime
1628:jails
1569:exile
1409:(the
1326:fines
1285:exile
1281:shame
1273:exile
1174:Tudor
1141:argue
1133:guilt
1118:judge
1089:Court
1033:polis
1028:πόλις
1017:Latin
1009:state
805:Index
747:Cyber
692:Right
504:Trial
465:NIBRS
371:State
305:State
285:crime
68:, or
3669:List
2998:ISBN
2974:OCLC
2966:ISSN
2944:OCLC
2934:ISBN
2914:OCLC
2895:OCLC
2885:ISBN
2865:OCLC
2855:ISBN
2719:2013
2697:2021
2643:ISBN
2616:ISBN
2403:2020
2373:2023
2309:Time
2225:PMID
2148:ISBN
2108:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2042:2007
2012:2007
1985:2007
1773:The
1766:and
1718:and
1630:and
1555:for
1332:and
1275:and
1241:The
1213:and
1211:Bias
1190:vote
1185:jury
1030:for
989:(or
947:and
936:and
891:and
687:Left
519:open
108:and
4019:Law
3815:In
3272:Law
2678:doi
2575:doi
2544:doi
2468:doi
2340:doi
2215:PMC
2205:doi
2193:108
1675:in
1503:or
1312:in
1249:in
1101:in
1044:in
460:BJS
391:War
4031::
2996:.
2972:.
2942:.
2893:.
2863:.
2821:^
2806:^
2773:,
2727:^
2684:.
2674:30
2672:.
2666:.
2589:.
2581:.
2550:.
2540:46
2538:.
2534:.
2474:.
2464:81
2462:.
2458:.
2389:.
2346:.
2336:82
2334:.
2322:^
2306:.
2281:19
2279:.
2275:.
2255:18
2253:.
2249:.
2223:.
2213:.
2203:.
2191:.
2187:.
2058:.
2028:.
1974:.
1955:.
1868:.
1840:,
1745:,
1642:,
1610:,
1599:.
1587:,
1535:c.
1507:.
1499:,
1491:,
1487:,
1449:,
1426:.
1393:,
1389:,
1120:,
1107:c.
1105:,
1059:.
1026::
963:.
887:,
4007::
3799:e
3792:t
3785:v
3104:e
3097:t
3090:v
3006:.
2980:.
2950:.
2920:.
2901:.
2871:.
2777:.
2721:.
2699:.
2680::
2651:.
2624:.
2597:.
2577::
2558:.
2546::
2482:.
2470::
2423:.
2405:.
2375:.
2354:.
2342::
2231:.
2207::
2199::
2156:.
2116:.
2091:.
2044:.
2014:.
1987:.
1959:.
849:e
842:t
835:v
436:]
91:)
85:(
80:)
76:(
58:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
